Module 3

Electrochemistry
(contd…)

Dr. Arya J. S.
 Corrosion…

➢ Many metals exist in nature in combined form as their oxides,

carbonates, sulphides, chlorides and silicates except noble metals such
as Au, Pt etc.

➢ During extraction process these are reduced to their metallic state from
their ores and during extraction of ores considerable amount of energy is
required.

➢ Compounds are in lower energy state than the metals.

➢ Hence when metals are put into use in various forms, they get exposed to
environment such as dry gases, moisture, liquids etc. and slowly the
exposed metal surface begin to decay by conversion into a compound
 Corrosion…

➢ Corrosion is when a refined metal is naturally converted to a more

stable form such as its oxide, hydroxide or sulphide state this leads to
deterioration of the material.

➢ Corrosion is the destruction of metals and alloys by the chemical or

electrochemical reaction with environment

➢ Corrosion may be regarded as the reverse process of extraction of

metal from its ore

➢ Most metals except noble metals (Au, Pt, etc.) are easily oxidized

➢ Metals tend to lose electrons to oxygen (and other substances) in the

air or in water. As oxygen is reduced (gains electrons), it forms an
oxide with the metal.

3
 Examples of corrosion…

Rusting of iron: when iron is exposed to the atmospheric conditions, a

layer of reddish scale and powder of Fe3O4 is formed.

Formation of green film of basic carbonate- [CuCO3 + Cu(OH)2] on the

surface of copper when exposed to moist air containing CO2.

Galvanic corrosion had taken place between the outer Copper

skin and the inner wrought Iron structure 4
 Corrosion…

• Dry corrosion: It occurs when there is no water or moisture to aid

the corrosion, and the metal oxidises with the atmosphere alone.

• Wet corrosion: It occurs through electron transfer, involving two

processes, oxidation and reduction. In oxidation, the metal atoms
lose electrons. The surrounding environment then gains the electrons
in reduction. The metal, where electrons are lost, is called the anode
and the other metal, liquid or gas which gains the electrons is called
the cathode.

5
Dry and wet corrosion…

6
 Wet corrosion…

➢ The connection is necessary for the electrons to travel between the

anode and cathode and can be either physical direct contact or some
form of wire.

➢ The corrosion product is formed in between the anodic and cathodic

area

➢ An electrolyte must also be present to allow for migration of ions

between the cathode and anode and participate in the formation of
corrosion products.

7
 Mechanism of wet corrosion…

At Anode: oxidation of metal happens; M → M2+ + 2e‾

At Cathode: Cathodic reaction depends on the nature of environment

1. In acidic medium at cathode H2 is formed by the reduction

2H+ + 2e‾ → H2
This type of corrosion happens in acidic environment such as industrial
areas

2. In neutral or slightly alkaline medium, absorption of O2 happens

followed by reduction
1/2O2 + H2O + 2e‾ → 2OH-
The liberated ions at anode and cathode diffuses and combines to form
the corrosion product
M2+ + 2OH‾ → M(OH)2
Fe2+ + 2OH‾ → Fe(OH)2

8
 Rusting of iron

➢ The most common type of iron corrosion occurs when it is exposed

to oxygen and the presence of water, which creates a red iron oxide
commonly called rust

➢ Rust can also effect iron alloys such as steel

➢ The rusting of iron can also occur when iron reacts with chloride in
an oxygen-deprived environment

➢ Green rust, which is another type of corrosion, can be formed directly

from metallic iron or iron hydroxide

9
Mechanism of iron corrosion…

10
 Galvanic Series…
➢ Electrochemical series provide useful information about the reactivity
of metals

➢ But, it does not provide sufficient information in predicting the

corrosion behavior

➢ In electrochemical series metals having lower reduction potential are

more anodic and undergo oxidation and hence should corrode faster

➢ But there are some exceptions like Ti and Ag. It is expected that Ti
corrodes faster than Ag since Ti is placed above Ag in the
electrochemical series. But Ti is less reactive than Ag towards
corrosion

➢ Similarly, Al is placed above Zn in electrochemical series but corrodes

slower than Zn

➢ Ti and Al develops a protective oxide film on their surface and hence

their effective Eo is more positive or less negative 11
 Galvanic Series…

➢ A more practical series have been prepared by studying the corrosion of

metals and alloys in unpolluted sea water by measuring their oxidation
potential using calomel electrode as reference

➢ Galvanic series is a series in which the metals and alloys are arranged
in the order of their corrosion tendencies

➢ A metal high in the series undergo corrosion faster than the one below

➢ When two metals are submerged in an electrolyte, while also electrically

connected by a metallic conductor, the more reactive (less noble) will
experience galvanic corrosion.

