Syllabus

POWER QUALITY

UNIT I

Introduction – introduction. Characterization of electric Power Quality; Transients, Long

Duration Voltage Variations, Short-Duration Voltage Variations, Voltage Imbalance,
Waveform Distortion, Voltage Fluctuations, Power Frequency Variations, Power
acceptability curves. Power quality problems ; poor load power factor, non -linear and
unbalanced load, dc offset in loads, notching in load voltage, disturbance in supply voltage.
Power quality standards

1.1 Introduction
✓ Power quality is any abnormal behaviour on a power system arising
in the form of voltage or current, which affects the normal operation of
electrical or electronic equipment.
✓ Power quality is any deviation of the voltage or current waveform
from its normal sinusoidal wave shape.
✓ Power quality has been defined as the parameters of the voltage that
affect the customer’s supersensitive equipment.
✓ Power quality problems are o Voltage sag o Voltage swell o Voltage
Flicker o Harmonics o Over voltage o Under voltage o Transients
✓ Voltage sags are considered the most common power quality
problem. These can be caused by the utility or by customer loads. When
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sourced from the utility, they are most commonly caused by faults on the
distribution system. These sags will be from 3 to 30 cycles and can be
single or three phase. Depending on the design of the distribution system,
a ground fault on 1 phase can cause a simultaneous swell on another
phase.
✓ Power quality problems are related to grounding, ground bonds and
neutral to ground voltages, ground loops, ground current or ground
associated issues.

Transients
✓ Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution
networks result from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and
network switching operations.\ ✓ Response of an electrical network to a
sudden change in network conditions.

✓ Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or

system. It is a momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics)
during a sudden change of a circuit.
✓ An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse)
signals in computer networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an
oscillation resulting from the sudden rise in voltage and another
oscillation from the sudden drop in voltage. This is generally considered
an undesirable effect as it introduces variations in the high and low
voltages of a signal, causing instability.
✓ Types of transient:
o Impulsive transient

o Oscillatory transient

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Impulsive transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or
current that is unidirectional in polarity.

Oscillatory transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.

1.6Long-Duration Voltage Variations

When the rms value of voltage deviates for duration more than 1 minute, it is termed as long
duration voltage variation.
Sources: Load variations, System switching operation.
It may be categorized into following types.
1. Over Voltage: An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent
at the power frequency for duration longer than 1 min.
Sources: (a) Overvoltage is usually the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank).
(b) Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system over voltages.

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2. Under Voltage: An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent
at the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. Sources: A load switching on or
a capacitor bank switching off.
3. Sustained Interruptions: When the supply voltage becomes zero for a period of time in
excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained
interruption.

1.7 Short-Duration Voltage Variations

When the rms value of voltage deviates for duration less than 1 minute, it is termed as long duration
voltage variation.
Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous, momentary, or temporary, depending
on its duration.

It may be categorized into following types.

1. Interruption: An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to
less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.
Sources: Interruptions can be the result of power system faults, equipment failures, and
control malfunctions.

2. Sags(dips): A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current between 0.1 and 0.9 pu at the
power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Sources: Voltage sags are result of system faults and also can be caused by energization of
heavy loads or starting of large motors.

3. Swells: A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current
at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
Sources: Voltage swells occur from temporary voltage rise on the unfaulted phases during
an SLG fault. Swells can also be caused by switching off a large load or energizing large
capacitor bank

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1.8 Voltage Imbalance

▪ Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is defined as the maximum deviation
from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided by the average of the
three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.
▪ The ratio of either the negative- or zero-sequence component to the positive-sequence
component can be used to specify the percent unbalance.
▪ The source of voltage unbalances is single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit.
▪ Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank.
▪ Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent) can result from single-phasing
conditions.

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1.9 Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency.
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
1. DC offset
2. Harmonics
3. Inter harmonics
4. Notching
5. Noise

1. DC offset:
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.
Effects: (a) It may saturate the transformer core causing additional heating and loss of transformer
life.
(b) Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and
other connectors.
2.Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the
supply frequency (fundamental frequency).
Sources: Non-linear loads
Total Harmonic Distortion is used to measure the effective value of harmonic distortion. The
following figure illustrates the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical adjustable speed-
drive (ASD) input current.

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[ Fig.Current waveform and harmonic spectrum for an ASD input current]

3. Interharmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the frequency
at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called interharmonics.
Sources: Static frequency converter, cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and arcing devices.
Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics.

4. Notching
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power electronic
devices when current is commutated from one phase to another.

The following figure shows an example of voltage notching from a three-phase converter that
produces continuous dc current. The notches occur when the current commutates from one phase

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to another. During this period, there is a momentary short circuit between two phases, pulling the
voltage as close to zero as permitted by system impedances.

[Fig.Voltage notching caused by a three-phase converter]

5. Noise
Noise is the unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral
conductors or signal lines.
Sources: Power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-state
rectifiers, and switching power supplies.
The problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation transformers, and line
conditioners.

Voltage Fluctuation:

✓ Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive or random

variations of the voltage envelope due to sudden changes in the real and
reactive power drawn by a load. The characteristics of voltage
fluctuations depend on the load type and size and the power system
capacity.

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✓ Figure 1 illustrates an example of a fluctuating voltage waveform.

The voltage waveform exhibits variations in magnitude due to the
fluctuating nature or intermittent operation of connected loads.
✓ The frequency of the voltage envelope is often referred to as the
flicker frequency. Thus there are two important parameters to voltage
fluctuations, the frequency of fluctuation and the magnitude of
fluctuation. Both of these components are significant in the adverse
effects of voltage fluctuations.

