Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Dr. N. Suresha.
M.Sc., Ph. D., M.Phil., B.Ed.
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
Bangalore Institute of Technology, B`lore
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Module-I
Sensors and Energy Systems
Syllabus
[Sensors: Introduction, Definition and terminologies of Transducer, Actuators and Sensors; working
principle and applications of Electrochemical sensors; conductometric sensors, Thermometric sensors, and
Optical sensors.
Sensors for the measurement of DO. Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals (example-Diclofenac)
and hydrocarbons (example-1-hydroxypyrene), electrochemical gas sensors for SOx, NOx, Disposable
sensors in the detection of biomolecules (Example-Ascorbic acid) and pesticides (example-Glyphosate).
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, Construction, working and applications of Lithium ion and
Sodium ion batteries.
Quantum dots sensitized solar cells (QDSSC’s) - Principle, Properties and Applications]

Transducer: A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction. Some
common examples of transducers include loudspeakers, microphones, etc.

The primary function of transducer is to convert a physical form into an electronic signal so that it
can be easily processed and transmitted for measurement (readable form). Ex. The determination of
exact magnitude of physical forces such as temperature and pressure is difficult. But, if these
physical forces are converted into an electronic signal, then their values can be easily determined
using a meter.

Transducers are used in electronic communication systems to convert signals of various physical
forms to electronic signals and vice versa. In this example, the first transducer could be
a microphone and the second transducer could be a speaker.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system. It is operated by a source of energy and converts that energy into motion. Here, the energy
can either be a mechanical force or electrical current or hydraulic fluid pressure or software-based
(e.g. a printer driver, robot control system) or a human or any other input.

Examples of actuators include electric motors, solenoids and hydraulic cylinders.

Everyday Examples:

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

In very simple terms, an actuator is a device that makes something move or operate. Every one of us
takes the advantage of at least one actuator every day. Let’s look at some examples of actuators.

i. Grocery Store Door: When we go to the grocery store, the door opens automatically for
us. An actuator makes the door open.
ii. Car Seat: We can move the car seat forward or backward before we drive away in our
car. An actuator makes the seat move.

Types of Actuators

1. Linear Actuator: An actuator move something in a straight line is referred to as linear

actuator.
2. Rotary Actuator: An actuator makes something move in a circular motion is referred to as
rotary actuator.

Sensors:
In order to analyse the pollutants like COx, NOx, SOx, pesticides, insecticides, etc., in soil, air and
water, to analyse biomolecules like nucleic acids, hormones, enzymes, etc., in body fluids, to
monitor the physical parameters like pressure, temperature etc., and for the diagnosis of various
diseases, a low cost, reliable, easy-to-use, portable devices are very much required. This led the
researchers to design sensors of various types to meet the requirements. These sensors are more
advantages over classical one in terms of cost, usage, time, stability, safety and accuracy.

Sensor is a device used to detect the presence of chemical or biological species or monitor physical
parameters like temperature, humidity, etc. It receives different kinds of signal like physical,
chemical or biological and converts them into an electric signal so that it can be processed and
converted easily into a readable form. There are different types of sensors like gas sensors, chemical
sensors and biological sensors, etc., developed for various applications.

Working of a sensor: The basic components of a sensor are;

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

i. Receptor: It is a sensing element made of chemical or biological molecule, capable of

interacting with the analyte and producing analytical signal proportional to the concentration
of analyte.
ii. Transducer: It is electronic device capable of converting analytical signal into electrical
signal.
iii. Processor: It processes the electrical signal and transmits into a readable or measurable
form.
iv. Detector: It detects the reading in various forms such as digits, graph, image, etc. to display
on screen.

Electrochemical sensors: Electrochemical sensor is a device which converts the information

associated with electrochemical reactions (the reaction between an electrode and analyte) into an
applicable qualitative or quantitative signal. They are mainly divided into three types:
potentiometric, conductometric and amperometric/voltammetric sensors.

It consists of a working, counter and reference electrodes dipped in an electrolytic solution. The
surface of working electrode need to be modified with active material (chemical or biological)
which is capable of interacting with analyte of interest. Counter electrode maintains a constant
potential. Electrolyte provides medium for the passage of ions.

