Strain

Chapter OBJeCtIVeS
■ In engineering the deformation of a body is specified using the
concepts of normal and shear strain. In this chapter we will define
these quantities and show how they can be determined for
various types of problems.

2.1 Deformation
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s
shape and size. These changes are referred to as deformation, and they
may be highly visible or practically unnoticeable. For example, a rubber
band will undergo a very large deformation when stretched, whereas only
slight deformations of structural members occur when a building is
occupied. Deformation of a body can also occur when the temperature of
the body is changed. A typical example is the thermal expansion or
contraction of a roof caused by the weather.
In a general sense, the deformation will not be uniform throughout the
body, and so the change in geometry of any line segment within the body
may vary substantially along its length. Hence, to study deformation, we
will consider line segments that are very short and located in the
neighborhood of a point. Realize, however, that the deformation will also Note the before and after positions of three
depend on the orientation of the line segment at the point. For example, different line segments on this rubber
membrane which is subjected to tension. The
as shown in the adjacent photos, a line segment may elongate if it is vertical line is lengthened, the horizontal line
oriented in one direction, whereas it may contract if it is oriented in is shortened, and the inclined line changes its
another direction. length and rotates.
87
 88 Chapter 2 Strain

2.2 Strain
In order to describe the deformation of a body by changes in the lengths
of line segments and changes in the angles between them, we will develop
the concept of strain. Strain is actually measured by experiment, and once
the strain is obtained, it will be shown in the next chapter how it can be
related to the stress acting within the body.
L0 d

P P

2 L

Fig. 2–1

Normal Strain. If an axial load P is applied to the bar in Fig. 2–1, it

will change the bar’s length L0 to a length L. We will define the average
normal strain P (epsilon) of the bar as the change in its length
d (delta) = L - L0 divided by its original length, that is

L - L0
Pavg = (2–1)
L0

The normal strain at a point in a body of arbitrary shape is defined in a

similar manner. For example, consider the very small line segment ∆s
located at the point, Fig. 2–2. After deformation it becomes ∆s′, and the
change in its length is therefore ∆s′ - ∆s. As ∆s S 0, in the limit the
s normal strain at the point is therefore
Undeformed body

∆s′ - ∆s (2–2)
P = lim
P P ∆sS 0 ∆s
s¿

Deformed body
In both cases P (or Pavg) is a change in length per unit length, and it is pos-
Fig. 2–2 itive when the initial line elongates, and negative when the line contracts.

Units. As shown, normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, since it is a

ratio of two lengths. However, it is sometimes stated in terms of a ratio of
length units. If the SI system is used, where the basic unit for length is the
meter (m), then since P is generally very small, for most engineering
applications, measurements of strain will be in micrometers per meter
(mm>m), where 1 mm = 10-6 m. For experimental work, strain is
sometimes expressed as a percent. For example, a normal strain of 480(10-6)
can be reported as 480 mm>m, or 0.0480%. Or one can state the strain as
simply 480 m (480 “micros”).
 2.2 Strain 89

V V
p
—
2 u u

Undeformed body Deformed body Deformed body

(a) (b)

g g p
—
p
— 2
2 u
u
Positive shear strain g Negative shear strain g
(c) z 2

Fig. 2–3

Shear Strain. Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate

or contract, but they also cause them to change direction. If we select two
line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another, then the y
change in angle that occurs between them is referred to as shear strain. This
angle is denoted by g (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),
which are dimensionless. For example, consider the two perpendicular line x
segments at a point in the block shown in Fig. 2–3a. If an applied loading
(a)
causes the block to deform as shown in Fig. 2–3b, so that the angle between
the line segments becomes u, then the shear strain at the point becomes p
2

p
g = - u (2–3) z p
2 2
p x
2 y
Notice that if u is smaller than p>2, Fig. 2–3c, then the shear strain is
Undeformed
positive, whereas if u is larger than p>2, then the shear strain is negative. element
(b)
Cartesian Strain Components. We can generalize our definitions
of normal and shear strain and consider the undeformed element at a
( p  gxy)
point in a body, Fig. 2–4a. Since the element’s dimensions are very small, 2
its deformed shape will become a parallelepiped, Fig. 2–4b. Here the
normal strains change the sides of the element to (1  Pz)z
( p  gxz)
(1 + Px)∆x (1 + Py)∆y (1 + Pz)∆z 2
( p  gyz) (1  Px)x
which produces a change in the volume of the element. And the shear 2 (1  Py)y
strain changes the angles between the sides of the element to Deformed
p p p element
- gxy - gyz - gxz (c)
2 2 2
which produces a change in the shape of the element. Fig. 2–4
 90 Chapter 2 Strain

