UNIT 2 PERSPECTIVES OF

ASSESSMENT
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Perspectives of Assessment
2.3.1 Behaviourist Perspective of Assessment
2.3.2 Cognitive Perspective of Assessment
2.3.3 Constructivist Perspective of Assessment

2.4 Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning

2.4.1 Assessment of Learning (AOL)
2.4.2 Assessment for Learning (AFL)

2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.6 References and Suggested Readings
2.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.8 Glossary

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In your day-to-day teaching how do you know the progress of learners? You
use various verbal and written tests to assess the progress of learners. One
of the important roles of teachers is to make professional judgment about
learners’ performance, and teachers are continuously engaged in decision making
process informed by relevant data. Educational assessment is a comprehensive
term which includes all the processes and activities reflecting and describing the
nature and extent of human learning, reflects the degree of correspondence
with aims and objectives of instructional design and activities and pedagogical
approaches designed to attain the objectives.

Assessment is integral component of learning and an ongoing process inherent

in day-to-day teaching learning activities. It is most significant indicator of learning,
and helps the teacher to gather information about the learning style, strengths
and limitations of the learners and adjust his/her teaching strategies accordingly.
It is also the process to provide feedback to learners about their own learning.
Therefore as a teacher it is essential for you to understand the changing
perspective of assessment which evolved over the years to integrate assessment
practices in your day to day teaching learning process in an effective manner.
In this Unit let us discuss about various perspectives of assessment. We will
focus on three major perspectives of learning- the behaviourist, cognitivist and
constructivist perspectives of assessment and subsequent changes in assessment
practices.
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Evaluation in Teaching-
Learning Process 2.2 OBJECTIVES
On completion of this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the concept of perspectives of assessment;
 elaborate behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist perspective of assessment;
 explain the shift from assessment of learning to assessment for learning;
and
 differentiate between assessment for learning and assessment of learning.

2.3 PERSPECTIVES OF ASSESSMENT

As a teacher you are continuously engaged in assessment of the performance
of learners which is one of the important functions of teachers. Before we
discuss various perspectives of assessment let us spend few minutes on the
assessment practices that have been traditionally used in our country. We all
are aware of the annual examination system that has existed in our county and
still plays an important role in the school education system. The inadequacy
of this system has also been realized and highlighted by various policy documents
from time to time and efforts have been made to move away from traditional
annual examination system to Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE),
and most recently the term assessment has replaced the term evaluation. We
have also moved away from numerical assessment, that is, from marking to
grading system. Have you ever reflected on the principles underlying such shifts?
In this Unit, let us focus on those psychological principles which have brought
change not only in the conceptualization of how learning takes place but also
how it should be assessed. In Course BES 123 (B.Ed. first year) ‘ Learning
and Teaching’ we have focused on the changing perspectives of learning. In
this Unit we shall discuss how change in the perception of learning brings change
in the assessment practices as well.

