Function of cylinder block, Materials for cylinder block with justifications.

Design of bore
diameter; bore length and thickness of cylinder wall.

Function of piston material with justification and design of piston and piston pin.

Function of connecting rod, Materials with justification and Design of connecting rod.

Function of rocker arm Materials with justification and Design of rocker arm (for rectangular
cross section only)

Function of valve spring, Materials with justification and Design of valve spring.

Function of push rod, Material with justification and Design of push rod.

Theory-The principal parts of an I.C engine, as shown in Fig. 32.1 are as follows :
1. Cylinder and cylinder liner, 2. Piston, piston rings and piston pin or gudgeon pin, 3.
Connecting rod with small and big end bearing, 4. Crank, crankshaft and crank pin, and 5. Valve
gear mechanism.
Cylinder and Cylinder Liner
The function of a cylinder is to retain the working fluid and to guide the piston. The cylinders are
usually made of cast iron or cast steel. Since the cylinder has to withstand high temperature due
to the combustion of fuel, therefore, some arrangement must be provided to cool the cylinder.
The single cylinder engines (such as scooters and motorcycles) are generally air cooled. They are
provided with fins around the cylinder. The multi-cylinder engines (such as of cars) are provided
with water jackets around the cylinders to cool it. In smaller engines. the cylinder, water jacket
and the frame are made as one piece, but for all the larger engines, these parts are manufactured
separately. The cylinders are provided with cylinder liners so that in case of wear, they can be
easily replaced. The cylinder liners are of the following two types :
1. Dry liner, and 2. Wet liner.

A cylinder liner which does not have any direct contact with the engine cooling water, is known
as dry liner, as shown in Fig. (a). A cylinder liner which have its outer surface in direct contact
with the engine cooling water, is known as wet liner,
Design of a Cylinder
In designing a cylinder for an I. C. engine, it is required to determine the following values :
1. Thickness of the cylinder wall. The cylinder wall is subjected to gas pressure and the piston
side thrust. The gas pressure produces the following two types of stresses :
Longitudinal stress, and (b) Circumferential stress.
Since these two stresses act at right angles to each other, therefore, the net stress in each
direction is reduced.
The piston side thrust tends to bend the cylinder wall, but the stress in the wall due to side thrust
is very small and hence it may be neglected.
Let D0 = Outside diameter of the cylinder in mm,
D = Inside diameter of the cylinder in mm,
p = Maximum pressure inside the engine cylinder in N/mm 2,
t = Thickness of the cylinder wall in mm, and
1/m = Poisson’s ratio. It is usually taken as 0.25.

