Refrigeration

UNIT 7 REFRIGERATION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives

7.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

7.2.1 Refrigerants
7.2.2 Performance of VCRS
7.2.3 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
7.2.4 Wet and Dry Compressions

7.3 Gas Compression Refrigeration System

7.3.1 Brayton or Joule Cycle
7.3.2 Reversed Brayton Cycle
7.3.3 Aircraft Cooling System

7.4 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

7.5 Steam Jet Refrigeration System
7.6 Illustrative Examples
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Words
7.9 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration is the process of maintaining a body, or a zone in space, at a
temperature lower than the local surroundings temperature. Hence, refrigeration
requires the continuous transfer of heat from the body, or the zone, to be
‘refrigerated’ to the surroundings at a relatively high temperature. It has been
explained in Unit 6 that such a job can be done by a ‘Reversed Heat Engine’ (a
refrigerator). However, this is not the only method available for providing
refrigeration. There are several other methods used in practice. The most Commonly
used methods are :
(a) Vapour Compression Refrigeration System,
(b) Gas Compression Refrigeration System,
(c) Vapour Absorption Refrigeration, and
(d) Steam Jet Refrigeration System.
In this unit, while the first two systems in the above list are discussed in detail from
the view point of thermodynamics, only a brief mention of the working of the other
systems, their application advantages and disadvantages is made.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand the working of various refrigeration systems and the
principles on which they operate,
• represent the basic cycles on T – s and p – h diagrams and read the
properties at each state using the property Tables or Charts,
• analyse a cycle and evaluate the performance of the system using the
principles of thermodynamics studied earlier,

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• distinguish between wet compression and dry compression cycles,

• know the effect of irreversibilities on the system performance especially
on the performance of the compressor in a VCRS,
• distinguish between VCRS and VARS,
• understand and analyse air cycle refrigeration system operating on
reversed Brayton cycle,
• describe and analyse an aircraft cooling system, and
• understand the working of steam jet refrigeration system.

7.2 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
A vapour compression refrigeration system is used in majority of cases where
refrigeration is required for different purposes. Its popularity is mainly because of its
high performance characteristics and trouble free working for long periods of time.
Shown in Figure 7.1 is the schematic of a simple vapour compression refrigeration
system (VCRS). This is essentially the same as that in Figure 6.3 that explains the
working of a refrigerator. Here, the working substance, called the ‘refrigerant’
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle while transferring heat from the low temperature
reservoir (refrigerated body or zone) to the high temperature reservoir (surroundings)
with the help of external work.
QH
3

Condenser 2

Exp.
Device Compressor WC

4
Evaporator

1
QL

Figure 7.1 : Schematic of a Simple VCRS

The VCRS, shown in Figure 7.1, has four major components, namely, the
EVAPORATOR, the COMPRESSOR, the CONDENSER and the EXPANSION
DEVICE. The ideal or the basic cycle on which such a system operates is shown in
Figure 7.2 on both T – s and p – h diagrams.

T P

PH
3
TH 2 PH
3 2
TH
PL
4
TL PL 1
4 1 TL

S h

Figure 7.2 : VCR Cycle (Wet Compression)

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 Refrigeration

Wet refrigerant vapour at state 1 from the evaporator enters the compressor. This
vapour is compressed reversibly and adiabatically to saturated vapour at state 2. Let
the work required by the compressor be W. At state 2 the pressure is equal to the
saturation pressure of the refrigerant corresponding to the condenser temperature. The
high pressure vapour at state 2 is condensed to saturated liquid at the same pressure
as it passes through the condenser and let QH be the heat transferred from the
refrigerant to the surroundings at TH. The saturated liquid at state 3 is then throttled
through the expansion device to low quality vapour at state 4. At state 4 the pressure
of the refrigerant vapour corresponds to its saturation pressure at the evaporator
temperature. This low quality vapour, as it flows through the evaporator, picks up
heat to maintain the refrigerated space at a temperature TL, and then leaves it at state 1
as high quality vapour. Let QL be heat transferred to the refrigerant at the evaporator.
7.2.1 Refrigerants
The design of a VCRS is greatly influenced by the properties of the refrigerant used
in the system. The most widely used refrigerants are the halocarbons of the FREON
family. The chemical composition of each halocarbon in the above family is
identified by the number ascribed to it. For example, the commonly used refrigerant
in the domestic refrigerators is FREON-12 or R-12 which is nothing but ‘dichloro
difluoro methane (CCI2F2)’. Similarly, FREON-22 or R-22 which is commonly used
in window – airconditioners is ‘manochloro difluoro methane (CHCIF2)’. The other
refrigerants in the family are : R-11, R-13, R-14, R-22, R-113 and R-114. The
selection of the refrigerant depends upon the evaporator temperature needed, the type
of compressor used in the system and the capacity of the system.
It is not always the halocarbons that are used as refrigerants. Many inorganic
substances such as NH3, H2O, Air, CO2 and SO2 are also used as refrigerants in
certain specific situations.
Properties of the refrigerants are available in the form of tables or charts in hand
books on refrigeration and air-conditioning.
Given in Tables 7.1 and 7.2, at the end of this Unit, are the extracts of property
Tables for Freon-12 and Ammonia.
7.2.2 Performance of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
The performance of a VCRS is expressed, as explained in Unit 6, by its Coefficient of
Performance (COP).
(Heat transfer to the refrigerant at the evaporator)
COP =
Work input