Working: When analyte interacts with the active material (receptor) on working electrode, it
undergoes oxidation/reduction reaction generating an electrical signal proportional to the
concentration of analyte. This signal is processed and transmitted into a readable form.

Applications: Electrochemical sensors have been used in -

 Environmental applications to detect pollutants like CO, CO2, NOx, Sox, etc. in air, water
and soil.
 Security and defense applications such as detection of toxic gases, warfare agents etc.
 Biomolecular applications to detect hormones, nucleic acids, enzymes, vitamins, etc.
 Diagnosing viral illnesses such as hepatitis E, coronavirus, HIV, influenza virus, bacterium
and malaria.
 Clinical analysis to detect blood glucose, cholesterol, uric acid, ionized calcium, potassium
and sodium, polyions, etc., in human blood.
 Monitoring physical parameters like temperature, humidity, etc.
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Potentiometric sensor:
It is a device used to determine the concentration of analyte by measuring change in potential of
reacting system. During reaction, concentration of reactive species involved in the reaction changes.
As a result, the potential of reacting system also changes which can be monitored using
potentiometric sensor. Normally it consists of two electrodes, a reference and an indicator electrode
dipped in an electrolytic solution. Indicator electrode measures the change in potential of reaction
system.

Amperometric sensor:

Amperometry is based on the measurement of electricity generated duet to the electrochemical

reaction. Amperometric sensor consists of working electrode, reference electrode and counter
electrode immersed in an electrolytic solution. It works under a fixed applied potential at which a
reduction or oxidation reaction takes place on working electrode when analyte interacts with
electrode. As a result, an electrical signal is generated which is directly related to the concentration
of analyte, which can be processed and measured. Here, counter electrode provides the constant
potential that must be maintained between working and counter electrodes. For effective oxidation
or reduction reaction to take place, the surface of working electrode needs to be modified by coating
with catalysts like indium tin oxide, gassy carbon paste, etc.

Conductometric sensors:

Conductometric sensors are the devices used to monitor a chemical reaction by studying the
conductivity of the reacting species or the resultant products. Using conductometric sensor, the
concentration of analyte can be determined by measuring the electrolytic conduction of electrolyte.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Working principle: It consists of two platinum electrodes each of unit area of cross section placed
unit distance apart. The electrodes are dipped in the electrolyte solution (analyte) taken in a beaker
and connected to a conductance measuring device. The electrodes measure only the change in
electrolytic conduction and they do not provide their surface any reaction with analyte.
The principle underlying conductometric titration is the replacement of ions of particular
conductivity by ions of different conductivity during titration. It is based on Ohm`s law, which
states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the applied
potential (E) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R).

i.e. I = E/R or E=IR

The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
1 1 a
i.e. C   x Ω-1 or Siemens
R  l
Where, ‘ρ’ is specific resistance.
The reciprocal of specific resistance is called specific conductance ‘κ’
1l l l
   or C  where,   is cell constant.
Ra a a
Specific conductance is defined as the conductance of the solution which is placed between
two electrodes of 1cm apart and having unit area of cross section.

Applications:

 Conductometric sensors are used to estimate mixture of weak acid and strong base.
 They are used to estimate the concentration of colored or turbid solutions which cannot be
titrated using indicators.
 They are used for the estimation of weak acids or bases for which no suitable indicators are
available.
 Conductivity sensors are used in drinking water desalination plants to monitor how well
dissolved ionic solids are removed from salt water.

Optical Sensors:

An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into an electrical signal. The purpose of an
optical sensor is to measure a physical quantity of light and then translates it into a form that is

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

readable by an integrated measuring device.

It is based on the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and analyte. When a

monochromatic light radiation of particular wave length is passed through the solution containing
analyte, there will be an interaction between light radiation and analyte resulting in the emission,
absorption, scattering or reflection of light. By measuring the intensity of emitted light radiation, the
concentration of analyte is determined. Ex. Colorimetric sensor.