The apparent longitudinal stress is given by

𝜋
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×𝐷 ×𝑝 𝐷 ×𝑝
𝜎 = = 𝜋4 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × [𝐷 − 𝐷 ] [𝐷 − 𝐷 ]
4
and the apparent circumferential stresss is given by
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐷 × 𝑙 × 𝑝 𝐷 × 𝑝
𝜎 = = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2𝑡 × 𝑙 2𝑡
... (where l is the length of the cylinder and area is the projected area)
The thickness of a cylinder wall (t) is usually obtained by using a thin cylindrical formula,
i.e.,
𝑝×𝐷
𝑡= +𝐶
2𝜎
where p = Maximum pressure inside the cylinder in N/mm2,
D = Inside diameter of the cylinder or cylinder bore in mm,
 σc = Permissible circumferential or hoop stress for the cylinder material in MPa or N/mm 2.
Its value may be taken from 35 MPa to 100 MPa depending upon the size and material of the
cylinder.
C = Allowance for reboring.
The thickness of the cylinder wall usually varies from 4.5 mm to 25 mm or more depending upon
the size of the cylinder. The thickness of the cylinder wall (t) may also be obtained from the
following empirical relation, i.e.
t = 0.045 D + 1.6 mm
The other empirical relations are as follows:
Thickness of the dry liner= 0.03 D to 0.035 D
Thickness of the water jacket wall
= 0.032 D + 1.6 mm or t / 3 m for bigger cylinders and 3t /4 for smaller cylinders
Water space between the outer cylinder wall and inner jacket wall = 10 mm for a 75 mm cylinder
to 75 mm for a 750 mm cylinder or 0.08 D + 6.5 mm
2. Bore and length of the cylinder. The bore (i.e. inner diameter) and length of the cylinder may
be determined as discussed below :
Let pm = Indicated mean effective pressure in N/mm2,
D = Cylinder bore in mm,
A = Cross-sectional area of the cylinder in mm2= π D2/4
l = Length of stroke in metres,
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m., and
n = Number of working strokes per min
= N, for two stroke engine
= N/2, for four stroke engine.
We know that the power produced inside the engine cylinder, i.e. indicated power,
×× ×
𝐼. 𝑃. = watts
From this expression, the bore (D) and length of stroke (l) is determined. The length of stroke is
generally taken as 1.25 D to 2D.
Since there is a clearance on both sides of the cylinder, therefore length of the cylinder is taken
as 15 percent greater than the length of stroke. In other words,
Length of the cylinder, L = 1.15 × Length of stroke = 1.15 l
Cylinder flange and studs
The flange thickness should be taken as 1.2 t to 1.4 t, where t is the thickness of cylinder wall.
The diameter of the studs or bolts may be obtained by equating the gas load due to the maximum
pressure in the cylinder to the resisting force offered by all the studs or bolts. Mathematically,
𝜋 𝜋
×𝐷 ×𝑝=𝑛 × ×𝑑 ×𝜎
4 4
where D = Cylinder bore in mm,
p = Maximum pressure in N/mm2,
ns = Number of studs. It may be taken as 0.01 D + 4 to 0.02 D + 4