QL
or, COP = ...
W
(7.1)
Applying First Law to the cycle
W = QH − QL

QL
and hence, COP = ...
(QH − QL )
(7.2)
The following relations that give the magnitudes of heat and work interactions my be
obtained by the application of SFEE (based on unit mass) to the four components of
the VCRS. The state points marked on the schematic (Figure 7.1) and the cycle
diagram (Figure 7.2), are compatible.
QL = h1 − h4 ...
(7.3)

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W = h2 − h1 ...
(7.4)
QH = h2 − h3 ...
(7.5)
h3 = h4 ...
(7.6)
Using Eqs. (7.1) to (7.6) it may be further written that :
(h1 − h4 )
COP = ...
(h2 − h1 )
(7.7)
(h1 − h4 )
= ...
[(h2 − h3 ) − (h1 − h4 )]
(7.8)
Refrigerating Effect
In refrigeration technology, the cooling produced per kg refrigerant is referred
to as the refrigerating effect. Therefore,
Ref. effect = (h1 – h4) kJ/kg
Capacity of the VCRS
The capacity of a VCRS, expressed in kW, is the rate at which cooling is
produced in the evaporator, therefore,
Capacity = (Mass flow rate of the refrigerant ) × ( Ref. effect).
i.e. Capacity = m&× ( h1 − h4 ) kW ...
(7.9)
where m is in kg/s and h is in kJ/kg.
Ton of Refrigeration
This is the unit of capacity of the refrigeration system commonly used in
British System of Units. A refrigeration system is said to have a capacity of
one ton if it can provide cooling at a rate of 200 BTU/min. This is so because a
system cooling at this rate can completely freeze one ton (2000 lbs) of water at
32oF to ice at the same temperature in a day (24 hours). This can easily be
checked assuming the enthalpy of fusion of water to be 144 BTU/lb.
(cooling produced)
capacity =
(time taken)
(2000 lb × 144 BTU/lb)
1 ton capacity =
24 × 60 min
= 200 BTU/min
Because of its long time continuous use in the refrigeration industry, this unit
of capacity has come to stay and is used widely everywhere irrespective of the
system of units used. It is advised not to use this unit of capacity in SI system
of Units. Here the capacity is best expressed in kW. However, to have a feel
for the relative magnitudes of ‘1 ton’ and ‘1 kW’ the following conversion
factor can be used.
1 ton = 200 BTU/min = 3.5 kW.
Compressor Power
This is the power to be supplied to the system from the surroundings.
Power = (mass flow rate of the refrigerant) × (work per kg)

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 Refrigeration

i.e. P = m&× ( h2 − h1 ) kW ...

(7.10)
Where m is in kg/s and h is in kJ/kg.
SAQ 1
The COP of a wet compression ideal VCRS of capacity 5 tons is given to be 3.
Work supplied to the compressor is 20 kJ/kg. Find the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant and the refrigerating effect.

7.2.3 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

The simple VCRS shown in Figure 7.1 is irreversible in nature mainly because of the
throttling process 3-4. If this process could be replaced by a reversible expander and
the work obtained by this could supplement the work required by the compressor we
get a reversed Carnot cycle operating between TH and TL. Under such circumstances
the COP of the refrigeration cycle shall be the maximum. Such a reversed Carnot
cycle is shown in the T – s diagram of Figure 7.3. In this Figure while 1-2-3-4*-1 is
the Carnot cycle,
1-2-3-4-1 is the corresponding simple VCRS, both operating between the same
temperature limits of TH and TL. The COP of the Carnot cycle has to be more than
that of the VCRS because of both increased refrigerating effect [from (h1 – h4) to (h1
– h4*)] and decreased work input

3 2
TH

TL 1
4* 4

Figure 7.3 : Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

from (h2 – h1) to [(h2 – h1) – (h3 – h4)].

The Carnot cycle is a reversible engine and hence the ratio of heat transfers is equal
to the ratio of the condensing and evaporating temperatures.
By its definition,
QL
COP =
QH − QL

1
=
QH
−1
QL
Replacing the ratio of heat transfer by the ratio of temperatures and rearranging,
TL
COPcarnot = COPmax = ...
(TH − TL )
(7.11)
No refrigeration cycle operating between given TH and TL can be thought of as a
model of perfect refrigeration cycle, it is impracticable as the work obtained by
expanding the high pressure liquid in the expander is so insignificant that it does not

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warrant the use of the expander at an additional cost and added problems of its
operation and maintenance.
In actual practice, while a short capillary tube can do the job of expansion in small
VCRS, a simple expansion valve does the same job in large VCRS. It is for this
reason that attempts are not made to replace them by expanders.
SAQ 2
(a) What is the maximum COP of a VCRS operating between an evaporator
temperature of – 3oC and a condenser temperature of 27oC.
(b) Why is reversed Carnot cycle not considered as the ideal cycle for a
VCRS?