Working principle:

When a monochromatic light of intensity (I0) is passed through a transparent medium, a part of it is
absorbed (Ia) by the species and electrons get excited from lower energy level to higher energy
level, some part is reflected (Ir) and remaining is transmitted (It). So intensity of incident light is
equal to the sum of Ia, Ir and It.
i.e. I0= Ia + Ir+ It

It/Io = T is called transmittance, log 1/T = log I0/It is called the absorbance or optical density. The
relationship between absorbance (A), concentration, (c) (expressed in mol/dm3) and path length, (t)
(expressed in cm) is given by Beer-Lambert’s law. Beer`s law states that amount of radiation
absorbed by solution is directly proportional to the concentration (c) of species in the solution.
Lambert`s law states that amount of radiation absorbed by solution is directly proportional to path
length (t) of the solution. i.e.
I
A  log o   .c.t
It
Where ‘ɛ’ is the molar extinction coefficient and is a constant for a given substance at a given
wavelength. If ‘t’, the path length is kept constant, then, A α C. Hence the plot of absorbance
against concentration gives a straight line (calibration curve).

Applications:

 Optical sensors are used in biomedical applications such as monitoring heart-rate, blood
pressure, etc.
 They are used in on-site detection of pesticides in agricultural food products.
 They are employed in environmental applications for the detection of heavy metals like
cadmium, lead, etc.
 They are used to detect liquid levels in engineering facilities like detection of petroleum
level in hydrocarbon refineries and tanks.
 Used to determine the concentration of plant nutrients such as nitrate, ammonia and
phosphorus in soil.
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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Dissolved oxygen is a key measure of water quality relied upon in various applications. In industrial
water treatment, dissolved oxygen levels can be an indicator of water quality issues that lead to
corrosion of equipment. In aquaculture, fish transport and aquarium applications, dissolved oxygen
is monitored to ensure that aquatic species have enough oxygen in their habitat to survive, grow and
reproduce.

The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water can be monitored continuously using a dissolved
oxygen sensor. The working of dissolved oxygen sensor depends on the type of sensor used.
Commercially available dissolved oxygen sensors are of 2 types:

1. Electrochemical dissolved oxygen sensors: They measure dissolved oxygen concentration in

water based on the electrical current produced. There are two types of electrochemical DO
sensors:

i. Galvanic dissolved oxygen sensor: They consist of two polarized electrodes Zn as an

anode and Ag as cathode and an electrolyte solution such as NaOH. The electrodes and
electrolyte solution are isolated from the sample by a thin, semi-permeable membrane.

ii. Polarographic dissolved oxygen sensors: They consist of a silver anode and gold cathode
and an electrolyte solution such as KCl. The electrodes and electrolyte solution are isolated
from the sample by a thin, semi-permeable membrane.

2. Optical dissolved oxygen sensors: They measure dissolved oxygen concentration in water
based on quenching of luminescence in the presence of oxygen. They can measure either the
intensity or the lifetime of the luminescence as oxygen affects both.

Measurement of dissolved oxygen by DO sensor:

Working principle: In an electrochemical DO sensor, dissolved oxygen diffuses from the water
sample across an oxygen permeable membrane into the sensor. Wherein, the oxygen undergoes a
chemical reduction reaction producing an electrical signal. This signal can be read by a dissolved
oxygen instrument.

Procedure:
Anode: Ag
Electrolyte: KCl and H2O
Cathode: Au/Pt – (inert electrode – does not participate)

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Electrochemical DO sensors consist of two polarized electrodes, an anode and a cathode, in an

electrolyte solution. The electrodes and electrolyte solution are isolated from the sample by a thin,
semi-permeable membrane. Dissolved oxygen diffuses across the membrane at a rate proportional
to the partial pressure of oxygen in the water. The dissolved oxygen is then reduced and consumed
at the cathode resulting in the production of an electrical current that is directly related to the
oxygen concentration. This current is carried by the ions in the electrolyte and runs from cathode to
anode. As this current is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the sample, it can be
calculated by the following equation:

4.F .Pm (t ) . A.PO 2

id 
d
id = current produced
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 C/mol
Pm(t) = permeability of the membrane as a function of temperature
A = surface area of cathode
pO2 = partial pressure of oxygen
d = membrane thickness