➢ The more reactive (less noble) metals becomes the anode and corrodes
faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode
and corrodes slower than it would alone.

12
Galvanic Series…

13
Electrochemical series and Galvanic Series…

Electrochemical Series Galvanic Series

14
 Cathodic Protection

➢ Cathodic protection is one of the most effective methods for

preventing corrosion on a metal surface

➢ Cathodic protection is commonly used to protect numerous structures

against corrosion, such as ships, offshore floaters, subsea equipment,
harbours, pipelines, tanks; basically all submerged or buried metal
structures

➢ The principle involved in this method, is to force the metal to be

protected to behave as the cathode so that corrosion is prevented

➢ There are two types of cathodic protection

15
1. Sacrificial anodic protection method

➢ The simplest method to apply cathodic protection is by connecting

the metal to be protected with another more easily corroded metal
to act as the anode.

➢ Zinc, aluminium and magnesium are the metals commonly used as

anodes.

➢ The most active metal becomes the anode to the others, and
sacrifices itself by corroding (giving up metal) to protect the
cathode. Hence, the term sacrificial anode

➢ Metals at the top of galvanic series is more prone to corrosion

➢ If the metal to be protected from corrosion is connected with other

metal placed on top of the galvanic series, the top metal will
corrode or sacrificed in preference to the bottom one
16
Sacrificial anodes are used for the protection of buried pipe lines
underground cables, marine structures, ship hulls, water tanks etc.

17
2. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP)

➢ As a result of corrosion an electron flow occurs from anodic region

to cathodic region and is known as corrosion current

➢ If an impressed current is applied in opposite direction to that of

the corrosion current, the effect of the corrosion current will be
nullified.

➢ The corroding metal will be converted from an anode to cathode

➢ Such impressed current is obtained by using dc source such as

battery or dry cell along with an insoluble anode such as platinum,
stainless steel, graphite, etc.

➢ The insoluble anode is buried in the soil ( or immersed in the

corroding medium) and connected to the metallic structure to be
protected by a wire
18
Ships docked in harbor are protected by this method

19
 Module 4
Molecular Electronics
Module 4 Molecular electronics

Molecular electronics is the study and application of molecular

building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components.

➢ Reduction of size of ➢ Developing electrical-

silicon components. equivalent molecular
components

A molecular approach will enable the construction of much smaller

circuits than is currently possible using the more conventional
semiconductors such as silicon.
21
Module 4 Molecular electronics: Introduction
➢ The study of the electrical and thermal transport characteristics of
circuits that use individual molecules or assemblies of them as
fundamental building blocks is known as molecular electronics.

➢ Molecular electronics is also known as molecular-scale electronics,

moletronics or molectronics.

➢ It’s a multidisciplinary field where fundamental electrical components

including wires, transistors, memory cells, and logic elements are
made of molecules.

➢ The first model of molecular electronics was a molecular rectifier

➢ The most successful commercial products in this field are organic

devices, including organic photovoltaic (PV) devices, organic light
emitting displays, liquid crystal displays (LCD), organic transistors,
infrared imaging, and bio-sensors

22
Module 4 Molecular electronics: Introduction

Key materials used or studied in molecular electronics

1. Organic Molecules: Among organic molecules, conducting or

conjugated polymers which are polymers with conjugated double
bonds, such as polyacetylene, polythiophene, and polyaniline can
exhibit high charge carrier mobility, making them suitable for certain
electronic applications.

2. Metal Complexes: Transition metal complexes, including those based

on metals like ruthenium or iron can be designed to have specific
electronic and redox characteristics.

3. Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures

made of carbon atoms. They can exhibit semiconducting or metallic
behavior depending on their structure.

23
Module 4 Molecular electronics: Introduction

Key materials used or studied in molecular electronics

4. Graphene: Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a

hexagonal lattice. It has exceptional electronic properties, including high
electron mobility.

5. Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs): SAMs consist of organic

molecules that spontaneously organize and form a monolayer on a
surface. SAMs can be used as the foundation for molecular-scale
electronic devices, providing a controlled interface between the
molecule and the substrate.

6. Single-Molecule Junctions: The use of individual molecules as

active components in electronic junctions is a fundamental concept in
molecular electronics.

24
Module 4 Molecular electronics: An overview…

25
Module 4 Conducting Polymers
• Polymers are known to have good insulating properties. For
example; metallic cables are covered in plastic to shield them.
• Due to the unavailability of free electrons

Conductivity….?
➢ Conductivity depends on number of charge carriers and their mobility
➢ In metals, valence e-s are free to carry charge and are free to move
from valence band to conduction band
➢ In insulators, e- s are tightly bound and there is
no e- flow.

Free e-s are needed for conductance

26
Module 4 Conducting Polymers: Introduction

➢ For becoming electrically conductive, polymer has to imitate a metal, ie

electrons need to be free to move and not bound to the atoms.
➢ But certain class of polymers which are conjugated (those that possess
an extended π-conjugation along the polymer backbone), exhibit
conducting behavior
➢. Organic polymers that conduct electricity are known as conducting
polymers

Alan J. Alan G. Hideki

Heeger MacDiarmid Shirakawa
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000 was awarded jointly to Alan J. Heeger,
Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa "for the discovery and
27
development of conductive polymers"
Module 4 Conducting Polymers: Introduction

Poly acetylene is the first conducting polymer synthesized.

28
Module 4

Conducting Polymers

Intrinsically Extrinsically Co-ordination or Inorganic

Conducting Polymers Conducting Polymers Conducting Polymers

Conductive element Blended conducting

filled polymer polymer

Conducting Doped
Polymers having Conducting Polymers
conjugated pi
electrons in
backbone
p-doping n-doping
29
Module 4 Intrinsically conducting polymers

Intrinsically conducting polymers: These types of polymers have a solid

backbone made up of extensive conjugated system, which is responsible
for conductance.

They are of two types

1. Conducting polymers having conjugated π-electrons in the backbone

2. Doped conducting polymers

30
Module 4 Conducting polymers having conjugated π-
electrons in the backbone

➢ Conjugated polymers are organic molecules that are characterized by

a backbone chain of alternating double and single bonds.

➢ They possess conjugated π-electrons that can be easily delocalized

rather than being part of one valence bond.

➢ Currently, conjugated polymers are the most important class of

organic semiconductors used to fabricate OLEDs and optoelectronic
devices due to their unique optical, electrical, and mechanical
properties

➢ Polyacetylene and Polyaniline are examples

31
Module 4 Doped conducting polymers

➢ In pure form (undoped or pristine state), conducting polymers have

low electrical conductivity.
➢ To achieve high conductivity doping is necessary, doping increases
the conductivity by many orders of magnitude.
➢ Doping can be achieved by either partial oxidation with electron
acceptors (i.e. anions) or partial reduction with electron donors (i.e.
cations).
➢ Both partial oxidation and reduction are referred to as p-doping and n-
doping, respectively.

32
Module 4 Doped conducting polymers

➢ Charged defects, such as polarons, bipolarons and solitons, are

introduced into the polymer structure as a result of the doping
process.
➢ These defects then play the role of charge carriers.
➢ Once doping has occurred, the electrons in the π-bonds are able to
“jump” around the polymer chain and, while electrons are moving
along the molecule, an electrical current flow.
➢ Doped polymers have high electrical conductivities and are called
as synthetic metals.

33
34
35
Module 4 Doped conducting polymers
1. Positive doping (Oxidation)
➢ It is done by oxidation process. This typically removes some electrons
from π bonds of the conjugated double bonds.

➢ The radical cation produced is called polaron. The polarons are mobile
and can move along the polymer chain by rearrangement of double
bonds and single bonds and hence the polymer become electrically
conducting.

➢ Oxidation process is of generally brought about by Lewis acids such as

FeCl3 , AlCl3 , BF3 etc.

36
Module 4 Doped conducting polymers

2. Negative doping (Reduction)

➢ In this type, some electrons are introduced (reduction) into the polymer
having conjugate double bonds.

➢ The process of negative doping is brought about by adding Lewis bases

like Br2 , I2 , AsF5, etc.