Small Strain Analysis. Most engineering design involves applications

for which only small deformations are allowed. In this text, therefore, we will
assume that the deformations that take place within a body are almost
infinitesimal. For example, the normal strains occurring within the material
are very small compared to 1, so that P V 1. This assumption has wide
practical application in engineering, and it is often referred to as a small
strain analysis. It can also be used when a change in angle, ∆u, is small, so
that sin ∆u ≈ ∆u, cos ∆u ≈ 1, and tan ∆u ≈ ∆u.

The rubber bearing support under this

2
concrete bridge girder is subjected to
both normal and shear strain. The
normal strain is caused by the weight
and bridge loads on the girder, and the
shear strain is caused by the horizontal
movement of the girder due to
temperature changes.

Im po rta nt po Ints
• Loads will cause all material bodies to deform and, as a result,
points in a body will undergo displacements or changes in
position.

• Normal strain is a measure per unit length of the elongation or

contraction of a small line segment in the body, whereas shear
strain is a measure of the change in angle that occurs between
two small line segments that are originally perpendicular to one
another.

• The state of strain at a point is characterized by six strain

components: three normal strains Px, Py, Pz and three shear strains
gxy, gyz, gxz. These components all depend upon the original
orientation of the line segments and their location in the body.

• Strain is the geometrical quantity that is measured using

experimental techniques. Once obtained, the stress in the body
can then be determined from material property relations, as
discussed in the next chapter.

• Most engineering materials undergo very small deformations,

and so the normal strain P V 1. This assumption of “small strain
analysis” allows the calculations for normal strain to be simplified,
since first-order approximations can be made about its size.
 2.2 Strain 91

EXAMPLE 2.1

Determine the average normal strains in the two wires in Fig. 2–5 if the ring
at A moves to A′.

3m 3m

B
C

4m
2

A
A¿ 20 mm
P 10 mm

Fig. 2–5

SOLUTION

Geometry. The original length of each wire is

LAB = LAC = 2(3 m)2 + (4 m)2 = 5 m

The final lengths are

LA′B = 2(3 m - 0.01 m)2 + (4 m + 0.02 m)2 = 5.01004 m

LA′C = 2(3 m + 0.01 m)2 + (4 m + 0.02 m)2 = 5.02200 m

Average Normal Strain.

LA′B - LAB 5.01004 m - 5 m

PAB = = = 2.01(10-3) m>m Ans.
LAB 5m

LA′C - LAC 5.02200 m - 5 m

PAC = = = 4.40(10-3) m>m Ans.
LAC 5m
 92 Chapter 2 Strain

EXAMPLE 2.2

When force P is applied to the rigid lever arm ABC in Fig. 2–6a, the arm
rotates counterclockwise about pin A through an angle of 0.05°. Determine
the normal strain in wire BD.
D SOLUTION I
P 300 mm
Geometry. The orientation of the lever arm after it rotates about point A
is shown in Fig. 2–6b. From the geometry of this figure,
C B A
400 mm 400 mm
a = tan - 1a b = 53.1301°
2 (a)
300 mm
Then
f = 90° - a + 0.05° = 90° - 53.1301° + 0.05° = 36.92°

For triangle ABD the Pythagorean theorem gives

LAD = 2(300 mm)2 + (400 mm)2 = 500 mm

Using this result and applying the law of cosines to triangle AB′D,

LB′D = 2L2AD + L2AB′ - 2(LAD) (LAB′) cos f

400 mm
= 2(500 mm)2 + (400 mm)2 - 2(500 mm) (400 mm) cos 36.92°
D
= 300.3491 mm
a 300 mm
P  LBD u  0.05 Normal Strain.
f
B
A LB′D - LBD
B¿ PBD =
C 400 mm LBD

(b) 300.3491 mm - 300 mm

= = 0.00116 mm>mm Ans.
300 mm
Fig. 2–6
SOLUTION II

Since the strain is small, this same result can be obtained by approximating
the elongation of wire BD as ∆LBD, shown in Fig. 2–6b. Here,