7.2.4 Wet and Dry Compressions

The basic or ideal cycle for the VCRS shown in Figure 7.2 is called the ‘Wet
Compression Cycle’ because the condition of vapour at inlet to the compressor is
wet. Shown in Figure 7.4 is the basic cycle on T – s and p – h diagrams for the ‘Dry
Compression Cycle’. Here the vapour enters the compressor as saturated vapour at
the evaporator temperature. The dry compression is normally preferred mainly for the
following two reasons :
(a) The compressor efficiency is high, and
(b) No damage to the compressor by the entering slugs of liquid.

T PH P
2

3 3 2
TH PH

PL T2
TH
TL PL 1
4 1 4
TL

Figure 7.4 : Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle (Dry Compression)

In the absence of any specific information, in the analysis of a simple VCRS, the
system is assumed to work on basic or ideal dry compression cycle shown in Figure
7.4. In such a case the vapour at entry to the compressor is saturated vapour at the
evaporator temperature and the compression of this vapour to state 2 is through
reversible and adiabatic compression in the compressor. Also, at state 2 the pressure
is the saturation pressure of the refrigerant corresponding to the condenser
temperature.
In actual practice the cycles do not strictly follow the basic cycles because of
irrversibilities. Also many modifications are made on the basic or ideal cycles to
improve the system performance. Explanation of all these improved cycles is beyond
the scope of this unit and hence the reader is advised to look into standard books on
refrigeration for further details if required.
SAQ 3
Show on T – s and p – h diagrams the effect of irreversibilities on compressor
work. Express adiabatic efficiency of the compressor in terms of enthalpies.

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 Refrigeration

7.3 GAS COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
Gas compression refrigeration system is mainly used in liquefaction of gases. In such
a case the gas to be liquefied is compressed to high pressures through multistage
compression, cooled in heat exchangers at constant pressure, throttled to very low
pressures and the resulting liquid and vapour are separated. A particular type of this
refrigeration system with air as the working substance, known as ‘air cycle
refrigeration system’ is a popular system used in cooling aircraft cabins. Such a
system works on reversed Brayton or Joule Cycle-Brayton Cycle being the ideal
cycle on which a closed cycle gas turbine power plant works.
7.3.1 Brayton or Joule Cycle
The Brayton or the Joule Cycle, as already mentioned, is the ideal cycle on which a
closed cycle gas turbine power plant operates. The operation of the plant is explained
in Unit 6 with the help of the schematic diagram in Figure 6.2. The same is
reproduced here in Figure 7.5. Figure 7.6 gives the cycle, on T – s diagram, on which
the plant operates.
QH
3 2

Heater
Turbine

W T− W C
WC WT

Compressor Cooler
4

1
QL
Figure 7.5 : Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant

This is the Brayton or Joule Cycle. The states of air marked in the schematic and
cycle diagrams are compatible. The Brayton Cycle, as shown in Figure 7.6, consists
of the following process : 1 – 2, reversible adiabatic compression; 2 – 3, reversible
constant pressure heating; 3 – 4, reversible adiabatic expansion and 4 – 1 reversible
constant pressure cooling. The heat transfer to the system is QH and the net work
output of the system is (WT – WC).

T
3

WT

QH
4
2

WC
1

S
Figure 7.6 : Brayton Cycle

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7.3.2 Reversed Brayton Cycle

While Figure 7.7 shows the schematic of the air cycle refrigeration system, Figure 7.8
shows the cycle on which the system works. It is easy to comprehend from these
figures that they are exactly the same as those in Figures 7.5 and 7.6, but for the
directions of heat and work interactions. It is for this reason that the ideal cycle on
which air cycle refrigeration works is named as the ‘reversed Brayton or Joule
Cycle’. QH
3
2

Turbine Compr.

WT WC WC - WT

4
1
QL

Figure 7.7 : Air Cycle Refrigeration System

T 2

3
TH

TL
1

Figure 7.8 : Reversed Brayton Cycle

Air leaving the refrigerated space at state 1 is compressed to state 2 reversibly and
adiabatically. The compressed air is then cooled at constant pressure, Ph, to state 3 by
passing the air through the cooler. The air at state 3 is then expanded reversibly and
adiabatically in the turbine to state 4. The work output of the turbine, WT, aids the
compressor to the extent it can, thereby reducing the net work to be supplied from
outside from WC to (WC – WT). Low pressure, low temperature air at state 4 enters the
space to be refrigerated to pick up the heat to maintain the refrigerated space at a
temperature corresponding to state 1.
Here, per kg air, the magnitudes of heat and work are,
QL = h1 − h4 = c p (t1 − t4 ) ...
(7.12)
WC = h2 − h1 = c p (t2 − t1 ) ...
(7.13)
QH = h2 − h3 = c p (t2 − t3 ) ...
(7.14)
and WT = h3 − h4 = c p (t3 − t4 ) ...
(7.15)