dc = Core or minor diameter, i.e. diameter at the root of the thread in mm,
σt = Allowable tensile stress for the material of studs or bolts in MPa or N/mm2.
The nominal or major diameter of the stud or bolt (d ) usually lies between 0.75 tf to tf, where tf
is the thickness of flange. In no case, a stud or bolt less than 16 mm diameter should be used.
The distance of the flange from the centre of the hole for the stud or bolt should not be less than
d + 6 mm and not more than 1.5 d, where d is the nominal diameter of the stud or bolt.
In order to make a leak proof joint, the pitch of the studs or bolts should lie between 19 √𝑑 to
28.5 √𝑑, where d is in mm.
Cylinder head
The cylinder head may be approximately taken as a flat circular plate whose thickness (th) may
be determined from the following relation :
𝐶. 𝑝
𝑡 =𝐷
𝜎
where D = Cylinder bore in mm,
p = Maximum pressure inside the cylinder in N/mm2,
σc = Allowable circumferential stress in MPa or N/mm2.
C = Constant whose value is taken as 0.1.
Example-
A four stroke diesel engine has the following specifications:
Brake power = 5 kW ; Speed = 1200 r.p.m. ; Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.35N /mm 2
Mechanical efficiency = 80 %.
Determine : 1. bore and length of the cylinder ; 2. thickness of the cylinder head ; and 3. size of
studs for the cylinder head.
Solution. Given: B.P.=5kW = 5000 W; N = 1200 r.p.m. or n = N/2 = 600 ; p m=0.35 N/mm2; ηm
= 80% = 0.8
1. Bore and length of cylinder
Let D = Bore of the cylinder in mm,
A = Cross-sectional area of the cylinder= 𝐷 mm2
l =Length of the stroke in m.
= 1.5 D mm = 1.5 D / 1000 m ....(Assume)
We know that the indicated power,
I.P = B.P. / ηm = 5000 / 0.8 = 6250 W
We also know that the indicated power (I.P.),
𝑃 ×𝑙×𝐴×𝑛
𝐼. 𝑃. =
60
𝜋
035 × 1.5𝐷 × 𝐷 × 600
6250 = 4
60
∴ D3 = 6250 / 4.12 × 10–3 = 1517 × 103 or D = 115 mm Ans.
And l = 1.5 D = 1.5 × 115 = 172.5 mm
Taking a clearance on both sides of the cylinder equal to 15% of the stroke, therefore length of
the cylinder,
L = 1.15 l = 1.15 × 172.5 = 198 say 200 mm Ans.
2. Thickness of the cylinder head
Since the maximum pressure ( p) in the engine cylinder is taken as 9 to 10 times the mean
effective pressure ( pm), therefore let us take
p = 9 pm = 9 × 0.35 = 3.15 N/mm2
We know that thickness of the cylinder head,
. . × .
𝑡 =𝐷 = 115 = 9.96 say 10 mm Ans
Size of studs for the cylinder head
We know that the force acting on the cylinder head (or on the studs)
𝜋 𝜋
×𝐷 ×𝑝=𝑛 × ×𝑑 ×𝜎
4 4
The number of studs (ns ) are usually taken between 0.01 D + 4 (i.e. 0.01 × 115 + 4 = 5.15) and
0.02 D + 4 (i.e. 0.02 × 115 + 4 = 6.3). Let us take ns = 6.
𝜋 𝜋
× 115 × 3.15 = 6 × × 𝑑 × 65
4 4
𝑑 = 0.84𝑑
d 2 = 32 702 / 216 = 151 or d = 12.3 say 14 mm
The pitch circle diameter of the studs (Dp) is taken D + 3d.
Dp = 115 + 3 × 14 = 157 mm
Design of Piston-