0.05°
∆LBD = uLAB = c a b (p rad) d (400 mm) = 0.3491 mm
180°
Therefore,

∆LBD 0.3491 mm
PBD = = = 0.00116 mm>mm Ans.
LBD 300 mm
 2.2 Strain 93

EXAMPLE 2.3

The plate shown in Fig. 2–7a is fixed connected along AB and held in y x
the horizontal guides at its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side
CD is given a uniform horizontal displacement of 2 mm, determine (a) D
the average normal strain along the diagonal AC, and (b) the shear A
strain at E relative to the x, y axes.
SOLUTION 150 mm
E
Part (a). When the plate is deformed, the diagonal AC becomes
AC′, Fig. 2–7b. The lengths of diagonals AC and AC′ can be found
from the Pythagorean theorem. We have B C 2
150 mm 2 mm
AC = 2 1 0.150 m2 2 + 1 0.150 m2 2 = 0.21213 m
(a)
2 2
AC′ = 2 10.150 m2 + 10.152 m2 = 0.21355 m
76 mm 76 mm
A D¿
Therefore the average normal strain along AC is
75 mm
AC′ - AC 0.21355 m - 0.21213 m u
1PAC 2 avg = =
AC 0.21213 m
E¿
75 mm
= 0.00669 mm>mm Ans.

Part (b). To find the shear strain at E relative to the x and y axes, B C¿
which are 90° apart, it is necessary to find the change in the angle at (b)
E. After deformation, Fig. 2–7b,
Fig. 2–7
u 76 mm
tan a b =
2 75 mm

p
u = 90.759° = a b 190.759° 2 = 1.58404 rad
180°

Applying Eq. 2–3, the shear strain at E is therefore the change in the
angle AED,

p
gxy = - 1.58404 rad = -0.0132 rad Ans.
2

The negative sign indicates that the once 90° angle becomes larger.

NOTE: If the x and y axes were horizontal and vertical at point E, then
the 90° angle between these axes would not change due to the
deformation, and so gxy = 0 at point E.
 94 Chapter 2 Strain

P RE LIMIN ARY PROB L EM S

P2–1. A loading causes the member to deform into the P2–4. A loading causes the block to deform into the
dashed shape. Explain how to determine the normal strains dashed shape. Explain how to determine the strains PAB,
PCD and PAB. The displacement ∆ and the lettered PAC, PBC, (gA)xy. The angles and distances between all
dimensions are known. lettered points are known.

B L
A L/2 C
y
2 

L 2L
B C
Prob. P2–1 B¿ C¿

P2–2. A loading causes the member to deform into the

dashed shape. Explain how to determine the normal strains
PCD and PAB. The displacement ∆ and the lettered
dimensions are known. u
x
A D

D Prob. P2–4

B C

L/2
A
P2–5. A loading causes the block to deform into the
2L L dashed shape. Explain how to determine the strains (gA)xy,
(gB)xy. The angles and distances between all lettered points
Prob. P2–2 are known.

P2–3. A loading causes the wires to elongate into the

dashed shape. Explain how to determine the normal strain
PAB in wire AB. The displacement ∆ and the distances
between all lettered points are known.

y
C B

B
u2


x
u1 A
A¿

Prob. P2–3 Prob. P2–5

 2.2 Strain 95

FUN DAMEN TA L PR O B L EM S

F2–1. When force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, F2–4. The triangular plate is deformed into the shape
point B displaces vertically downward through a distance of shown by the dashed line. Determine the normal strain
0.2 mm. Determine the normal strain in wire CD. along edge BC and the average shear strain at corner A
with respect to the x and y axes.
D

200 mm
400 mm 300 mm

y
A
B C 2
5 mm
400 mm
P A
x
B 3 mm
Prob. F2–1
F2–2. If the force P causes the rigid arm ABC to rotate 300 mm
clockwise about pin A through an angle of 0.02°, determine
the normal strain in wires BD and CE.