2.3.1 Behaviourist Perspective of Assessment

Assessment has traditionally been influenced with the behaviourist theories of
learning. The behaviourist learning theories are concerned about the influence
of external environment on human learning. Learning according to behaviourism
is based on three basic assumptions. First, learning is manifested by change
in behavior; second, environment shapes the behavior; and third, the principle
of contiguity and reinforcement are central to the learning process. Behaviourism
has tried to explain action in simple causal terms, as it believes that, competence
can be achieved by breaking down tasks and activities in small steps and
reinforcing the achievement of each step. All of us have experienced how children
show their happiness on getting ‘good’ or ‘fair’ in their class work. These
comments act as reinforces for further learning among children. Behaviourist
theories believe that knowledge could be obtained and transmitted through the
manipulation of environment and human beings are passive recipients who have
to respond to an active environment. Learners’ natural capacities to draw upon
and construct their own knowledge, to develop their own capacities to relate
to the environment, both, physical and social are of little relevance in such
learning.
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Behaviourist learning theories considered learning as association of stimulus and Perspectives of Assessment
response resulting in change in behviour. Reinforcement is central to the
behaviourist approach and it focused on objective measurement of ability and
achievement. This developed the tradition of defining learning outcomes in
observable behaviours. Learner’s personal experiences and socio cultural context
had very little significance in such type of learning perspective. For instance,
the socio-cultural context of a child coming from remote or tribal area is entirely
different from the children belonging to urban areas. This may affect their learning
but was ignored in the behaviourist perspective that focuss on the outcome.
The achievement of learners, therefore, become more important and it is
presumed that any thing can be taught using reward and punishment. The
overemphasis on learning outcomes results in an examination system that
encourages rote memorization, objective types test focuss on recall, completion,
matching, and multiple choice tests which fit perfectly with what was deemed
important to learn. It also results in neglect of the role of individual experiences
and complex learning skills like analysis, synthesis, critical thinking, reflection,
problem solving, etc. in learning.
Therefore this perspective of human learning has encouraged schools to function
as factories to produce learners with higher academic achievement that have
been the sole determinant of quality education. Educational systems influenced
with behaviourist perspectives follow the typical transmission mode of teaching
learning process to fill the minds of young learners with heaps of information
and then assess the learner’s ability to recall this information through various
means of assessment tools. Behaviourist perspective, thus, encouraged the
concept of mastery learning based on the premise that most students can master
their learning targets, given enough time and suitable opportunity. The basic
premise of behvioursit perspective is that competence can be achieved by
breaking down tasks and activities into small components or steps. Achievement
of each step is acknowledged and reinforced that motivates the learner to move
towards the next more complex step. It was assumed that intelligence is evenly
distributed amongst learners and can be represented by normal curve. Hence,
the purpose of assessment was to place learners at various points of this normal
curve. This led to the use of various measurement tools of assessment to
discriminate between learners on the basis of their performance. You are familiar
with the ranking system where learners are placed according to the marks or
grades they obtain in examination, and excellence is determined on how well
a learner has performed in comparison to others. The effectiveness of assessment
tools from this traditional perspective is based on discrimination index i.e. ability
of the test to discrimination between high and low achievers. Consequently both
teaching learning process and assessment have predominantly focused on
quantification of information.
This traditional behviourist perspective expected you to determine the learning
objectives and outcomes, related assessment tasks and criteria, the performance
of learners and grades to be awarded. This led to the separation of instruction
and formal (summative) assessment with latter being an objective exercise
determining learner’s level of achievement and level of readiness to move up
to the next stage of learning. Consequently, in the whole teaching learning and
assessment process learners remained passive at the receiving end complying
to the activities given to them. Learners got very little opportunity for self
assessment, which may help them in identifying their own learning gaps and
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determining their own learning objectives.
Evaluation in Teaching- We have already discussed that testing played central role in behaviourist
Learning Process
teaching learning process. You are well aware of unit tests being undertaken
at the end of each unit in our schools. The measurement tools/tests are so
designed, that, if the learners memorize and reproduce the answer, it is proof
of their mastery over content, whereas actually the learners might have to develop
very little generalization ability to use their learning gains in real life situations.
It is very well reflected in our day-to-day experiences as well.
This perspective considers that assessment has to be uniformly administered on
each and every learner, and individualized assessment based on the needs of
individual learners is ignored. Due to emphasis on objectivity in assessment,
teachers avoid using qualitative assessment procedures which could have ensured
a holistic assessment of performance of the learners.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end
of the Unit.
1. Discuss the basic principles of learning from behaviourist perspective.
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2. What determines the effectiveness of assessment tools from behaviourist
perspective?
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2.3.2 Cognitive Perspective of Assessment

In contrast to behviourism the cognitive theorists, such as Piaget believed that
learning is an integral process in which new information is assimilated in ones
cognitive processes. We have explained in Unit3 of BES123 various developmental
stages of learners identified by Piaget, which influence their learning. Let us
quickly recall these stages. Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development
i.e. sensory motor stage (0-2years), pre-operational stage (2-7 years), concrete
operational stage (7-12 years) and formal operational stage (12-adult). According
to Piaget these stages play crucial role in the learning of children and they cannot
learn certain things until they have reached to that level of cognitive development.
In other words the mental readiness of the learner plays a crucial role in learning
and should be considered for assessment as well.
The ‘child centered’ approach to learning evolved out of Piaget’s cognitive
development theory which was further reinforced by Bruner with emphasis on
‘active learning’. Both Piaget and Bruner stressed on the importance of activity
in learning which the learner can observe, practice, manipulate, modify and
construct his/her own knowledge. They also stressed on relating new learning
36 to the previous experiences of the learners. Piaget recommended giving
challenging tasks to activate the thinking process which may facilitate the learner Perspectives of Assessment
to reach equilibrium through the process of adaptation. From Piaget’s perspective
though the task/ activity may be challenging but it should be according to
appropriate developmental stage of the learner, otherwise the learner may not
be able to learn. Therefore, from the cognitive perspective the cognitive
development of the learner determines the assessment method, and tools to be
used to assess the performance of learners. Clearly, there is no single or uniform
method of assessment from this perspective. Assessment is not linear from this
perspective; instead, it is a spiral and continuous process. Therefore as a teacher
you have to inbuilt assessment in the activity itself and determine the assessment
procedure according to the developmental stage, experience, and exposure of
the learner.