The reduction of polyacetylene leads to the formation of a polaron and

bipolaron in two steps
37
Module 4 Doped conducting polymers

n-doping p-doping

-e-
+

-e-
+

Schematic showing the steps of formation of a polaron, bipolaron and

soliton during doping of polyacetylene 38
Module 4 Extrinsically conducting polymers

Those conducting polymers which owe their conductivity due to the

presence of externally added ingredients in them are called extrinsically
conducting polymers.

They are of two types,

1. Conductive element filled polymers

➢ In this type, polymer acts as a binder to hold the conducting elements

together in solid entity

➢ The minimum concentration of the conductive filler, which is added to

let the polymer start conducting is called the percolation threshold.

➢ Important characteristics of these polymers are good bulk conductivity,

cheaper, light in weight, mechanically durable and strong, easily
process able in different forms, shapes and sizes.

39
Module 4 Extrinsically conducting polymers

2. Blended conducting polymers

➢ These types of polymers are obtained by blending a conventional

polymer with a conducting polymer either physically or chemically.

➢ Such polymers can be easily processed and possess better physical,

chemical and mechanical properties.

40
Module 4 Applications of conducting polymers

Conducting polymers are widely used

1. In rechargeable batteries.
2. In making analytical sensors for pH, O2 , SO2 , NH3 , glucose, etc.
3. In the preparation of ion exchangers.
4. In controlled release of drugs.
5. In optical filters.
6. In photo voltaic devices.
7. In telecommunication systems.
8. In micro-electronic devices.
9. In bio-medical applications

41
Module 4 Conducting polymers

42
Module 4 Synthesis Of Conducting Polymers

✓ Chemical oxidation
✓ Electrochemical polymerization
✓ Vapor phase synthesis
✓ Hydrothermal
✓ Solvothermal
✓ Template-assisted
✓ Electrospinning
✓ Selfassembly
✓ Photochemical methods
✓ The inclusion method
✓ The solid-state method
✓ Plasma polymerization 43
Module 4 Synthesis Of Conducting Polymers

Chemical method: Conducting

polymers have been chemically
synthesized through the oxidation or
reduction of monomers and
polymerization of corresponding
monomers. One of its advantages is the
chance of mass production at a
reasonable price.

Electrochemical method:
Electrochemical synthesis is simple,
cost-effective, can be performed in a
single section glass cell, reproducible
and the fabricated films have required
thickness and uniformity. The most
widespread electrochemical technique is
anodic oxidation of appropriate
electroactive functional monomers 44
Module 4 Synthesis Of Conducting Polymers: Polyacetylene

➢ It is a conjugated polymer with alternating single and double bonds

along its carbon backbone.
➢ The synthesis of polyacetylene involves the polymerization of
acetylene (C2H2) monomers.
➢ The most common method for synthesizing polyacetylene is the
Ziegler-Natta polymerization.
➢ The polyacetylene film forms at the gas liquid interface when
acetylene gas passes through a heptane solution of the Ziegler
Natta catalyst. The Ziegler-Natta polymerization process allows for
control over the polymer chain length and quality.

45
Module 4 Synthesis Of Conducting Polymers: Polyacetylene

➢ Electrochemical polymerization of acetylene is a non-catalytic

polymerization method.
➢ Anodic oxidation of a monomer precursor in the presence of suitable
electrolytes on an inert metal surface is regarded as an electrochemical
synthesis.
➢ The primary benefit of this method is that it will enable the direct
deposition of a polymer film on the metal, and by adjusting the
electrochemical parameters, we can easily regulate the film thickness.

46
Module 4 Polyacetylene

➢ Polyacetylene has a conductivity in the range of 10-5 s cm-1

➢ Its conductivity can be modified by incorporating dopants or
by post-polymerization treatments.
The doping process involves the transfer of charge between
the dopant and the polyacetylene chain.
➢ In p-type doping, the dopant accepts electrons from the
polymer, creating positively charged sites (holes) that can
conduct electricity.
➢ In n-type doping, the dopant donates electrons to the polymer,
generating negatively charged sites (electrons) that contribute
to electrical conductivity.