✓ Voltage fluctuations are caused when loads draw currents having

significant sudden or periodic variations. The fluctuating current that is
drawn from the supply causes additional voltage drops in the power
system leading to fluctuations in the supply voltage. Loads that exhibit
continuous rapid variations are thus the most likely cause of voltage
fluctuations.
✓ Arc furnaces

✓ Arc welders

✓ Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner units, fans)

✓ Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling mills)

✓ Equipment with excessive motor speed changes (wood chippers, car

shredders)

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Power frequency variations:

✓ Power frequency variations are a deviation from the nominal supply
frequency. The supply frequency is a function of the rotational speed of
the generators used to produce the electrical energy.
✓ At any instant, the frequency depends on the balance between the load
and the capacity of the available generation.
✓ A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-synchronous
with the power system, causing an inconsistency that is manifested in the
form of a variation.
✓ The specified frequency variation should be within the limits
Hz at all times for grid network.

CBEMA and ITI Curves:

✓ One of the most frequently employed displays of data to represent the
power quality is the so-called CBEMA curve.
✓ A portion of the curve adapted from IEEE Standard 4469 that we
typically use in our analysis of power quality monitoring results is shown
in Fig. 1.5.
✓ This curve was originally developed by CBEMA to describe the
tolerance of mainframe computer equipment to the magnitude and
duration of voltage variations on the power system.

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✓ While many modern computers have greater tolerance than this, the
curve has become a standard design target for sensitive equipment to be
applied on the power system and a common format for reporting power
quality variation data.
✓ The axes represent magnitude and duration of the event. Points below
the envelope are presumed to cause the load to drop out due to lack of
energy. Points above the envelope are presumed to cause other
malfunctions such as insulation failure, overvoltage trip, and over
excitation.
✓ The upper curve is actually defined down to 0.001 cycle where it has
a value of about 375 percent voltage.
✓ We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycles and higher due
to limitations in power quality monitoring instruments and differences in
opinion over defining the magnitude values in the sub cycle time frame.
✓ The CBEMA organization has been replaced by ITI, and a modified
curve has been developed that specifically applies to common 120-V
computer equipment (see Fig. 1.6). The concept is similar to the CBEMA
curve. Although developed for 120-V computer equipment, the curve has
been applied to general power quality evaluation like its predecessor
curve.
✓ Both curves are used as a reference in this book to define the
withstand capability of various loads and devices for protection from
power quality variations.
✓ For display of large quantities of power quality monitoring data, we
frequently add a third axis to the plot to denote the number of events
within a certain predefined cell of magnitude and duration.

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Fig 1.5 A portion of the CBEMA curve commonly used as a design target for
equipment And a format for reporting power quality variation data.

Fig 1.6 ITI curve for susceptibility of 120-V computer equipment.

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power quality standards:

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IEEE Standards:
✓ IEEE power quality standards: Institute Of Electrical and Electronics
Engineer.
✓ IEEE power quality standards: International Electro Technical
Commission.
✓ IEEE power quality standards: Semiconductor Equipment and
Material International.
✓ IEEE power quality standards: The International Union for Electricity
Applications
✓ IEEE Std 519-1992: IEEE Recommended practices and requirements
for Harmonic control in Electric power systems.
✓ IEEE Std 1159-1995: IEEE Recommended practices for monitoring
electrical power quality.
✓ IEEE std 141-1993, IEEE Recommended practice for electric power
distribution for industrial plants.

IEC Standards:

✓ Definitions and methodology 61000-1-X

✓ Environment 61000-2-X
✓ Limits 61000-3-X
✓ Tests and measurements 61000-4-X
✓ Installation and mitigation 61000-5-X
✓ Generic immunity and emissions 61000-6-X.

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS;

Power quality related issues are of most concern nowadays.
The widespread use of electronic equipment such as information technology
equipment, power electronics equipment, change of electric loads. These loads

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are the major cause of power quality problems and cause disturbance in voltage
wave form. The power quality problems are
1. Poor load power factor
2. Non-linear loads and unbalanced loads
3. Dc offset in loads
4. Notching in load voltage
5. Disturbance in supply voltage

POOR LOAD POWER FACTOR;

The power factor is defined as the ratio between real
power and apparent power flowing in a circuit and lies between the range of

-1 to +1. A power factor of less than one indicates the voltage and current are
not in phase. A load with a low power factor draws more current than a load
with a high power factor. The higher current increase the energy lost in the
distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of
the cost of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually
charge a higher cost to industry and customers where there is a low power
factor.

The power factor can lie in the leading and lagging sides. A lagging
power factor signifies that the load is inductive, the load will consume reactive
power and the reactive component Q is positive it is consumed by inductive
load. A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, the load
supplies reactive power and the reactive component Q is negative.

NON – LINEAR LOADS AND UNBALANCED LOADS;

The most of the electrical loads have non-linear behaviour

at AC mains. They draw harmonic current of various harmonics such as

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characteristics harmonics, non characteristics harmonic, inter harmonic and

subharmonics, fluctuating current and unbalanced current from AC mains.
Majority of power quality problems are mainly created because of the non-
linear load. These are classified into different categories considering the
severity of created problems. These non-linear loads cannot be dispensed due
to many economic benefits ,energy conservation, increase in production
benefits, it is important to study the behavior of these non-linear loads to find
out proper mitigation techniques for power quality improvement to reduce the
pollution of the supply system.

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