Electrode reactions:

Anode reaction: 4Ag → 4Ag+ +4e–

4Ag+ + 4KCl → 4AgCl + 4K+

Cathode reaction: O2 + 4e– + 2H2O → 4OH–

4OH– + 4K+ → 4KOH

Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4KCl + 4Ag → 4AgCl + 4KOH

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Electrochemical Sensor for pharmaceuticals:

Pharmaceuticals are simple/complex organic molecules essential to combat ill-health. After usage,
they enter into ecosystem through waste and cause adverse effects on living organisms even if they
present at low concentration. Therefore, to monitor the presence of these pharmaceuticals in the
ecosystem, development of reliable, stable, low cost, rapid analytical tool is required. There are
several methods for the purpose, but electrochemical sensors are the best option for the detection of
pharmaceuticals.

Determination of Diclofenac (DF):

Diclofenac (DF) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for the treatment of headache, mild
migraine, muscle pain, dental pain, rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. DF has no side effects
when taken in the proper doses but an overdose can cause adverse effects on the human body.
Moreover, the presence of diclofenac in ecosystems directly affects the health of living organisms,
even if it is present at trace. Electrochemical sensing methods have been commonly used to detect
DF.

Working Principle: DF sensor consists of a working or sensing electrode such as nano

structured carbon coated with gold nano particles and a counter electrode which are separated and
immersed in an aqueous solution of acids or neutral solution. When the DF molecule comes in
contact with the sensing electrode, DF is oxidized to, 2,6 dichloroaniline and 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)
acetate by the loss of an electron and H+. Proton and electron react with 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)
acetate on the counter electrode producing 1- hydroxy-2-(2-hydroxyphenyl) ethanalate. The current
thus produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate the concentrations of DF.

Electrode Reactions:

Anode Reactions:

OH -
NH2
O Cl Cl
-
O + H2O e + H+ + +
NH O
OH
Cl Cl

Cathode Reaction:
-
O -
-
O
+ e + H +
O
OH OH
OH

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbons:

Like oxides of nitrogen, carbon and sulphur, the presence of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere is also
dangerous. Among hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are persistent organic
pollutants widely found in the atmosphere, water, soil and food. The incomplete combustion of
coal, gas, wood, garbage and tobacco results in the formation of PAH. PAHs can enter the human
body through respiration, diet and contact. They are known to be carcinogenic. After entering the
body, some PAHs are metabolized into hydroxyl PAHs (OH-PAHs). Hence human exposure to
PAHs is an important factor to reveal their toxicity and carcinogenic risk. Therefore, it is essential
to develop an analytical technique to monitor the presence of hydrocarbons in the ecosystem.
Electrochemical sensor is one of the best techniques.

Determination of 1-hydroxypyrene (OHP):

1-hydroxypyrene belongs to the class of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. If its concentration is

beyond the limit, it will affect the life of both plant and animal lives causing asthma, cancer,
bronchitis, etc. Electrochemical sensing methods have been widely used to detect OHP.

Working Principle: The 1-hydroxypyrene sensor consists of glassy carbon electrode coated with
chromium containing metal organic framework as the working electrode, Ag/AgCl as the reference
electrode and a platinum wire as the counter electrode which are separated and immersed in
0.05M phosphate buffer (pH 2.0) containing 0.2M NaCl solution. 1-hydroxypyrene is electro-
oxidized to several hydroxylated species and then hydroquinone by losing 2e− and 2H+ when a
constant potential of 0.7 V is applied. The current produced from these reactions is directly
proportional to the concentration of analyte is monitored and used to calculate the concentration of
1-hydroxypyrene.

Electrode Reactions:

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Electrochemical sensor for Gaseous analyte:

Electrochemical gas sensor is an Amperometric type sensor, used to determine the concentration of
gracious analyte like air pollutants such as COx, NOx, SOx, leakage of chemicals in industries such
as cyanides, etc. It consists of a membrane, reference electrode, working electrode and counter
electrode dipped in an electrolyte solution. The designing of gas sensor depends on the type of
gracious analyte to be detected.