E C

D
600 mm Prob. F2–4
P
400 mm

A
B C F2–5. The square plate is deformed into the shape shown
600 mm 600 mm by the dashed line. Determine the average normal strain
along diagonal AC and the shear strain at point E with
respect to the x and y axes.
Prob. F2–2
F2–3. The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape of a
parallelogram shown by the dashed line. Determine the average
shear strain at corner A with respect to the x and y axes.
y y x
2 mm
D D C
C 4 mm

300 mm E
400 mm

B x A B
A 4 mm 300 mm
300 mm 3 mm 3 mm

Prob. F2–3 Prob. F2–5

 96 Chapter 2 Strain

P ROBLEMS

2–1. An air-filled rubber ball has a diameter of 150 mm. If 2–5. The pin-connected rigid rods AB and BC are inclined
the air pressure within it is increased until the ball’s at u = 30° when they are unloaded. When the force P is
diameter becomes 175 mm, determine the average normal applied u becomes 30.2°. Determine the average normal
strain in the rubber. strain in wire AC.
2–2. A thin strip of rubber has an unstretched length of
375 mm. If it is stretched around a pipe having an outer
diameter of 125 mm, determine the average normal strain in P
the strip.
B
2 2–3. If the load P on the beam causes the end C to be
displaced 10 mm downward, determine the normal strain in
wires CE and BD. u u
600 mm

D E

A C
4m
Prob. 2–5
P

A B C
2–6. The wire AB is unstretched when u = 45°. If a load is
applied to the bar AC, which causes u to become 47°,
3m 2m 2m determine the normal strain in the wire.

Prob. 2–3 2–7. If a horizontal load applied to the bar AC causes point
A to be displaced to the right by an amount ∆L, determine
the normal strain in the wire AB. Originally, u = 45°.
*2–4. The force applied at the handle of the rigid lever
causes the lever to rotate clockwise about the pin B through
an angle of 2°. Determine the average normal strain in each
wire. The wires are unstretched when the lever is in the
horizontal position. B
u

G F

200 mm 200 mm 300 mm L

300 mm
E
A B

C D
200 mm C A
H
L

Prob. 2–4 Probs. 2–6/7

 2.2 Strain 97

*2–8. The rectangular plate is subjected to the deformation 2–10. Part of a control linkage for an airplane consists of a
shown by the dashed line. Determine the average shear rigid member CB and a flexible cable AB. If a force is
strain gxy in the plate. applied to the end B of the member and causes it to rotate
by u = 0.5°, determine the normal strain in the cable.
Originally the cable is unstretched.

y u

B P

150 mm 3 mm
B

800 mm 2

200 mm

A C
A x

3 mm

Prob. 2–8 600 mm

Prob. 2–10

2–9. The square deforms into the position shown by the 2–11. Part of a control linkage for an airplane consists of a
dashed lines. Determine the shear strain at each of its rigid member CB and a flexible cable AB. If a force is
corners, A, B, C, and D, relative to the x, y axes. Side D′B′ applied to the end B of the member and causes a normal
remains horizontal. strain in the cable of 0.004 mm>mm, determine the
displacement of point B. Originally the cable is unstretched.

u
y B P

3 mm
D¿ B¿
B
D
800 mm

53 mm 50 mm
91.58
A C
C
x
A C¿
50 mm
8 mm 600 mm

Prob. 2–9 Prob. 2–11

 98 Chapter 2 Strain

*2–12. Determine the shear strain gxy at corners A and B *2–16. The nylon cord has an original length L and is tied
if the plastic distorts as shown by the dashed lines. to a bolt at A and a roller at B. If a force P is applied to the
roller, determine the normal strain in the cord when the
2–13. Determine the shear strain gxy at corners D and C if roller is at C, and at D. If the cord is originally unstrained
the plastic distorts as shown by the dashed lines. when it is at C, determine the normal strain P′D when the
roller moves to D. Show that if the displacements ∆ C and ∆ D
are small, then P′D = PD − PC.

y
12 mm
4 mm

3 mm 8 mm
2 B D
C C
P
300 mm B C D

2 mm x
D A
400 mm L
5 mm

Probs. 2–12/13

2–14. The material distorts into the dashed position

shown. Determine the average normal strains Px, Py and the
shear strain gxy at A, and the average normal strain along Prob. 2–16
line BE.

2–15. The material distorts into the dashed position

shown. Determine the average normal strains along the
diagonals AD and CF.