Theory-
Piston
The piston of internal combustion engines are usually of trunk type as shown in Fig.. Such
pistons are open at one end and consists of the following parts :
1. Head or crown. The piston head or crown may be flat, convex or concave depending upon the
design of combustion chamber. It withstands the pressure of gas in the cylinder.
2. Piston rings. The piston rings are used to seal the cyliner in order to prevent leakage of the gas
past the piston.
3. Skirt. The skirt acts as a bearing for the side thrust of the connecting rod on the walls of
cylinder.
4. Piston pin. It is also called gudgeon pin or wrist pin. It is used to connect the piston to the
connecting rod.
Material for Pistons
The most commonly used materials for pistons of I.C. engines are cast iron, cast aluminium,
forged aluminium, cast steel and forged steel.
Piston Rings

Piston Skirt
The portion of the piston below the ring section is known as piston skirt. In acts as a bearing for
the side thrust of the connecting rod. total length of the
piston (L) is given by
L = Length of skirt + Length of ring section + Top land
Piston Pin
The piston pin (also called gudgeon pin or wrist pin) is used to connect the piston and the
connecting rod. It is usually made hollow and tapered on the inside, the smallest inside diameter
being at the centre of the pin
Numerical
Design a cast iron piston for a single acting four stroke engine for the following data:
Cylinder bore = 100 mm; Stroke = 125 mm; Maximum gas pressure = 5 N/mm 2; Indicated mean
effective pressure = 0.75 N/mm2 ; Mechanical efficiency = 80% ; Fuel consumption = 0.15 kg
per brake power per hour ; Higher calorific value of fuel = 42 × 103 kJ/kg ; Speed = 2000 r.p.m.
Any other data required for the design may be assumed.