2.3.3 Constructivist Perspective of Assessment

Let us now discuss as to how concept of assessment has been reconceptualised
due to change in learning theories from behaviourist to constructivist perspectives.
As we have already explained in Unit 3 of BES123 constructivism believes
in active involvement of learner in the process of learning. Learner’s personal
experiences play important role in constructivist learning and each learner
generates his/her own rules and mental models which are used to make sense
of experiences. According to constructivism, knowledge is actively constructed
by the individual and learning is an adoptive process based on these experiences.
Consequently the mechanistic view of learners as passive recipient of knowledge
has been replaced by the view of learners as situated and active knowledge
constructors. Therefore while from behaviourist perspective any thing can be
taught with the help of reinforcement, from constructivist perspective previous
experience of learner is more important and a deciding factor in learning.
Knowledge according to constructivist epistemology cannot be transferred
uniformly to all learners, hence teaching and learning can not be synonymous.
For instance, in a class a teacher teaches the same content to the whole class
but learners process the information according to their own experiences and
learn differently the same content.
A basic premise of constructivism is that individuals live in their own world of
personal and subjective experiences and build new knowledge on the basis of
their previous experiences, rather than new knowledge being imposed from
outside. This premise of learning includes how children learn, as well as learning
with understanding, and not limited to what they learn, that is, the end product
acquired through rote memorization. Therefore, assessment is directed towards
assessment of understanding the learners rather than their surface knowledge
and ability to recall facts. As constructivist perspective of learning emphasizes
the experiences of learners and their socio-cultural contexts in the learning
process, organizing new information around the existing conceptual framework
of learner facilitates learning. Concept mapping, therefore, plays very crucial role
in constructivist learning and facilitates transfer of learning and problem solving
from one conceptual framework to another. Assessment from this perspective
has to be context specific and cannot be uniformly used for all learners. Usually
children in schools come from different socio-cultural backgrounds. Tribal
children, for instance, often have difficulty in communicating and understanding
standard Hindi language due to their unfamiliarity with the standard language
used in school. Therefore while assessing the language ability of such children,
differential assessment procedure has to be adopted. It is expected to assess 37
Evaluation in Teaching- learner’s ability to link ideas, apply knowledge and solve problems. The
Learning Process
assessment process is expected to challenge the incomplete understanding and
pre- concepts of learners, and should help the learner to modify and refine
their thinking through appropriate scaffolding and feedback. It means that you
cannot use a single standardized test on all the learners and have to adopt a
variety of assessment tools.
Assessment from this perspective should provide feedback on how learning is
taking place and how it can be ensured in the future. In other words, assessment
should reflect not only the present level of development of learner but also the
level of potential development. Constructivist learning approach, therefore,
encourages an assessment culture where assessment is embedded in the whole
teaching - learning process and focuses on ‘assessment of the process of learning
in addition to that of its product’(Birenbaum in Segers et el (ed) 2003). Hence
multiple assessment procedures are used to develop learner’s profile through
authentic, contextualized assessment tools. Learners become engaged participants
in sharing and developing criteria, in self and peer assessment , reflecting on
their own learning, keeping track of their own performance and utilizing feedback
to refine their knowledge, skills and behaviours. Teachers facilitate learners to
develop strategies for learning and assessing. Assessment therefore, is spiral and
formative while from behaviourist perspective, assessment is considered as linear
and summative process. To summarise, the focus of assessment, in constructivist
perspective has shifted from assessment of learning to assessment for learning.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end
of the Unit.
3. How learning is an integral process? Explain it in view of Piaget.
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4. What is the nature of assessment in constructivist perspective?
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5. ‘Learning and teaching can not be synonymous’. Explain it in view
of constructivist perspectives of learning and assessment.
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6. ‘Learning and teaching can not be synonymous’. Explain it in view
of constructivist perspectives of learning and assessment.
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 Perspectives of Assessment
2.4 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING AND
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
In the previous section we have discussed behaviourist, cognitivist and
constructivist perspectives of assessment, and the shift in focus of assessment
from the outcome to the process of learning itself. Viewed from this perspective
assessment can be put into two categories: assessment of learning, and
assessment for learning. Recently another category of assessment has also
emerged, that is assessment as learning. Let us now discuss these concepts.