2–17. A thin wire, lying along the x axis, is strained such

that each point on the wire is displaced ∆x = kx2 along the
y x axis. If k is constant, what is the normal strain at any
point P along the wire?
15 mm 30 mm
C D
50 mm
B

200 mm
E
50 mm P
x
x
A 150 mm F x

Probs. 2–14/15 Prob. 2–17

 2.2 Strain 99

2–18. The block is deformed into the position shown by *2–20. The guy wire AB of a building frame is originally
the dashed lines. Determine the average normal strain along unstretched. Due to an earthquake, the two columns of the
line AB. frame tilt u = 2°. Determine the approximate normal strain
in the wire when the frame is in this position. Assume the
columns are rigid and rotate about their lower supports.

30 mm u 2 u 2
15 mm 70 mm
30 mm
55 mm
B¿
B
B
2
110 mm 100 mm
3m

x
A A
70 mm 1m 4m
30 mm

Prob. 2–18
Prob. 2–20

2–19. Nylon strips are fused to glass plates. When

moderately heated the nylon will become soft while the 2–21. The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape
glass stays approximately rigid. Determine the average shown by the dashed lines. Determine the average normal
shear strain in the nylon due to the load P when the strain along diagonal AC, and the average shear strain at
assembly deforms as indicated. corner A relative to the x, y axes.

y 6 mm
400 mm
2 mm 2 mm 2 mm
6 mm
D C
3 mm P

5 mm
300 mm
3 mm

5 mm 2 mm
3 mm x
x A B
400 mm 3 mm

Prob. 2–19 Prob. 2–21

 100 Chapter 2 Strain

2–22. The corners B and D of the square plate are given 2–26. If the unstretched length of the bowstring is
the displacements indicated. Determine the shear strains at 887.5 mm, determine the average normal strain in the string
A and B. when it is stretched to the position shown.

y
450 mm
A

16 mm
2 150 mm
D B
x 450 mm
3 mm

3 mm 16 mm

Prob. 2–26
C
16 mm 16 mm

Prob. 2–22 2–27. The triangular plate is fixed at its base, and its apex A
is given a horizontal displacement of 5 mm. Determine the
shear strain, gxy, at A.

*2–28. The triangular plate is fixed at its base, and its apex A
2–23. Determine the shear strain gxy at corners A and B if is given a horizontal displacement of 5 mm. Determine the
the plate distorts as shown by the dashed lines. average normal strain Px along the x axis.
*2–24. Determine the shear strain gxy at corners D and C 2–29. The triangular plate is fixed at its base, and its apex A
if the plate distorts as shown by the dashed lines. is given a horizontal displacement of 5 mm. Determine the
average normal strain Px′ along the x′ axis.
2–25. Determine the average normal strain that occurs
along the diagonals AC and DB.

y
5 mm 45 800 mm
2 mm
4 mm
2 mm B 45
x¿ A A¿
C
45 5 mm

300 mm

800 mm
2 mm x
D A
400 mm
3 mm x

Probs. 2–23/24/25 Probs. 2–27/28/29

 2.2 Strain 101

2–30. The rubber band AB has an unstretched length of 1 *2–32. The nonuniform loading causes a normal strain in
m. If it is fixed at B and attached to the surface at point A′, p
the shaft that can be expressed as Px = k sin a xb , where
determine the average normal strain in the band. The surface L
is defined by the function y = (x2) m, where x is in meters. k is a constant. Determine the displacement of the center C
and the average normal strain in the entire rod.

y
y x2 C

A B
L L
— — 2
A¿ 2 2

Prob. 2–32
1m

A x
B
1m

Prob. 2–30
2–33. The fiber AB has a length L and orientation u. If its
ends A and B undergo very small displacements u A and vB
respectively, determine the normal strain in the fiber when
it is in position A′ B′.

2–31. The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape

shown by the dashed lines. Determine the average normal
strain along diagonal BD, and the average shear strain at
y
corner B relative to the x, y axes.
B¿
vB
B
L
u
y x
A uA A¿
6 mm
400 mm Prob. 2–33

2 mm 2 mm
6 mm
D C

2–34. If the normal strain is defined in reference to the

300 mm final length ∆s′, that is,

2 mm ∆s′ - ∆s
P= = lim a b
x ∆s′ S 0 ∆s′
A B
400 mm 3 mm instead of in reference to the original length, Eq. 2–2, show
that the difference in these strains is represented as a
Prob. 2–31 second-order term, namely, P - P= = P P′.