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γ γ
⎛ ph ⎞ ⎛ T2 ⎞ γ − 1 ⎛ T3 ⎞ γ − 1
Also, ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ...
⎝ pl ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T4 ⎠
(7.16)
QL (T1 − T4 )
COP = = ...
(WC − WT ) [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
(7.17)
Refrigeration capacity = m&c p (T1 − T4 ) ...
(7.18)
Compressor power = m&c p (T2 − T1 ) ...
(7.19)
The above cycle is only an ideal cycle and hence the irreversibilities in the
compressor and turbine are not considered. In actual practice, because of
irreversibilities the temperatures at the end of compression and expansion increases,
leading to the decrease in COP of the system.
SAQ 4
(a) An airconditioning system operates on reversed Brayton cycle
maintaining the cold room at 20oC while the surroundings are at 40oC.
Show the cycle on T – s diagram and identify the states corresponding to
the above two temperatures.
(b) Air enters the compressor of an ideal air cycle refrigeration system at 1
bar, 20oC. The discharge pressure from the compressor is 3 bar. Find the
temperature of air at the exit of the compressor.

7.3.3 Aircraft Cooling System

The COP of the air cycle refrigeration system is low. In spite of this, it is used in air
craft cooling as it has the advantage of lower weight compared to an equivalent
capacity vapour refrigeration system and also because there is no need for an
additional compressor for the cooling system as the required compressed air can be
bled from the main compressor of the jet engine.

Air from

engine Heat
compr. exchanger

Fan

Air from
surroundings

Figure 7.9 : Aircraft Cooling System

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Shown in Figure 7.9 is the schematic of a simple system used for cooling aircraft
cabins. Air bled from the jet engine compressor is passed through the heat exchanger
cooled by the outside air. This cooled high pressure air is then expanded in a small
turbine. The work from the turbine can be used to run the fan that sucks the air over
the heat exchanger. The air emerging out of the turbine at low temperature is passed
through the cabin. The by-pass line is used for temperature control.

7.4 VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
Shown in Figure 7.10 is the schematic of a simple vapour absorption refrigeration
system (VARS). A careful perusal of the figure reveals that the VARS system is
essentially the same as the simple VCRS, except that the compressor in the latter is
replaced by the components inside the dotted boundary in the schematic of the
former. Hence, a VARS can be viewed as a VCRS in which the compressor is
replaced by the absorber – generator assembly. In the VARS the work to be supplied
for the liquid pump is insignificantly small compared to the work required by the
compressor in a VCRS – a distinct advantage of the VARS. But, a large amount of
heat required to be supplied in the generator leads to poor performance of the VARS.
The VARS can hence be used advantageously and economically only in such cases
where either waste heat is available as a by-product or low grade energy such as solar
energy is used for providing cooling.
The working of the VARS is explained briefly with the help of the schematic diagram
in Figure 7.10.
The working substance in the system is a refrigerant – absorbent solution. The
refrigerant and absorbent selected are such that the refrigerant is a low boiling point
liquid and that it has a high affinity to the absorbent.

QC
QG

Generator

Condenser

Expn.
Device
Liquid
pump
Reducing
QE valve WP
QA

Evaporator Absorber

Figure 7.10 : Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

A strong refrigerant – absorbent solution (rich in the former) is heated in the

generator. Let the heat transfer in the generator be QG. The refrigerant vapour leaving
the generator at high pressure is cooled and condensed in the water cooled condenser.
Let QC be the heat transferred from the refrigerant in the condenser. The liquid
refrigerant from the condenser is throttled through the expansion device. Low quality
refrigerant vapour entering the evaporator picks up heat (QE) from it to become
saturated vapour and thereby produces the required cooling as in the VCRS. The low
pressure, low temperature vapour leaving the evaporator enters the water cooled
absorber where it meets the weak cool solution from the generator, the pressure
difference between the generator and the absorber being maintained by the pressure
reducing valve (The generator and condenser are on the high-pressure side of the
system, while the evaporator and the absorber are on the low pressure side). The