2.4.1 Assessment of Learning (AOL)

We have seen that the objective of assessment from behaviourist perspective
is to assess the extent of learning that has taken place at a particular point
of time, for instance, after teaching a lesson or unit, you might be interested
to know the level of achievement of students on the content you have taught
and therefore you give them some test for it. The predominant objective of
assessment in schools is assessment of learning. You might be using various forms
of tests to assess the quantity and accuracy of learners’ work represented through
grades or marks. This type of assessment tells you as to how well the students
are performing in comparison to certain criteria such as ‘high and low
achievement’ or ‘pass or fail’, etc. School report card of students provide
feedback to parents about the progress of their wards as well.

Similarly, at the larger scale, State level or National level surveys are conducted
to assess the performance of students at different levels. The focus of such
assessment is to rank order students in groups in terms of their position within
the group such as first or second, and so on. Although such type of assessment
has long historical tradition and is widely accepted by schools and parents alike,
but, it has several limitations and doubts have been raised about the reliability
and validity of such type of assessment procedures. Assessment from this
perspective has been considered as a means to achieve the goal of mastery
learning. This approach led to identifying minimum levels of learning (MLL).
The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986, revised in 1992 and its
Programme of Action (POA 1992) stressed on minimum levels of learning (MLL)
which subsequently led to stage- wise and subject- wise development of MLL
by the NCERT. Traditionally assessment of learning has been carried out in
our schools with the help of numerical assessment (0-100) or grades (A-E),
etc. and is summative in nature reflecting how much a learner has achieved
at the end of learning any concept and unit. Assessment of learning, therefore
is summative and linear which is carried out with the objective to ascertain what
the learner has learnt after teaching is over. It is the end product of learning.

2.4.2 Assessment for Learning (AFL)

In the preceding section of this Unit, you have seen that traditionally assessment
of learning is done after the task is completed with the objective to assess the
outcome of learning. In this section let us focus on assessment for learning where
assessment is inbuilt in the whole process of teaching learning itself.

We have already discussed in section 2.3 the importance of the role of individual
differences from cognitivist and constructivist perspective which play crucial role
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Evaluation in Teaching- in human learning and needs to be considered in any decision making. Three
Learning Process
things are essential while assessing learners:

 the understanding of how learners learn,

 how a learner is progressing with reference to himself/herself. We have
also discussed the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) of
every learner. Each learner, therefore has to be assessed according to
his/her ZPD to ensure maximum learning. Assessment from this perspective
tells us how the learner is progressing and what more can be done to
facilitate him/her to reach to their maximum capacity; and
 as teacher we are also interested to know the learner’s progress with
reference to his/her peer group and the criteria set by the teacher.
Therefore, assessment for learning is much broader term and refers to formative
assessment, though it is not simply formative assessment, that takes place in
order to take decisions to inform the next stage of learning (Earl, 2003).
As learners have different experiences, background and learning styles, and they
construct their own knowledge based on these experiences, learning needs to
be considered as a continuum. Assessment for learning ensures that the learner
is able to translate and reflect in his/her behavior whatever he/she has learned.
Hence, Assessment for learning is viewed as spiral and part of the learning
process itself in which learners play a central role in evaluating their own progress.
It is ongoing and individual process and helps the teacher to take decision on
the level of understanding of the learner and plan teaching learning strategies
accordingly. It is essential for improving the performance of the learners. For
AFL, you have to collect wide range of data so that you can modify your
teaching learning strategies according to the needs of your learners. Grading
in AFL is not done with the objective of merely making comparative judgment
of learners’ achievement, but, to know their strengths and limitations and provide
them feedback that will help to improve their learning. It also helps the teacher
to bring suitable modification in teaching learning process to ensure learning.
The crucial question in AFL is ‘what comes next in learning’. Both teachers
and learners are decision makers in this process and the information about
learners’ present level of achievement is taken to help them to reach to their
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
It is essential to clarify at this point that though AFL is formative in nature,
but, it is different from what traditionally has been referred to as formative
assessment. While formative assessment is about being more frequent, AFL is
about being continuous. Likewise formative assessment is undertaken by the
teacher to gain feedback on learner’s progress, while AFL is about informing
learners about their own progress. Formative assessment tells teachers who is
meeting the standards and who is not but AFL tells teachers about the progress
of each learner towards meeting the standard while learning is happening and
there is still scope to help them.
Therefore, AFL directly influences learning by reinforcing the connection between
assessment and instruction. It is interwoven in day-to-day teaching learning
process and uses information to plan suitable strategies based on the learning
style of learners. It also encourages active participation of learners in utilizing
information to self- assess, regulate and monitor their own learning. Teachers
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play the role of facilitator, guiding, coaching and scaffolding to lead learners Perspectives of Assessment
towards a learning destination which is clearly understood by both teacher and
students. Clearly AFL is different from formative assessment. AFL is therefore
focused on how learners learn instead of what they learn, and facilitates them
to improve their learning and not just limited to providing feedback to them
about their performance.
Assessment for learning helps the classroom processes and results into
instructional interventions designed to increase and not merely monitor learning.
These instructional decisions are jointly taken by learners and teachers working
as a team. Hence learners become consumer of assessment information and
use it for their own progress. NCERT has recently developed class wise learning
indicators for English, Hindi, Urdu, Mathematics, Environmental Studies, Science,
Social Sciences and Arts Education for the elementary stage. These indicators
are supposed to help in a number of ways by:
 Understanding learning as a process.
 Focusing and understanding children’s learning on a continuum of learning.
 Respond positively to the diversity and helping all children to participate
fully and achieve well.
 Providing a reference point for parents , children and others to understand
the learning of every child in a simple way.
 Providing a framework for monitoring, learning and reporting progress about
the child. ( NCERT 2014, p2).
Therefore assessment for learning helps you to use it as a tool to develop
learner’s knowledge, understanding, skills and values which they are able to
reflect in their behavior.
The third term being used is Assessment as Learning (AAL) which occurs
when the learner personally monitors his/her own learning, assimilates the required
changes, accommodates and adapts to these new changes. It provides
opportunity to learners ‘to monitor’ what they are learning and use feedback
to make adjustments to their understanding (Earl, 2003). The learner critically
evaluates situation, asks reflective questions to him/herself and considers a range
of activities to learn. He/she uses personal experiences and knowledge to
construct meaningful learning. In such type of assessment comparison with others
becomes unnecessary. The learner compares his/her learning own prior achievement
and his/her aspirations and targets for continued learning. For instance, suppose
you wish to get ‘A’ grade in your examination but you received ‘B’ in your
assignment. You try to reflect on the reasons why you could not get ‘A’ grade,
use this feedback on the assignment grade to overcome your shortcomings so
that you may improve and get your desired grade. You are engaged in assessment
as learning. Assessment as learning therefore includes self - assessment by
learners to take informed decisions about their own learning. The reference point
here is learner’s own previous learning and the desire to achieve some goals
specified him/herself instead of being determined by the teacher. Therefore, while
in assessment of learning and assessment for learning the teacher plays an
important role, in assessment as learning the learner him/herself initiates
assessment process with the objective to achieve some goals he/she has set
for him/herself.
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Evaluation in Teaching-
Learning Process Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones given at the end of the
Unit.
7. Explain the concept of ‘assessment of learning’.
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8. Explain the concept of ‘assessment for learning’.
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9. Differentiate the major difference between assessment for learning
and formative assessment.
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10. Differentiate between assessment of learning and assessment for

learning.
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have discussed the changing perspectives of assessment from
behaviourist to constructivist approach. Traditionally we have been following
behaviourist perspective in our schools specifying targets/goals in terms of
measurable and achievable behaviours which lead to criterion and norm reference
testing procedures using various types of assessment techniques. Concept of
minimum levels of learning (MLL) and mastery level of learning emerged from
this behaviourist perspective and dominated the education sector for very long
period of time. However, slowly the attention is shifting towards considering
learning as individual and subjective phenomena based on the experiences of
learners, that is the cognitivist and constructivist perspectives. In such circumstance
assessment is considered to be inherent in the teaching learning process itself
and facilitate the learner to improve further based on their experiences. Hence
it is spiral instead of being linear process and focus has now shifted towards
indicators of learning performance of students. Assessment of learning and
assessment for learning reflect these two perspectives of assessment. In the end
we have also discussed about assessment as learning which is a self monitoring
mechanism of the learner where he/she evaluates his/her own performance against
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the goal he/she has set to achieve.
 Perspectives of Assessment
2.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Birenbaum, M. (2003). New Insights into Learning and Teaching and Their
Implications for Assessment. In Segers, M., Dochy, F. & Cascallar, E. (eds).
Optimising New Modes of Assessment: In Search of Qualities and Standards,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Boud, D. & Falchikov, N. (2006). Aligning assessment with long-term learning.
Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 31(4), 399 - 413.
Earl ( 2003) Assessment of Learning, for Learning and as Learning. Retrieved
from
http://archive.aacu.org/summerinstitutes/ild/documents/
assessmentforofaslearning2003_learl.pdf June 2016.
IGNOU (2000). Educational Evaluation (ES-333, B.Ed.), New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2013). Teaching-Learning and Assessment (BES-002, D.El.Ed.),
Block-3, Unit-10 ‘Assessment: Basics’, New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2014). Facilitating Teaching-Learning and Assessment (BES-052,
CPPDPT), New Delhi: IGNOU.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005. NCERT, New
Delhi: India.
NCERT (2014). Learning Indicators and Learning Outcomes at Elementary
Stage. NCERT, New Delhi.
Salvin, R.E. (1987). Ability grouping and students achievement in elementary
schools – A Best Evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, Vol.57(3),
pp.293-336.