Solution. Given : D = 100 mm ; L = 125 mm = 0.125 m ; p = 5 N/mm 2 ; pm = 0.75 N/mm2;

ηm = 80% = 0.8 ; m = 0.15 kg / BP / h = 41.7 × 10–6 kg / BP / s; HCV = 42 × 103 kJ / kg ;
N = 2000 r.p.m.
The dimensions for various components of the piston are determined as follows :
1. Piston head or crown
The thickness of the piston head or crown is determined on the basis of strength as well as on the
basis of heat dissipation and the larger of the two values is adopted.
We know that the thickness of piston head on the basis of strength,
× × ×
t = = =15.7 say 16 mm
× ×
...(Taking σt for cast iron = 38 MPa = 38 N/mm 2)
Since the engine is a four stroke engine, therefore, the number of working strokes per minute,
n = N / 2 = 2000 / 2 = 1000
and cross-sectional area of the cylinder,
πD π × 100
A= = = 7855 mm2
4 4
We know that indicated power
×× × . × . × ×
IP = = =12270 W
=12.27 kW
∴ Brake power, BP = IP × ηm = 12.27 × 0.8 = 9.8 kW ... ( ηm = BP / IP)
We know that the heat flowing through the piston head,
H = C × HCV × m × BP
= 0.05 × 42 × 103 × 41.7 × 10–6 × 9.8 = 0.86 kW = 860 W
....(Taking C = 0.05)
∴Thickness of the piston head on the basis of heat dissipation,
H 860
t = = = 0.0067m = 6.7mm
12.56k(T − T ) 12.56 × 46.6 × 220
...( For cast iron , k = 46.6 W/m/°C, and T C – TE = 220°C)
Taking the larger of the two values, we shall adopt
tH = 16 mm Ans.
Since the ratio of L / D is 1.25, therefore a cup in the top of the piston head with a radius equal
to 0.7 D (i.e. 70 mm) is provided.
2. Radial ribs
The radial ribs may be four in number. The thickness of the ribs varies from t H / 3 to tH / 2.
∴ Thickness of the ribs, tR = 16 / 3 to 16 / 2 = 5.33 to 8 mm
Let us adopt tR = 7 mm Ans.
3. Piston rings
Let us assume that there are total four rings (i.e. nr = 4) out of which three are compression rings
and one is an oil ring.
We know that the radial thickness of the piston rings,
3×p 3 × 0.035
t =D× = 100 × = 3.4mm
σ 90
...(Taking pw = 0.035 N/mm2, and σt = 90 MPa)
and axial thickness of the piston rings
t2 = 0.7 t1 to t1 = 0.7 × 3.4 to 3.4 mm = 2.38 to 3.4 mm
Let us adopt t2 = 3 mm
We also know that the minimum axial thickness of the piston ring,
D 100
t = = = 2.5mm
10 × n 10 × 4
Thus the axial thickness of the piston ring as already calculated (i.e. t 2 = 3 mm) is satisfactory.
Ans.
The distance from the top of the piston to the first ring groove, i.e. the width of the top land,
b1 = tH to 1.2 tH = 16 to 1.2 × 16 mm = 16 to 19.2 mm
and width of other ring lands,
b2 = 0.75 t2 to t2 = 0.75 × 3 to 3 mm = 2.25 to 3 mm
Let us adopt b1 = 18 mm ; and b2 = 2.5 mm Ans.
We know that the gap between the free ends of the ring,
G1 = 3.5 t1 to 4 t1 = 3.5 × 3.4 to 4 × 3.4 mm = 11.9 to 13.6 mm
and the gap when the ring is in the cylinder,
G2 = 0.002 D to 0.004 D = 0.002 × 100 to 0.004 × 100 mm
= 0.2 to 0.4 mm
Let us adopt G1 = 12.8 mm ; and G2 = 0.3 mm Ans.
4. Piston barrel
Since the radial depth of the piston ring grooves (b) is about 0.4 mm more than the radial
thickness of the piston rings (t1), therefore,
b = t1 + 0.4 = 3.4 + 0.4 = 3.8 mm
We know that the maximum thickness of barrel,
t3 = 0.03 D + b + 4.5 mm = 0.03 × 100 + 3.8 + 4.5 = 11.3 mm
and piston wall thickness towards the open end,
t4 = 0.25 t3 to 0.35 t3 = 0.25 × 11.3 to 0.35 × 11.3 = 2.8 to 3.9 mm
Let us adopt t4 = 3.4 mm
5. Piston skirt
Let l = Length of the skirt in mm.
We know that the maximum side thrust on the cylinder due to gas pressure ( p ),
 π×D π × 100
R=μ× × p = 01 × × 5 = 3928 N
4 4
...(Taking μ = 0.1)
We also know that the side thrust due to bearing pressure on the piston barrel ( pb ),
R = pb × D × l = 0.45 × 100 × l = 45 l N
...(Taking pb = 0.45 N/mm2)
From above, we find that
45 l = 3928 or l = 3928 / 45 = 87.3 say 90 mm Ans.
∴ Total length of the piston ,
L = Length of the skirt + Length of the ring section + Top land
= l + (4 t2 + 3b2) + b1
= 90 + (4 × 3 + 3 × 3) + 18 = 129 say 130 mm Ans.
6. Piston pin
Let d0 = Outside diameter of the pin in mm,
l1 = Length of pin in the bush of the small end of the connecting rod in mm, and
pb1 = Bearing pressure at the small end of the connecting rod bushing in N/mm 2. It value for
bronze bushing is taken as 25 N/mm2.
We know that load on the pin due to bearing pressure
= Bearing pressure × Bearing area = pb1 × d0 × l1
= 25 × d0 × 0.45 × 100 = 1125 d0 N ...(Taking l1 = 0.45 D)
We also know that maximum load on the piston due to gas pressure or maximum gas load
π×D π × 100
= ×p= × 5 = 39275 N
4 4
From above, we find that
1125 d0 = 39 275 or d0 = 39 275 / 1125 = 34.9 say 35 mm Ans.
The inside diameter of the pin (di) is usually taken as 0.6 d0.
∴ di = 0.6 × 35 = 21 mm Ans.
Connecting Rod