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refrigerant vapour is absorbed by the weak solution and the resulting strong solution
is then pumped to the generator through the liquid to liquid heat exchanger. This heat
exchanger is an important component in the system. In the heat exchanger heat is
transferred from the hot but weak solution coming from the generator to the strong
solution going to the generator. Thus, the heat exchanger ensures that low
temperature weak solution enters the absorber to improve its performance, and high
temperature strong solution enters the generator to decrease the heat transfer in it,
both contributing to the improvement in performance of the system.
The COP of the system is given by
QE
COP =
(WP + QG )
The COP is low because although WP is very small for a given QE, the QG required is
very large.
In the simple system explained above it is assumed that pure refrigerant vapour
leaves the generator to be condensed in the condenser. This is barely a fact in
practice. The vapour leaving the generator is only rich in the refrigerant component.
It also carries a small fraction of absorbent. This absorbent also gets condensed in the
condenser and when it enters the throttle valve gives rise to several problems in the
expansion device and the evaporator. Hence in the actual system provision must be
made to rectify the vapour leaving the generator to assure that only refrigerant vapour
leaves the generator and the absorbent vapours are separated, condensed and returned
back to the generator. This is accomplished by installing a rectifying equipment
(analyzer and a rectifier) on the generator.
Among the various refrigerant-absorbent combinations used in VARS the most
important commercial combination has been the Ammonia-water combination in
which ammonia is the refrigerant. A VARS working with this combination is called
the Aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration system.
Another popular combination from the air-conditioning point is the water-Lithium
Bromide combination in which water is the refrigerant.
7.4.1 Maximum COP of the VARS
If the absorption system were to operate under ideal conditions then its COP shall be
the maximum. To imagine such an ideal situation all processes must be assumed to be
reversible. The system operates continuously (in a cycle) with five interactions:
Heat transfer QG to the system at generator temperature TG;
Heat transfer QE to the system at evaporator temperature TE;
Heat transfer QC from the system at condenser temperature TC;
Heat transfer QA from the system at absorber temperature TA;
Work transfer WP to the system at the pump.
As the condenser and the absorber are cooled by the water from the surroundings, for
Ideal conditions, TC = TA = TO the ambient temperature, and the net heat transfer to
the surroundings = QO where
Qo = QC + Q A ..
. (i)
Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the system
Qo = QG + QE + WP ..
. (ii)
If the system were to be working reversibly the net entropy change of the system and
surroundings would be zero. There can be no change in entropy of the working

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substance as it undergoes a thermodynamic cycle. Hence the net entropy change of

the surroundings must be equal to zero.
⎛ QG ⎞ ⎛ QE ⎞ ⎛ Qo ⎞
i.e. ⎜− ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟+⎜ ⎟=0 ...
⎝ TG ⎠ ⎝ TE ⎠ ⎝ To ⎠
(iii)
Substituting for QO in (iii) from (ii) and neglecting WP as small,
⎛ QG ⎞ ⎛ QE ⎞ ⎛ QG + QE ⎞
⎜− ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟+⎜ ⎟=0 ...
⎝ TG ⎠ ⎝ TE ⎠ ⎝ To ⎠
(iv)
Eq. (iv) can be simplified and rearranged as
QE ⎡ TG − To ⎤ ⎡ TE ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ..
QG ⎣ TG ⎦ ⎣ To − TE ⎦
. (v)
In Eq. (v) while the term on the left hand side is the COP of the system, the first term
on the right side is the Carnot efficiency of a heat engine operating between the
Generator and the ambient temperature and the second term is the COP of a Carnot
refrigeration system operating between the evaporator and the ambient temperatures.
Thus, the maximum COP of an absorption system is equal to the product of the
Carnot efficiency of a heat engine operating between TG and TO and the COP of a
Carnot refrigerator operating between TE and TO.
SAQ 5
What is the maximum COP of an absorption refrigeration system, if it has to
maintain an evaporator at – 3oC, while having heat transfer from a high
temperature reservoir at 127oC at a place where the ambient temperature is
27oC?

7.5 STEAM JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

This system, also called a flash cooling system, is generally used for chilling water.
The system turns out to be an economical proposition, in comparison to VCRS, in
such situations where steam, to be used in the ejector of the system, is available
cheaply in large quantities.
Figure 7.11 shows the schematic of a steam jet refrigeration system.
Ejector
Steam To
Condenser

Flash
Chamber
Cooling
coil Make up
water Chilled
water

Pump

Figure 7.11 : Steam Jet Refrigeration System

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 Refrigeration

Water to be chilled is sprayed in the flash chamber. This chamber is well insulated
and maintained at low pressure with the help of the steam ejector which continuously
removes the water vapour flashing in the chamber. Because the chamber is insulated,
the energy required for vapourising a part of spray water has to be supplied by the
non- vaporizing liquid part. Hence the temperature of liquid water in the flash
chamber decreases to provide the required chilled water. The chilled water is pumped
out to an external heat exchanger, through the cooling coils, where it cools the air to
be conditioned. The water from the cooing coils is again passed to the flash chamber.
As water vapour is being continuously removed from the flash chamber there is need
for supplying make up water to the system. The steam from the ejector is condensed
in a large condenser which is cooled by water from the local source. The condenser is
maintained at the required low pressure, normally sub-atmospheric, by wet and dry
pumps.

7.6 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 7.1
An ideal wet compression refrigeration cycle, with R-12 as the refrigerant,
operates between an evaporator temperature of – 10oC and a condenser
temperature of 40oC. Calculate the following :
(a) refrigerating effect,
(b) compressor work, and
(c) COP.
Solution
The system is operating on the cycle in Figure 7.2, where TH = 40oC and
TL = − 10oC. The required properties of R-12 can be read from Table 7.1.
h2 = hg at 40oC = 203.05 kJ/kg
h3 = hf at 40oC = 74.53 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 74.53 kJ/kg
To find the value of h1 :
s2 = sg at 40oC = 0.6820 = s1.
But s1 = [(1 – x1) sf + x1 sg] at – 10oC
∴ 0.6820 = (1 − x1 ) × 0.1079 + x1 × 0.7014 or x1 = 0.967
Now, h1 = [(1 − x1 ) h f + x1 hg ] at – 10oC