The main components of gas sensors are;

i. Filter: It allows only the analyte of interest to enter inside the sensor.
ii. Membrane: It is a hydrophobic semipermeable membrane which regulates the inflow of
gracious analyte. Its pores structure will not wet by water molecules of electrolyte helps the
easy diffusion of gas on to the working electrode surface.
iii. Electrodes: Reference, working and counter electrodes. The selection of receptor on
working electrode depends on the type of gracious analyte to be detected.
iv. Electrolyte: Acidic, basic or neutral solution having good ionic conductivity is used as an
electrolyte for better transport of ionic species. It must be physically and chemically more
stable.

Working principal:

i. Diffusion: Gas diffused trough the filter and then through the membranes onto the working
electrode surface.
ii. Adsorption: Gas adsorbed on the working electrode surface.
iii. Reaction: Oxidation or reduction reaction takes place on working electrode surface by
losing or gaining electrons.
iv. Flow of electrons: Electrons will flow through the external circuit.
v. Electrical signal: Electrical signal is generated depending on the concentration of analyte.
vi. Processing: Processing of electrical signal and its transmission into a readable form.
vii. Desorption: Desorption and removal of products from the electrolyte.

Electrochemical gas sensors to determine NOx;

Nitrogen oxide is the general term for a gas mixture composed of different oxides of nitrogen,
often expressed as NOx. Monitoring NO levels becomes essential in the diagnosis of
cardiovascular problems since NO is a key vasodilator.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Working Principle: The working principal of all electrochemical gas sensors is same but the
selection of receptor to be coated on working electrode and the use of electrolyte are different.
They depend on the type of gas to be detected.

For the detection NO, sensor consists of a working electrode (WE) such as glassy carbon
surface modified with cobalt(IV) oxide catalyst and platinum counter electrode (CE) to make it
more sensitive to NO and a Ag/AgCl electrode as a reference electrode (RE) which are separated
and immersed in an aqueous solution of acids or bases. When NO gas comes in contact with the
sensing electrode it gets oxidized and oxygen gets reduced on cathode. The current thus produced
from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate the concentrations of NO.

Anode Reactions: NO in solutions is directly electro oxidized in three steps:

NO → NO+ + e-
NO+ + OH- → HNO2
HNO2 + H2O → NO3- + 2e- + 3H+

Cathode Reaction: 2H+ + ½O2 + 2e- → H2O

For the detection NO 2, sensor consists of a working electrode (WE) such as Au, Pt/Nafion and
platinum counter electrode (CE) to make it more sensitive to NO and a Ag/AgCl electrode as a
reference electrode (RE) which are separated and immersed in an aqueous solution of 10 M
H2SO4. When NO2 gas comes in contact with the sensing electrode it gets reduced to NO. The
current thus produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate the concentrations of
NO2.

Reaction: NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- → NO + H2O

Electrochemical gas sensors to determine SOx:

SOx is the generic term for a gas mixture composed of sulphur and oxygen of which sulphur
dioxide (SO2) is naturally present in the atmosphere at very low concentrations but can be
harmful at higher concentrations. The major source of sulfur dioxide pollution is the combustion
of coal and petrol containing sulfur. Sensors are used to monitor sulfur dioxide.

Working Principle: SO2 gas sensor consists of a hydrophobic membrane, Au/Nafion sensing
electrode, counter electrode and the reference electrode with 0.5 M H2SO4 as electrolyte. SO2 gas
molecules diffuse through the semi permeable membrane into the sensing electrode and undergo

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

oxidation producing sulfur trioxide (SO3) as well as protons and electrons. Protons and electrons
reduce oxygen on the counter electrode producing water. The current thus produced from the
reaction is monitored and used to calculate the concentrations of SO2.

Electrode Reactions:

Anode Reactions: SO2 + H2O → SO3 + 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode Reaction: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

Electrochemical Biosensor:

Biosensors are the devices used to detect biomolecules like nucleic acids, hormones, glucose, etc.
Various biosensors are used for industrial, agricultural and clinical applications.