Theory- The connecting rod is the intermediate member between the piston and the crankshaft.
Its primary function is to transmit the push and pull from the piston pin to the crankpin and thus
convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank. It consists of a
long shank, a small end and a big end. The cross-section of the shank may be rectangular,
circular, tubular, I-section or H-section.
Design Procedure of connecting rod
Dimensions of cross-section of the connecting rod
A connecting rod should be equally strong in buckling about both the axes.
Let A = Cross-sectional area of the connecting rod,
l = Length of the connecting rod,
σc = Compressive yield stress,
WB = Buckling load,
Ixx and Iyy = Moment of inertia of the section about X-axis and Y-axis respectively, and
kxx and kyy = Radius of gyration of the section about X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
According to Rankine’s formula,
The buckling load (WB) may be calculated by using the following relation, i.e.
WB = Max. gas force × Factor of safety
The factor of safety may be taken as 5 to 6.
𝜎 ×𝐴
𝑊 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑋 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 =
𝑙
1+𝑎
𝑘
where L = Equivalent length of the connecting rod, and
a = Constant
= 1 / 7500, for mild steel
= 1 / 9000, for wrought iron
= 1 / 1600, for cast iron
The most suitable section for the connecting rod is I-section with the proportions as shown in
Fig.
Let thickness of the flange and web of the section = t
Width of the section, B = 4 t
and depth or height of the section, H = 5t
Dimensions of the crankpin at the big end and the piston pin at the small end
We know that maximum gas force,
𝜋𝐷
𝐹 = ×𝑝
4
where D = Cylinder bore or piston diameter in mm, and
p = Maximum gas pressure in N/mm2
Now the dimensions of the crankpin and piston pin are determined as discussed below :
Let dc = Diameter of the crank pin in mm,
lc = Length of the crank pin in mm,
pbc = Allowable bearing pressure in N/mm2, and
dp, lp and pbp = Corresponding values for the piston pin,
We know that load on the crank pin
= Projected area × Bearing pressure
= dc . lc . pbc ...(ii)
Similarly, load on the piston pin
= dp . lp . pbp ...(iii)
Equating equations (i) and (ii), we have
FL = dc · lc · pbc
Taking lc = 1.25 dc to 1.5 dc, the value of dc and lc are determined from the above expression.
Again, equating equations (i) and (iii), we have
FL = dp · lp · pbp
Taking lp = 1.5 dp to 2 dp, the value of dp and lp are determined from the above expression
Size of bolts for securing the big end cap
The bolts may be made of high carbon steel or nickel alloy steel. Since the bolts are under
repeated stresses but not alternating stresses, therefore, a factor of safety may be taken as 6.
Let dcb = Core diameter of the bolt in mm,
σt = Allowable tensile stress for the material of the bolts in MPa, and
nb = Number of bolts. Generally two bolts are used.
∴ Force on the bolts= × 𝑑 × 𝜎 × 𝑛
From this expression, dcb is obtained. The nominal or major diameter (db) of the bolt is given by
𝑑
𝑑 =
0.84
Thickness of the big end cap
The maximum bending moment acting on the cap will be taken as
𝐹 ×𝑥
𝑀 =
6
where x = Distance between the bolt centres.
= Dia. of crankpin or big end bearing (dc) + 2 × Thickness of bearing liner (3 mm) +
Clearance (3 mm)
Let bc = Width of the cap in mm. It is equal to the length of the crankpin or big end bearing (lc),
and
σb = Allowable bending stress for the material of the cap in MPa.
We know that section modulus for the cap,
𝑏 ×𝑡
𝑍 =
6
𝑀 𝐹 ×𝑥
∴ 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = =
𝑍 𝑏 ×𝑡
From this expression, the value of tc is obtained.
Example
Design a connecting rod for an I.C. engine running at 1800 r.p.m. and developing a maximum
pressure of 3.15 N/mm2. The diameter of the piston is 100 mm; mass of the reciprocating parts
per cylinder 2.25 kg; length of connecting rod 380 mm; stroke of piston 190 mm and
compression ratio 6: 1. Take a factor of safety of 6 for the design. Take length to diameter ratio
for big end bearing as 1.3 and small end bearing as 2 and the corresponding bearing pressures as
10 N/mm2 and 15 N/mm2. The density of material of the rod may be taken as 8000 kg/m 3 and the