h1 = 0.033 × 26.85 + 0.967 × 183.06 = 177.9 kJ/kg

(a) Ref. effect = h1 − h4 = 177.9 − 74.53 = 103.37 kJ/kg
(b) Comp. work = h2 − h1 = 203.05 − 177.9 = 25.15 kJ/kg
Ref. effect 103.37
(c) COP = = = 4.11
Comp. work 25.15
Example 7.2
(a) What is the maximum COP for a refrigeration system operating between
– 10oC and 40oC?
(b) If the system in 7.2(a) is operating with R-12 as the refrigerant, find the
refrigerating effect and the compressor work.
(c) Compare the results of (a) and (b) with those of Example 7.1.
Solution

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(a) For maximum COP the system must be operating in a reversible cycle,
i.e. on a reversed Carnot cycle. In such a case,
TL
COP = ...
TH − TL
(7.20)
273 − 10
= = 5.26
40 + 10
(b) The cycle can be assumed to be same as 1-2-3-4*-1 in Figure 7.3.
(h1 − h4* )
Also COP = 5.26 = ...
[(h2 − h1 ) − (h3 − h4* )]
(7.21)
where, h1, h2 and h3 have the same values as in Example 7.1.
Substituting these in the above relation,
(177.9 − h4* )
5.26 =
[(203.5 − 177.9) − (74.53 − h4* )]

∴ h4* = 69.53 kJ/kg .

Ref. effect = h1 − h4* = 177.9 − 69.53 = 108.37 kJ/kg

Ref. effect 108.37
Net work = = = 20.6 kJ/kg
COP 5.26
(c) The results of Examples 7.1and 7.2 are presented in the following table :
Example 7.1 Example 7.2
COP 4.11 5.26
Ref. effect (kJ/kg) 103.37 108.37
Work Input (kJ/kg) 25.15 20.6

The above table reveals that while the ref. effect and COP in Example
7.2 are greater than those in Example 7.1, the work input is smaller. The
difference between the two is because while the cycle in Example 7.2 is
reversible, the cycle in Example 7.1 is not.
Example 7.3
Re-do Example 7.1 assuming dry compression, and that the enthalpy after
compression is 209.4 kJ/kg.
Solution
The T – s diagram of Figure 7.4 may be used for the solution of this problem.
Reading the required properties from the property table :
h1 = hg at – 10oC = 183.06 kJ/kg
h2 = 209.4 kJ/kg (from data)
h3 = hf at 40oC = 74.53 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 74.53 kJ/kg
(a) Ref. effect = h1 – h4 = 183.06 – 74.53 = 108.53 kJ/kg
(b) Comp. work = h2 – h1 = 209.4 – 183.06 = 26.34 kJ/kg.
Ref. effect 108.37
(c) COP = = = 4.12
Comp. work 26.34

18
 Refrigeration

Example 7.4
Re-do Example 7.3 assuming compressor efficiency is 0.8.

T
2 PH
2S

3
TH

PL

TL
4 1

Figure 7.12 : Figure for Example 7.4

Solution
Here the compression process is not reversible as its efficiency is not 100 %,
but is given to be 80%. Hence, more work is required by the compressor during
this irreversible adiabatic compression process. The efficiency of a compressor
is defined as the ratio of the reversible adiabatic work of compression to the
actual work, the compression occurring in both the cases from the same initial
state to the same discharge pressure.
In Figure 7.12 while 1 – 2s is the reversible adiabatic compression process, 1 –
2 is the actual compression process.
Wrev.ad. (h2 s − h1 )
Thus, =
Wactual ( h2 − h1 )
State 2s is the same as in Example 7.3.
Therefore, Wrev.ad. = h2s – h1 = WExample 7.3 = 26.34 kJ/kg, and the values of h1
(from Table or from Example 7.3) = 183.06 kJ/kg.
26.34
0.8 = , or Wact = 32.955 kJ/kg
Wact
Ref. effect = h1 – h4 = same as in Example 7.3 = 108.53 kJ/kg.
Ref. effect 108.53
COP = = = 3.3
Comp. work 32.955
(This problem illustrates that the irreversibility in compression leads to
increased work of compression, thereby decreasing the COP of the system)
Example 7.5
An R-12 refrigeration plant of capacity 17.5 kW maintains a cold store at –
20oC. The condenser cooling water is available in plenty at 30oC. The enthalpy
of refrigerant vapour at the end of isentropic compression is 206 kJ/kg. Find :
(a) COP,
(b) mass flow rate of the refrigerant,
(c) compressor power, and
(d) compressor cylinder dimensions assuming stroke = 1.2 diameter,
speed = 900 rev/min and volumetric efficiency = 0.92.
Solution
Figure 7.4 can be assumed to represent the cycle on which the system operates.
Properties at various states can be found using the Table of properties.
h1 = 178.61 kJ/kg