The main component in biosensor is bioreceptor which is capable of interacting with the bioanalyte.
The bioreceptor is an immobilized biological molecule like enzyme, hormones, nucleic acids, etc.
which is selectively and sensitively interacts with the analyte and produces analytical signal. This
analytical signal is detected and converted into a readable electrical signal by a transducer as shown
below.

Disposable sensors (DS):

Disposable sensors are low-cost, easy-to-use sensing devices designed for short-term or rapid
single-point measurements. They are low cost, stable, reliable, smaller, lighter, easy to use, time
saving, highly selective and sensitive and highly advantageous over classical sensors. These types

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

of disposable sensors are extensively required for the analysis of samples from industrial,
agricultural and clinical fields.

Disposable biosensor consists of reference, working and counter electrodes which are coated on a
special type of paper strip by using screen printing technology. This strip is inserted into a portable
meter to monitor and measure the signal.

Advantages of DS over Classical sensors:

 Cost-effective: Disposable sensors are typically cheaper than classical sensors.

 Convenient: Disposable sensors do not require calibration or maintenance.
 Hygienic: Disposable sensors can help reduce the risk of cross contamination in medical and
food safety applications.

 Portable: Because disposable sensors are typically smaller and lighter than classical sensors.
 Rapid testing: Disposable sensors can provide results quickly, allowing for faster decision-
making.

 Reduced waste: Because disposable sensors are designed to be used once and then
discarded.

Disposable sensor for biomolecule:

Monitoring of biomolecules like hormones, vitamins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., is
very essential because any imbalance in these would cause health issues like diabetic, asthma, heart
attack, birth complications, etc. There are several disposable sensors developed for the analysis. The
receptor on working electrode may be enzyme modified or non-enzyme modified. Considering the
dis-advantages of enzyme modified sensors, such as fabrication and poor stability, non-enzyme
biosensors have attracted increasing research interest in recent years.

DS for the detection of Ascorbic acid:

Ascorbic acid (AA) is the key biomolecule in the physiological process of human metabolism. It is
an important water-soluble vitamin (Vitamin C) in forming collagen, a protein that gives structure
to bones, muscles and blood vessels. It is a potent reducing and antioxidant agent that regulates
fighting against bacterial infections as well as detoxifying reactions. Abnormal levels of AA will

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

lead to some disorders and diseases, such as mental illness, scurvy and anemia. Therefore, it is
essential to establish a sensitive tool to detect AA.

Working Principle: AA sensor consists of a gassy carbon working electrode (GCE), platinum
counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode which are printed on paper strip using screen
printing technology. The enzyme free active material (bio-receptor) like CdO/SnO2/V2O5 in alkaline
phase is coated on GCE is used as sensing electrode. When AA comes in contact with the working
electrode, it gets oxidized losing electrons and the oxidized product of AA gets reduced to 2,3-
diketogulonic acid, which generates electric current through electron transfer with the electrode.
Since the magnitude of electric current is directly correlated with the concentrations of AA, the
current thus produced from the reaction is monitored and used to calculate the concentrations of
AA.

Electrode reactions:

Disposable sensor for Pesticides:

With the intension of getting good yield and to protect crop, farmers have started using verities of
pesticides. They need to be used in very low concentrations. But without proper knowledge they
have been using in large amounts. This resulted in the accumulation of traces of these pesticides in
soil, water and air. The entry of these pesticides into the human blood system may cause asthma,
cancer, birth problems, etc. Therefore there is a need for developing a low cost, reliable, sensitive
enzyme modified screen printed disposable sensors to detect pesticides.

DS for the detection of Glyphosate:

Glyphosate is one of the most widely used herbicides with applications in agriculture, forestry,
industrial weed control, lawn, garden and aquatic environments. Glyphosate has the capacity to bind
to soil colloids and be degraded by soil microorganisms. Nowadays Glyphosate residues are
becoming more common in food and water as a result of extensive usage of this chemical.
Glyphosate has the potential to stimulate hormone-dependent malignancies in humans and is highly

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

carcinogenic even at low concentrations. Therefore, it is essential to design a low cost, reliable,
rapid and sensitive tool for the detection of glyphosate.

