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UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE A2 LEVEL
FURTHER MATHS
(9231)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FURTHER PURE 2 SYLLABUS
CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

1. Hyperbolic Functions
1.1. Exponential forms
x −x
sinhx = e −e 2 ​

Inverse: sinh −1 (x) = ln(x + x2 + 1 )

​

1.2. Hyperbolic Identities

Osborne’s Rule:
“To move from a trig identity to a hyperbolic identity:
change cos to cosh and change the sign a product of
sinhs.”
List of identities:
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x ≡ 1
tanh 2 x + sech 2 x ≡ 1
coth 2 x − csch 2 x ≡ 1
sinh(A + B) ≡ sinhAcoshB + coshAsinhB
cosh(A + B) ≡ coshAcoshB + sinhAsinhB
coshx + sinhx = ex
coshx − sinhx = e−x
x −x
cosh x = e +e2 .x ∈ R, f(x) ≥ 1
9231/02/SP/20 Question 7:
​

Inverse: cosh −1 (x) = ln(x + x 2 − 1 )

a) Starting from the definition of tanh in terms of
​

exponentials, prove that tanh −1 x = 12 ln 1+x

1−x ​ ​

b) Given that y = tanh −1 1−x

2+x , show that (2x
​
dy
+ 1) dx +
​

1=0
Solution:
e2x −1
a) Using tanhx =
e2x +1 we have: ​

e2x −1
y = e2x +1 ​

Substitute u = ex and solve for u

u2 −1
y= u2 +1 ​

yu 2 +y = u2 −1
(y − 1)u 2 = −y − 1
1+y
u2 = 1−y ​

Substitute back and solve for x :

1+y
e2x =
1−y ​

x −x 2x
tanx = eex −e e −1
+e−x = e2x +1 .x ∈
​ ​ R, −1 < f(x) < 1 1+y
→ 2x = ln( 1−y ) ​

Inverse: tanh −1 x = 12 ln 1+x 1+y

1−x ​ ​

→ x = 12 ln( 1−y ) ​ ​

Switch all x with y

y = 12 ln( 1+x
​

1−x ) (answer) ​

b) Use the Logarithmic definition for tanh −1 (x) and

substitute in:
1+ 1+x
y = 12 ln( 1− 1−x
1+x )
​

​ ​

1−x ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

9231/02/SP/20 Question 7: 2.2. Matrix Algebra

Simplify it:
y = 12 ln( 1+2x
3
) ​ ​
Given that Ae = λe and Be = μe where 𝑒 is a common
eigenvector for both A and B
Differentiate
dy 1 3 1+2x The matrix A + B has eigenvalue λ + μ
dx = 2
​ ​ × −2( (1+2x) 2 ) × ​

3 ​

The matrix AB has eigenvalue λμ

dy 1
→ dx = − 1+2x ​ ​
The matrix A + kI has eigenvalue λ + k
dy
→ (1 + 2x) dx = −1 ​
The matrix Ap + Aq + ⋯ has eigenvalue λ p +
dy λq + ⋯
→ (1 + 2x) dx + 1 = 0 ​

(Answer)
2.3. Diagonalization

2. Matrices A matrix A that can be written in the form A = PDP −1

is said to be diagonalizable.
The diagonal matrix \n D =
2.1. Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors
⎛λ 1 ​ 0 0 ⋯ 0⎞
0 λ2 ​
0 ⋯ 0
Eigenvector: vectors who do not change direction after a
0 0 λ3 ⋯ 0
matrix is being applied to them.
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Eigenvalues: the scale factors of the eigenvectors after a ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮

matrix is applied to them ⎝0 0 0 0 λn ⎠ ​

Eigenvectors & eigenvalues has the relation:

Ax = λx Where each eigenvalue is placed in the leading diagonal of a
To determine a characteristic equation, use: square matrix.
det(A − λI ) = 0 Finding matrix P : place two eigenvectors side-by-side

( )
Example: a c
b d
​ ​

Find the eigenvalues, and eigenvectors for the following

matrix \n (10 −6 12 −7) ​
Note: the eigenvalue should be in the same column as the
corresponding eigenvector
Solution:
Using the characteristic equation
det(A − λI ) = 0 Example:
\n Det((10 −6 12 −7 ) − λ (1 00 1) = Decompose the following matrix into the form QDQ −1 \n
10 −6
​ ​ ​ ​