19
Engineering Applications

h2 = 206 kJ/kg (from data)

h3 = 64.54 kJ/kg = h4
v1 = 0.10885 m3/kg
Ref. effect = h1 – h4 = 114.07 kJ/kg.
Comp. work = h2 – h1 = 27.39 kJ/kg.
Ref. effect 114.07
(a) COP = = = 4.16
Comp. work 27.39
capacity 17.5
(b) Mass flow rate = = = 0.153 kg/s
Ref. effect 114.07
(c) Comp. power = mass flow rate × comp. work/kg = 0.153 × 27.39 = 4.19
kW
(d) Speed of Comp. = 900 rev/min = 15 rev/s.
Specific volume of refrigerant vapour at entry to compr.
= v1 = 0.10885 m3/kg.
Actual volume of vapour handled per second = mass flow rate × v1
= 0.153 × 0.10885 = 0.01665
m3/s
As the compressor runs 15 times/second, the actual volume of vapour
handled by the compr. per cycle = 0.01665/15 m 3.
⎛π⎞
The piston displacement volume = ⎜ ⎟ d 2 × 1.2 d ,
⎝4⎠
where d is the diameter of the cylinder and 1.2 d is the stroke as per data
provided.
actual volume handled
Volumetric eff. = = 0.92
p.d. volume
0.01665
∴ 0.92 = 15 or d = 0.1085 m
π 2
d × 1.2 d
4
Diameter of the compressor cylinder = 10.85 cm.
Stroke length = 1.2 d = 1.2 × 11.18 = 13.02 cm.
Example 7.6
In an ideal air cycle refrigeration system air enters the compressor at 1 bar, 5oC
and then expanded in a turbine to 1 bar. The cooling capacity of the system is
10 kW. Assume air behaves as a perfect gas with cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and
cv = 0.718kJ/kg K. Find COP, mass flow rate of air and the power required by
the system.
Solution
Figure 7.8 represents the cycle on which the system operates.
From data, T1 = 273 + 5 = 278 K
PL = 1 bar, ph = 3 bar
T3 = 273 + 50 = 323 K
Capacity = 10 kW

20
 Refrigeration

cp 1.005
and γ= = = 1.4
cv 0.718

As process 1-2 is reversible and adiabatic,

γ −1
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ ph ⎞ γ
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ pL ⎠
(7.22)
0.4
⎛ 3 ⎞ 1.4
or, T2 = 278 ⎜ ⎟ = 380.5 K
⎝1⎠
Similarly for the reversible adiabatic expansion process 3-4,
γ −1
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ ph ⎞ γ
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟ ...
⎝ T4 ⎠ ⎝ pL ⎠
(7.23)

323
i.e. T4 = 0.4
= 236 K
(3) 1.4

Ref. effect = cp (T1 – T4) ...

(7.24)
= 1.005 (278 – 236) = 42.21 kJ/kg.
W = WC − WT

= c p (T2 − T1 ) − c p (T3 − T4 )

= 1.005 [(380.5 − 278) − (323 − 236)] = 15.6 kJ/kg

Ref. effect 42.21

COP = = = 2.7
Work 15.6
Capacity 10
Mass flow rate = = = 0.237 kg/s
Ref. effect 42.21

Power required = mass flow rate × work/kg

= 0.237 × 15.6 = 3.7 kW

Example 7.7
Re-do Example 7.6 assuming the efficiencies of compressor and turbine to be
0.7 and 0.75, respectively.
Solution
The cycle is shown in Figure 7.13. Here, while 1-2s-3-4s-1 is the ideal cycle,
1-2-3-4-1 is the actual cycle. Also states 2s and 4s are the same as states 2 and
4 in Example 7.6.
PH

2
T
2s

21
PL
B B

3
Engineering Applications

Figure 7.13 : Figure for Example 7.7

Hence, T1 = 278 K
T2s = 380.5 K
T3 = 323 K
and T4s = 236 K
W1 − 2 s (T2 s − T1 )
Comp. effect = =
W1 − 2 (T2 − T1 )

(380.5 − 278)
∴ 0.7 = or T2 = 424.4 K
(T2 − 278)

W3 − 4 (T3 − T4 )
Similarly, Turb. effect = =
W3 − 4 s (T3 − T4 s )

(323 − T4 )
∴ 0.75 = or T4 = 258 K
(323 − 236)

(T1 − T4 )
COP =
(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )

(278 − 258)
= = 0.245
(424.4 − 278) − (323 − 258)

Capacity 10
Mass flow rate = =
Ref. effect c p (T1 − T4 )

10
= = 0.497 kg/s
1.005 (278 − 258)

Power required = mass flow rate × work/kg

= 0.497 × c p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]

= 0.497 × 1.005 [(424.4 − 278) − (323 − 258)]

= 40.65 kW.

7.7 SUMMARY
• Most commonly used refrigerating system is the VCRS.
• Dry compression is preferred to wet compression.
• Refrigerating effect is the cooling produced per kg refrigerant.