Working Principle: Glyphosate disposable sensor consists of a carbon paste electrode/graphite

oxide paste electrode as a working electrode, a platinum wire as a counter electrode and Ag/AgCl
as a reference electrode, which are printed on paper strip using screen printing technology. The
flavoenzyme, glycine oxidase is capable of selectively oxidizing glyphosate into
amidomethylphosphonic acid. Glycine oxidase is immobilized on platinum-decorated laser-induced
graphene (LIG) electrode and is used as working electrode. When glyphosate comes in contact with
the working electrode, it gets oxidized losing electrons and protons leading to the formation of
amidomethylphosphonic acid. The current thus produced from the reaction is monitored and used to
calculate the concentrations of glyphosate.

Electrode reaction:

- O
-
OH O O O
O HO
P NH P NH2 + H
O HO O
HO
Glyphosate Amidomethylphosphonic acid Glyoxylate

Energy System

Battery: A battery is a compact device consisting of two or more cells connected in series or
parallel. It stores chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand converts it into
electrical energy through redox reactions.

Components of battery: The basic unit in battery is electrochemical cell. It consists of four major
components.

1. Anode: electrode undergoes oxidation by releasing the electrons to the external circuit.
2. Cathode: the electrode undergoes reduction by accepting electrons from the external circuit.
3. Electrolyte: it is present in both cathode and anode compartments, the solution of acid, alkali
and high conductivity ionic salts are commonly used as electrolytes.
4. Separator: it is used to avoid the internal short circuiting and also helps to transfer the ions from
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anode to cathode or vice versa. Usually separators are organic polymers. Ex: cellulose,
polyolefin and nafion membranes.

Classification: Batteries are classified into three types

1) Primary batteries: In theses batteries, the chemical reactions are not reversible. So these
are not rechargeable. Ex:Zn-MnO2, Li-MnO2 batteries.
2) Secondarybatteries: In these batteries, the chemical reactions are reversible. So these are
rechargeable. Charging and discharging can be done many times before their failure.
Ex. Lead-acid, Ni-Cd batteries, Lithium ion battery.
3) Reserve batteries: In these batteries, one of the components is stored outside the battery
and incorporated into the battery whenever energy required. Usually electrolyte is stored
separately. These are used for long term storage.
Ex. Ag-MnO2

Lithium-ion battery: Construction:

Anode: Lithium incorporated graphite layer with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the binder
coated on copper current collector.
Cathode: Lithium incorporated transition metal oxide like LiCoO2 with conductive material and
binder, coated on aluminium current collector.
Electrolyte: Lithium salt (LiPF6) in propylene carbonate-ethylene carbonate (PC-EC)
Separator: Micro porous polypropylene film.

Battery Representation: LixC6 / Li+. C / LiPF6 in PC-EC / LiCoO2

Reactions:
Discharging
Anode: LixC6 6C+ xLi+ +xe-
Charging

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

Discharging
Cathode: Li1-xCoO2 + xLi++xe- LiCoO2
Charging

Discharging
Overall: Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6 LiCoO2 + 6C
Charging

Working:

 During discharging, Li+ ions generate at anode by oxidation diffuse to cathode, convert into
atoms and insert into the layers of metal oxide.
 During charging, Li+ ions generate at cathode diffuse to anode, convert into atoms and insert
into the layers of graphite.
 Thus in lithium ion battery, the cell reaction is merely the transfer of Li+ ions between the
electrodes through lithium electrolyte.
 The movement of free electrons from anode to cathode via external circuit creates a charge at
the positive current collector (cathode). The electrical current then flows through a device
being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector (anode).
 Each cell produces a potential of 3.6 – 3.7 v.

Advantages: High energy density, High voltage and less weight, more resistance to overcharge and
fast charging rate.

Applications: Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators, pacemakers, telecommunication

equipments, portable radios and TVs, laptops, computers, mobile phones and aerospace
applications.

Sodium-ion battery (SIB):

Sodium-ion battery (SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery analogous to the lithium-ion battery
(LIB), but uses sodium ions (Na+) as the charge carriers. Its working principle and cell
constructions are almost identical with those of commercially well-known lithium-ion battery types.
SIBs are currently evolving as a viable substitute for LIBs because of the abundant availability and
reasonable cost of sodium.