∣ 10 − λ −6 12 −7 − λ ∣
∣ ∣ ( )
12 −7
​

​ ​

Form an equation and solve to find eigenvalues

Solution:
(10 − λ)(−7 − λ) − (−6)(12) = 0
From the previous part:
λ 2 − 3λ + 2 = 0
3 2
λ = 2or1 λ = 2, ( ) and λ = 1, ( )
4 3
​ ​

Next, find the eigenvectors by multiplying by original matrix

Using method from above,
and solving equation by putting values
2 0 3 2
Using Ax = λx D=( ) and Q = ( )
0 1 4 3
​ ​ ​ ​

λ = 2 (10 −6 12 −7) (x y) = (2x 2y)

To find Q −1 , find the inverse of Q
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

10x − 6y = 2x ∣3 2 ∣
→ 8x = 6y =9−8=1
∣4 3 ∣
​ ​ ​ ​

→ 43 x = y 3 −2
Q −1 = 11 ( )
​

Eigenvector: (3 4) − 4 3
​ ​ ​

λ = 1 (10 −6 12
​ ​ −7) (x y) = (x y)
​ ​ ​

Hence,
10x − 6y = x 1 0 −6 3 2 2 0 3 −2
( )=( )( )( )
→ 9x = 6y 1 2 −7 4 3 0 1 − 4 3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

→ 3x = 2y
If there are fewer eigenvalues than the dimension of the
→ 32 x = y
matrix, then there will be insufficient distinct eigenvectors.
​

Eigenvector: (2 3)
This means that, in general, the matrix P cannot have an
Hence, we have found
inverse, and so the matrix A cannot be diagonalized.
λ = 2, (3 4). λ = 1, (2 3)
There are exceptions to this, but they are not covered in
​ ​

the syllabus.

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

2.4. Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem states that:
“For a square matrix A, assume that the characteristic
equation is P (λ) = det(A − λI ). The theorem states
that P (A) = 0”
In other words, if you have the characteristic equation:
aλ 3 + bλ 2 + cλ + d = 0
Then it is also true that:
aA3 + bA2 + cA + dI = 0
We can use this to find inverses of matrices

2.5. System of Linear Equations

For a system of equations, where the reduced augmented
matrix is of the form:
⎛∗ ∗ ∗ ⋮ ∗⎞
\∗ ∗ ​

∗ ⋮ ∗ ​ 3. Differentiation
⎝ 0 0 a ⋮ b⎠
There are 3 cases to consider:
3.1. General Differentiation
The a = 0 & b = 0 , then there is an INFINITE number dy
of solutions If y = [f(x)]n , then dx = nf’(x)[f(x)]n−1
​

dy f ’(x)
If a = 0 & b \n eq 0, then there are NO solutions If y = ln[f(x)], then dx = f (x) ​ ​

dy
If a \n eq 0 & b ∈ R, there will be a unique solution If y = ef (x) , then dx
= ​ f’(x)ef (x)
If y = uvw , when u , v , w are all functions of x , then
dy
dx ​ = uv dw ​
dv
dx + uw dx + vw dx
du
​ ​

3.2. Second Derivative of Implicit

Expressions

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

Differentiate expression a second time

dy d2 y
Differentiating dx gives dx2 ​ ​

List of Maclaurin Series can be found in the formula sheet

MF19

3.3. Second Derivative of Implicit

Equations
May be asked to differentiate twice and use equation to
find out nature of stationary points
Nature of stationary point
2nd derivative +ve = minimum
2nd derivative –ve = maximum

3.4. Second Derivative of Parametric 4. Integration

Equations
4.1. Some Standard Integrals
Find first derivative simply by differentiating each
1
parameter and dividing: ∫ a2 +x2 dx can be solved with x = atanθ to give
​

dy 1 −1 x + c
a tan
dy
= dt ​

dx
​

a ​

dx 1
∫ a2 +x2 dx can be solved with x = asinθ to give
​ ​

dt ​

dy ​

Find second derivative by differentiating dx and dividing ​

sin−1 ( xa ) + c
​

by dx
​

1
∫ a2 +x 2 dx can be solved with x = tanhθ to give
dt ​

d dy
d2 y
​

= dt dx 1 −1 x + c
​ ​

dx2 ​
dx
dt
​
​

a tanh
​

a ​

4.2. Integrating Inverse Functions

3.5. Table of Derivatives
Use integration by parts to integrate inverse functions
3.6. Maclaurin Series In doing it, Differentiate the inverse function and integrate
1
For an infinitely differentiable function f(x) about the In other words, let u be the inverse function and v =1
point x = 0 , the Maclaurin series is given by:

In summation form, the Maclaurin series can be

represented by:

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

4.4. Arc Length of a Function

When finding the length of a curve, using δx is not
accurate enough however we may consider δs to be
straight and hence using Pythagoras’ Theorem:

4.3. Reduction Formula

δs2 = δx 2 + δy2
Enables to solve integral problem by reducing it to an
We can then integrate to obtain s however before this, we
easier integral problem, and then reducing that to an
must first factorize to obtain an equation we can work
easier problem, and so on.
with
Generally obtained from using by integration by parts.
Usually solved by splitting the power such that the lower For cartesian curves:
power can be integrated, and the higher power can be
differentiated. Factorizing δx
Look for the original form in your solution.

Square rooting and integrating this:

(can factorize δy instead and integrate with respect to y)

For cartesian curves defined parametrically:

Factorizing δt

Sqaute rooting and integrating this:

For Polar curves (refer to 3.5):

Factorizing δθ

Sqaure rooting and integrating this:

4.5. Surface Area of a Solid Revolution

When calculating surface area, we split curve into discs
similar to when we find volume however use instead of
for greater accuracy, treating the disc as the frustum of a
cone

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

A = ∫ 2πδs For arc length in polar form

Using our equation formed for δs, substitute into

expression and integrate

For cartesian curves:

Factorizing δx

Square rooting and adding this to surface area equation:

For cartesian curves defined parametrically:

Factorizing δt

Square rooting and adding this to the surface area equation:

4.6. Limit of Areas

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

5.2. De Moivre’s Theorem

z n = r n (cosnθ + isinnθ)

If the polar coordinates of z are (r, θ)

Then the polar coordinates of z n are (r n , nθ)

5.3. Finding Roots

5. Complex Numbers
5.1. Representing Complex Numbers

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

5.4. Powers of Sine and Cosine

5.5. Complex Summation

We can also express powers of sin & cos in terms of its

multiple angles

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

The complementary function is also the general solution

6. Differential Equations and we need to substitute values, find A and B to get the
particular solution
6.1. First Order Differential Equations
6.3. 2nd Order DE: Non-Homogeneous
Make sure the equation is in the form
Case
dy
+ F (x)y = G(x)
dx These type of differential equations will be of the form:
​

∫ F(x)dx
To determine the integrating factor, use I = e 2
d y dy
Always multiply through by the integrating factor to get: a dx 2 + b dx + cy = 0
​ ​

dy
I dx + F (x)I y = G(x)I We find a complementary function in the same way as
above, by making f(x) = 0
​

This equation will then reduce to:

After finding a complementary function we have to add a
dx (I y) = G(x)I
d
particular integral
​

The particular integral we add is dependent upon f(x)

and the train solution used:

Once we have the trial solution, we equate it to y and

differentiate it to find y’ and differentiate again to find y’’
, in terms of P , Q and R
Then substitute these into the initial differential equation
and solve simultaneously for P , Q and R
The trial solution with substituted values of P , Q and R
becomes the particular integral
Addition of complementary function and particular
integral gives us the particular solution

6.2. 2nd Order DE: Homogeneous Case

These type of differential equations will be of the form:
2
a ddyy2 + b dx
dy
+ cy = 0
​ ​

First step to solving them is to find the complementary

function by forming an auxiliary equation:

aλ 2 + bλ + c = 0
The complementary function formed depends on the
discriminant of the auxiliary function
Solve the quadratic equation and use the following cases
to work out complementary function

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CAIE A2 LEVEL FURTHER MATHS (9231)

dy dy y
The DE will be of the form dx ​ = F (x, y) or dx ​ =F x ​

Use the substitution given and differentiate once to

reduce the differential equation to a separable form.
For 2nd order differential equations
Use the substitution given and differentiate twice to
reduce the differential equation to a form such as
2
d y dy
a dx 2 + b dx + cy = 0
​ ​

For 1st & 2nd order DE, the general solution or particular
solution MUST be in form of the original variables

If a term in your complementary function is Af(x) and

the RHS is pf(x), then try:
y = αxf(x)
If terms in your complementary function are Axf(x) +
Bf(x) and the RHS is pf(x), then try:
y = αx 2 f(x)

6.4. Substitution method for DEs

For 1st order differential equations

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CAIE A2 LEVEL
Further Maths (9231)

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