22
 Refrigeration

• COP of a simple VCRS is equal to the ratio of refrigerating effect and the
compressor work per kg.
• Capacity of a refrigerating system is the rate at which cooling is produced and
is given by the product of refrigerating effect and the mass flow rate of the
refrigerant.
• A system is said to be of 1 ton capacity if it cools at a rate of 3.5 kW.
• Irreversibilities in a VCRS decrease the COP.
• Unless and otherwise mentioned an ideal vapour compression refrigeration
cycle is assumed to operate on dry compression with saturated vapour entering
the compressor.
• The COP of a VARS is low.
• VARS can be used advantageously wherever thermal energy is available in
plenty with negligible cost.
• The maximum COP of a VARS, maintaining an evaporator at TE at a place
where surroundings are at TO and having heat interaction with a high
temperature reservoir at TG is equal to the product of the Carnot efficiency of a
heat engine operating between TG and TO and the COP of a reversed Carnot
refrigerator operating between TE and TO.
• While R-12 is a very commonly used refrigerant in domestic refrigerators, R-
22 is used in window air-conditioners.
• Most VARS operate with ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the
absorbent.
• When VARS is used for air-conditioning normally water is used as the
refrigerant and lithium bromide is used as the absorbent.

7.8 KEY WORDS

Refrigeration : Process of maintaining temperature less than
the local surroundings temperature.
Refrigerator : A device that provides refrigeration.
Refrigerant : Working substance in a refrigerator.
VCRS : Vapour Compression Refrigeration System.
VARS : Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System.
Dry Compression : Vapour at entry to compressor of a VCRS is
saturated.
Wet Compression : Vapour at entry to compressor of a VCRS is
wet.
Refrigerating Effect : Cooling produced per kg refrigerant.
Capacity of Refrigerating : Rate at which cooling is produced. Also equal
to system the product of refrigerating effect
and mass flow rate of the refrigerant.
COP : Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration
system.

7.9 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
0.2917 kg/s, 60 kJ/kg.

23
Engineering Applications

SAQ 2
(a) 9.
(b) Reversed Carnot cycle is not used as the reference cycle as the turbine in
the system is not practical. Also the work output from it is insignificant
and does not warrant its use.
SAQ 3
In the T – s and p – h diagrams shown below, in Figure 7.12, state 1 is the state
of the refrigerant at entry to the compressor irrespective of whether the
compression is reversible or not. But, the end state after compression is 2 if the
compression is ierreversible and adiabatic and 2s if the compression is
reversible and adiabatic. The adiabatic efficiency of the compressor is given by

T P
2
2s
3 2s 2
3

4 1 4 1

S h

Figure 7.14 : Figure for SAQ 3

SAQ 4
(a) PH
2
T

o
3
40 C
o
P
20 C
1

S
Figure 7.15 : Figure for SAQ 5

(b) 128oC.
SAQ 5
2.25.

Table 7.1 : R-12 Liquid-Vapour Saturation, Pressure Table

Temp. Abs. Pr. vf vg hf hg sf sg

(oC) (MPa) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K)
− 50 0.0391 0.00065 0.38311 − 8.77 164.84 − 0.0384 0.7396
− 40 0.0642 0.00066 0.24191 − 0.00 169.48 − 0.0000 0.7269
− 30 0.1004 0.00067 0.15938 8.85 174.08 0.0371 0.7165
− 20 0.1509 0.00069 0.10885 17.80 178.61 0.0730 0.7082

24
 Refrigeration

− 10 0.2191 0.00070 0.07665 26.85 183.06 0.1079 0.7014

0 0.3086 0.00072 0.05539 36.02 187.40 0.1418 0.6960
10 0.4233 0.00073 0.04091 45.34 191.60 0.1750 0.6916
20 0.5673 0.00075 0.03078 54.83 195.64 0.2076 0.6879
30 0.7449 0.00077 0.02351 64.54 199.48 0.2397 0.6848
40 0.9607 0.00080 0.01817 74.53 203.05 0.2716 0.6820
50 1.2193 0.00083 0.01417 84.87 206.30 0.3034 0.6792

Table 7.2 : Ammonia Liquid-Vapour Saturation, Pressure Table

Temp. Abs. Pr. vf vg hf hg sf sg

(oC) (MPa) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K)
− 50 40.88 0.00142 2.6254 − 44.3 1372.4 − 0.1942 6.1561
− 40 71.77 0.00145 1.5521 0.0 1389.0 − 0.0000 5.9589
− 30 119.55 0.00148 0.9635 44.7 1404.6 0.1873 5.7815
− 20 190.22 0.00150 0.6237 89.7 1419.0 0.3684 5.6205
− 10 290.85 0.00153 0.4185 135.2 1432.0 0.5440 5.4730
0 429.44 0.00157 0.2895 181.1 1443.5 0.7145 5.3369
10 614.95 0.00160 0.2056 227.6 1453.3 0.8808 5.2104
20 857.12 0.00164 0.1494 274.9 1461.5 0.0434 5.9805
30 1166.49 0.00168 0.1106 322.9 1467.9 0.2028 4.6848
40 1554.33 0.00173 0.0833 371.7 1472.2 0.3591 4.8740
50 2032.62 0.00178 0.0635 421.7 1473.7 0.5135 4.7696

25