In SIBs, graphite electrodes cannot be used due to the bigger ionic radius of sodium ions compared
with that of lithium ions. Hence, suitable anode must be used for better performance. Usually, HC
electrodes are being used for that purpose.

Construction:

Anode: Sodium intercalated disordered carbon material consisting of amorphous structure (hard
carbon) with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) as the binder coated on aluminium current
collector.
Cathode: Sodium incorporated transition metal oxide like NaMnO2 with conductive material and
binder, coated on aluminium current collector.
Electrolyte: Non-aqueous/aqueous solvents (ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate) with sodium

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

salt (NaPF6).
Separator: Fiber-based separators such as glass fiber.

Battery Representation: NaxC6 / Na+. C / NaPF6 in PC/EC / NaMnO2

Reactions:
Discharging
Anode: NaxC6 6C+ xNa+ +xe-
Charging

Discharging
Cathode: Na1-xMnO2 + xNa++xe- NaMnO2
Charging

Discharging
Na1-xMnO2 + NaxC6 NaMnO2 + 6C
Charging

Working:

 During discharging, Na+ ions generate at anode by oxidation and diffuse to cathode, where
they convert into atoms and insert into the layers of metal oxide.
 During charging, Na+ ions generate at cathode and diffuse to anode, where they convert into
atoms and insert into the layers of hard carbon.
 Thus, in sodium ion battery, the cell reaction is merely the transfer of Na+ ions between the
electrodes through the electrolyte.
 The movement of free electrons from anode to cathode via external circuit creates a charge at
the positive current collector (cathode). The electrical current then flows through a device
being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current collector (anode).
 Each cell produces a potential of 2.3 – 2.5 V.

Advantages:

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

SIBs have the advantage of high stability, relatively high density with up to 240 Wh/kg, long life
span of 10–15 years, high efficiency (75%–90%), high natural abundance of sodium, low cost, fast
recharging.

Applications: They can be used in cellular phones, laptops, electric vehicles and power tools.

Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell (QDSSC):

Quantum dots sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the
absorbing photovoltaic material. They become a potential source to harvest sunlight for energy
conservation. Since the quantum confinement effect of the QDs results in unique optoelectronic
properties of the meta materials, it is playing an important role in designing smart photo detectors,
light-emitting diodes and solar cells.

Principle: The quantum dot sensitized solar cell consists of a mesoporous photo anode (TiO2 film),
sensitizer (QDs – typically made of Cadmium Selenide), electrolyte (polysulfide) and counter
electrode (Pt). When the cell is exposed to sunlight, photons are absorbed by QDs, resulting in the
formation of electron–hole pairs that are rapidly separated into electrons and holes at the interface
between the photo anode and quantum dot. The electrons are transferred into the photo-anode and
the holes are released by redox couples in the liquid electrolyte. Thus, voltage is generated due to
the conversion of solar energy into electricity.

Properties of QDs:

 High efficiency: QDSSCs can achieve high conversion efficiencies due to their ability to
absorb a broader range of the solar spectrum compared to conventional solar cells.

 Size tunability: The optical and electronic properties of QDs can be tuned by adjusting their
size, making them highly versatile for use in various applications.

 Low cost: QDSSCs are relatively low-cost as compared to other types of solar cells, which
makes them attractive for large-scale commercialization.

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 Applied Chemistry study material (CS-stream)– Module -1: Dr. N Suresha, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Phil., B.Ed.

 Environmental friendliness: Unlike traditional solar cells that use toxic materials, QDSSCs
use non-toxic materials, which make them environmentally friendly.

Applications of quantum dot sensitized solar cells:

 Portable devices: QDSSCs can be used to power portable electronic devices.

 Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV): QDSSCs can be integrated into the windows and
walls of buildings to generate electricity.

 Military applications: Due to their light weight, flexibility, and ability to operate in low-light
conditions.
 Space applications: QDSSCs could be used to power space vehicles and satellites.

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