2.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Learning is change in behavior resulting from the interaction of individual
with the environment.
2. The tool’s ability to distinguish between high achievers and low achievers
determines its effectiveness.
3. As per Piaget, learning is an integral process in which information is
internalized in ones cognitive processes and learning occurs through internal
processing of information through assimilation, accommodation and adaptation.
From this perspective how information is presented is equally important
and learners perceive the entire situation as a whole then see its various
aspects.
4. Self-assessment, peer group assessment, collaborative learning and
assessment.
5. Knowledge according to constructivist epistemology cannot be transferred
intact from one individual to another and therefore, learning and teaching
cannot be synonymous.
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Evaluation in Teaching- 6. In constructivist learning, social context plays important role as knowledge
Learning Process
is acquired through social interaction. Therefore, collaborative learning and
peer interaction facilitate learning.
7. Assessment of learning has little scope for enhancement of learning of the
learners. It only assess the performance of the learners in a defined learning
task or criterion.
8. Assessment for learning has a wider scope for assessment as well as
enhancement learning abilities of the learners. It helps the learners to get
feedback of learning and also to acquire new knowledge through the use
of assessment techniques.
9. Formative assessment provides feedback to teachers about the achievement
of learners so that they may modify their instructional strategies accordingly.
While assessment for learning is a part of learning process where learner
plays important role and teacher plays the role of facilitator of learning.
10. Self exercise (Refer 2.4.1 and 2.4.2).

2.8 GLOSSARY
Accommodation - Accommodation is a term developed by Jean Piaget to
describe the process in which we modify existing cognitive schemas in order
to include new information.
Adaptation - Adaptation refers to an individual’s ability to adjust to changes
and new experiences, and to accept new information. The ability to adapt helps
us grow mentally and continually develop.
Assimilation - Assimilation is a cognitive process that manages how we take
in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing
knowledge.
Behaviourism - Behaviorism defines learning as a more or less permanent
change in behaviour. In behaviourism, the learner is viewed as passively adapting
to their environment.
Cognitivism - Cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism
involves examining learning, memory, analysis, synthesis, problem solving skills,
and intelligence.
Concept Mapping - Concept mapping visually illustrates the relationships
between concepts and ideas. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept)
and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into
specific topics.
Constructivism - Constructivism is often divided into two aspects: Social
Constructivism (based on the work of, e.g., Vygotsky) and Cognitive Constructivism
(based on the work of, e.g., Piaget). Constructivism revolves around the notion
that learners construct new knowledge based on their existing knowledge;
constructivism builds on this idea by maintaining that this process happens most
effectively when the learner is in the process of constructing their knowledge.
See also Social Constructivism.

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Contiguity - Contiguity is a behaviourist approach that states, for learning to Perspectives of Assessment
occur, the response must occur in the presence of or very soon after a stimulus
is presented, or an association will not occur. In essence, this is a behaviourist
view based on the idea that learning will occur only if events occur relatively
close together in time.
Internalization - Internalization is the process of acquiring learning and to learn
something so that it can be used as the basis for production whenever required.
Mastery learning - Mastery learning refers to a category of instructional
methods which establishes a level of performance that all students must master
before moving on to the next unit/class (Slavin, 1987).
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) - Expected learning outcomes defined
as observable terminal behaviours in a subject at a particular standard.
Reinforcement - The process of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern
of behaviour. Positive feedback leads to reinforcement.
Stimulus – An object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioural response
in an organism.

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