47
Module 4 Polyacetylene

➢ Poly acetylene exists in two isomeric forms; (i) trans-polyacetylene

and (ii) cis-polyacetylene.
➢ Among its two isomeric forms, the trans form is thermodynamically
more stable at room temperature than that of the cis form.
➢ The bandgap value of the trans-polyacetylene is smaller than that of
the cis-polyacetylene.
➢ This result explains the experimental fact that trans-polyacetylene has
a higher conductivity than cis-polyacetylene.
➢ However, after doping electrical conductivity of either cis- or trans-PA
further increases depending upon the degree of doping.

Used as electrode material in light weight rechargeable batteries

and used in biosensors
48
Module 4 Polyaniline (PANI)
Features
(i) It can be synthesized easily via chemical or electrochemical means
(ii) It can be doped and de-doped easily by treatment with aqueous
acid and base
(iii) It cannot be degraded easily
(iv) The aniline monomer is relatively cheap

Synthesis

➢ Polyaniline is synthesized by chemical oxidative polymerization

method
➢ In this method, aniline hydrochloride is oxidized with ammonium
49
peroxydisulfate in aqueous medium at ambient temperature.
Module 4 Polyaniline (PANI): Synthesis
Electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline involves the oxidation of aniline monomers
at the anode, leading to the growth of polyaniline on the electrode surface.
This method offers better control over the polymerization process and allows for the
deposition of polyaniline directly onto a substrate.

Interfacial polymerization is also used to synthesize polyaniline, in which an aniline

monomer is solubilized in an organic solvent like toluene, an oxidant solution and a
dopant acid-containing aqueous solution.
Polymerization takes place in the interphase of these two immiscible liquids when
an oxidant solution is added to the monomer solution.

50
Module 4 Polyaniline (PANI)

➢ Polyaniline exists in different forms based on the oxidation states.

➢ The leucoemeraldine base (LB) (colorless) is the completely reduced
state The emeraldine base (EB) (blue) is half-reduced and half-oxidized
➢ The pernigraniline base (PB) (blue/violet) is the fully oxidized form

benzenoid rings

benzenoid and quinonoid rings

quinoid rings

51
Module 4 Polyaniline (PANI): Applications

(i) Bio- and chemosensors

(ii) Electronic devices: electrochromic glass, solar cells, and LEDs
(iii) Energy storage devices: supercapacitors and batteries
(iv) Anti-corrosion and anti-fouling agent
(v) Antimicrobial agent
(vi) Waste-water treatment
(vii) Drug delivery.

52
Module 4 Polypyrrole (ppy)

➢ Polypyrrole is derived from the polymerization of pyrrole monomers.

➢ Pyrrole is a five membered aromatic ring containing four carbon atoms
and one nitrogen atom.
➢ Polypyrrole is an example of heterocyclic conductive polymer.
➢ The polymerization process involves the oxidative (chemical or
electrochemical) coupling of pyrrole monomers, resulting in a highly
conjugated polymer chain.
➢ Electrochemical synthesis is widely used to obtain highly conductive
polypyrrole even though the yield is low.

53
Module 4 Polypyrrole (ppy): Synthesis
Synthesis

➢ Chemical synthesis is used when large quantities of material are required and
involves mixing a strong oxidizing agent (typically FeCl3, ammonium per sulfate,
etc) with a monomer (pyrrole) solution.

• Fuel cells Applications

• Corrosion protection • Toolsbiosensors
• Computer displays • Drug delivery systems
• Microsurgical tools • Neural tissue engineering. 54
Module 4 Poly(p-phenylene)

➢ Poly (para-phenylene) (PPP) is a linear, rigid-rod polymer comprised of repeating

p-phenylene units.
➢ It exhibits electrical conductivity when p- and n-doped and, therefore, can be used
in energy storage.
➢ The conjugated nature of the polymer backbone allows for the delocalization of pi
electrons along the chain. This results in a significant enhancement of electronic
conductivity, making poly(p-phenylene) a conducting polymer.

55
Module 4 Poly(p-phenylene): Synthesis
➢ The polymerization process typically involves the reaction of monomers
containing para-phenylene units, leading to the formation of the
conjugated polymer chain.

➢ Direct oxidation of benzene molecules is widely using for the synthesis

of poly(p-phenylene)s.

➢ Here in this procedure dehydro coupling of benzene nuclei with an

oxidative catalyst leads to the formation of carbon–carbon bonds.

➢ The polymerization reaction is carried out by using reagent consisting of

a binary or a single system.

➢ The binary system consists of both a Lewis acid and an oxidant system,
and in the case of a single reagent system (FeCl3), the system acts as
both a Lewis acid and an oxidative system by itself. A combination of an
AuCl3 and CuCl2 system is an example of a binary reagent system,
where AuCl3 acts as Lewis acid, and CuCl2 acts as an oxidant.
56
Module 4 Poly(p-phenylene)

➢ Poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV): PPV is a conjugated polymer with

alternating p-phenylene and vinylene units.
➢ It is known for its excellent optical and electrical properties, making it
useful in devices such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs),
organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs), and organic field-effect transistors
(OFETs).

➢ Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) (PPS): PPS is another example of

poly(pphenylene), where sulfur atoms are incorporated into the
polymer chain.
➢ This modification enhances the polymer's chemical resistance and
thermal stability.
➢ PPS is commonly used in applications requiring resistance to harsh
chemicals and elevated temperatures, such as automotive components
and industrial filters.
57
Module 4 Organic light emitting diode (oled)

➢ A solid device containing thin films of organic molecules such as conducting

polymers that create light with the application of electricity.
➢ Can provide brighter and crisper displays on electronic devices and it uses less
power than conventional light emitting diodes.
➢ Thin, light weight and flexible.

58
Module 4 Oled: Construction

➢ Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil): The substrate supports the OLED.
➢ Anode (should be transparent): The anode removes electrons (adds electron
holes) when a current flows through the device. Usually, indium tin oxide is used as
anode.
➢ Conductive layers: These layers are made up of organic molecules (conducting
polymer) that transport "holes“ from the anode. One conducting polymer used in
59
OLEDs is polyaniline.
Module 4 Oled: Construction

➢ Emissive layer: This layer is made of organic molecules (different polymer

from the conducting layer) that transport electrons from the cathode; this is
where light is made. One polymer used in the emissive layer is polyfluorene
➢ Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of
OLED): The cathode injects electrons when a current flows through the
device. Usually, metals like calcium and aluminium are used.
60
Module 4 Oled: Working

➢ An electrical current flow from the cathode to the anode.

➢ The cathode gives electrons to the emissive layer of organic molecules.
➢ The anode removes electrons from the conductive layer of organic molecules.
➢ At the boundary between the emissive and the conductive layers, electrons combine
with holes. During this process, the electron gives up energy in the form of a photon of
light. The OLED emits light.
61
Module 4 Oled: Working

62
Module 4 Oled: Working

➢ The color of the light depends on the type

of organic molecule in the emissive layer.
➢ Manufacturers place several types of
organic films on the same OLED to make
color displays.
➢ The intensity or brightness of the light
depends on the amount of electrical
current applied.
➢ The more the current, the brighter the
light.

63
Module 4 Oled: Advantages

➢ The OLEDs are flexible and hence it is very easy to manufacture

OLED displays or other OLED devices such as mobile phones,
cameras, wearable devices etc.

➢ OLED consumes less power and are suitable for devices requiring less
power consumption such as android phones, portable gaming
consoles, media players, digital cameras etc.

➢ It provides remarkable color reliability, high efficiency and operational

stability.

➢ They are very thin and small in size and hence are light in weight.

➢ OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees.

64
Module 4 Photoresist

➢ Photoresist materials are polymer resins that contain photoactive

(light sensitive) compound (PAC) and an alkaline-soluble resin.
➢ They are light-sensitive materials, composed of a polymer, a
sensitizer, and a solvent.
➢ The polymer changes its structure when it is exposed to radiation
➢ Photoresists are used in the lithography process to transfer circuit
patterns, such as those for semiconductors, on a silicon wafer.
➢ The main purpose of photoresist is to create patterned coatings on a
surface.

65
Module 4 Photoresist

In the positive photoresists, the

photochemical reaction that occurs
during exposure weakens the
polymer, making it more soluble to
the developer, so the positive
pattern is achieved.

In the case of negative photoresists,

exposure to light causes the
polymerization of the photoresist,
and therefore the negative resist
remains on the surface of the
substrate where it is exposed, and
the developer solution removes only
the unexposed areas.

66
Module 4 Photoresist

67
Module 4

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