allowable stress in the bolts as 60 N/mm2 and in cap as 80 N/mm2. The rod is to be of I-section
for which you can choose your own proportions.
Given : N = 1800 r.p.m. ; p = 3.15 N/mm2 ; D = 100 mm ; mR = 2.25 kg ; l = 380 mm= 0.38 m ;
Stroke = 190 mm ; Compression ratio = 6 : 1 ; F. S. = 6.
Now, for the I section area of the section,
A = 2 (4 t × t) + 3t × t = 11 t2
The maximum force on the piston (FL) due to gas pressure, therefore,
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 100
𝐹 =𝐹 = ×𝑝 = × 3.15 = 24740 𝑁
4 4
Since a factor of safety is given as 6, therefore the buckling load,
WB = FC × F. S. = 24 740 × 6 = 148 440 N
We know that radius of gyration of the section about X-axis,
𝑘 = 3.18𝑡
Length of the connecting rod,
l = 380 mm ...(Given)
∴ Equivalent length of the connecting rod for both ends hinged,
L = l = 380 mm
Now according to Rankine’s formula, we know that buckling load (WB),
𝜎 ×𝐴
𝑊 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑋 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 =
𝑙
1+𝑎
𝑘
320 × 11𝑡
148440 =
1 380
1+
7500 1.78𝑡
𝑡 − 42.2𝑡 − 257.3 = 0
After solving above equation
t = 6.9 say 7 mm
Thus, the dimensions of I-section of the connecting rod are :
Thickness of flange and web of the section= t = 7 mm Ans.
Width of the section, B = 4 t = 4 × 7 = 28 mm Ans.
and depth or height of the section, H = 5 t = 5 × 7 = 35 mm Ans.
Depth near the big end,
H1 = 1.2H = 1.2 × 35 = 42 mm
and depth near the small end,
H2 = 0.85H = 0.85 × 35 = 29.75 say 30 mm
∴ Dimensions of the section near the big end = 42 mm × 28 mm Ans.
and dimensions of the section near the small end = 30 mm × 28 mm Ans.
Dimensions of the crankpin or the big end bearing and piston pin or small end bearing
We know that load on the crankpin or big end bearing
= Projected area × Bearing pressure
= dc .lc . pbc = dc × 1.3 dc × 10 = 13 (dc)2
Since the crankpin or the big end bearing is designed for the maximum gas force (FL), therefore,
equating the load on the crankpin or big end bearing to the maximum gas force, i.e.
13 (dc)2 = FL = 24 740 N
∴ (dc )2 = 24 740 / 13 = 1903 or dc = 43.6 say 44 mm Ans.
and lc = 1.3 dc = 1.3 × 44 = 57.2 say 58 mm Ans.
The big end has removable precision bearing shells of brass or bronze or steel with a thin lining
(1mm or less) of bearing metal such as babbit.
Again, let dp = Diameter of the piston pin or small end bearing,
lp = Length of the piston pin or small end bearing = 2dp ...(Given)
pbp = Bearing pressure = 15 N/mm2 ..(Given)
We know that the load on the piston pin or small end bearing
= Project area × Bearing pressure
= dp . lp . pbp = dp × 2 dp × 15 = 30 (dp)2
Since the piston pin or the small end bearing is designed for the maximum gas force (FL),
therefore, equating the load on the piston pin or the small end bearing to the maximum gas force,
i.e.
30 (dp)2 = 24 740 N
2
∴ (dp) = 24 740 / 30 = 825 or dp = 28.7 say 29 mm Ans.
and lp = 2 dp = 2 × 29 = 58 mm Ans.
The small end bearing is usually a phosphor bronze bush of about 3 mm thickness.
Size of bolts for securing the big end cap
Force on the bolts= × 𝑑 × 𝜎 × 𝑛
Equating the inertia force to the force on the bolts, we have
9490 = 94.26 (dcb)2 or (dcb)2 = 9490 / 94.26 = 100.7
∴ dcb = 10.03 mm
and nominal diameter of the bolt,
𝑑 10.03
𝑑 = = = 11.91 ≅ 12𝑚𝑚
0.84 0.84
Thickness of the big end cap
𝐹 ×𝑥
𝑀 =
6
x= Dia. of crank pin or big end bearing + 2 × Thickness of bearing liner + Nominal dia. of bolt +
Clearance
= (dc + 2 × 3 + db + 3) mm = 44 + 6 + 12 + 3 = 65 mm
∴ Maximum bending moment acting on the cap,
9490 × 65
𝑀 = = 102810 𝑁𝑚𝑚
6
Section modulus for the cap
𝑏 ×𝑡 58 × 𝑡
𝑍 = = = 9.7 𝑡
6 6
We know that bending stress (σb),
𝑀 102810
𝜎 = 80 = =
𝑍 9.7 𝑡
∴ (tc)2 = 10 600 / 80 = 132.5 or tc = 11.5 mm Ans.
Describe the design procedure for rocker arm.
In designing a rocker arm the following procedure may be followed :
1. Rocker arm is usually I-Section it is subjected to bending moment. To find bending moment it
is assumed that the arm of the lever extends from point of application of load to centre of pivot.
2. The ratio of length to the diameter of the fulcrum pin and roller pin is taken as 1.25.
The permissible bearing pressure on this pin is taken from 3.5 to 6 N/mm2.
3. The outside diameter of boss at fulcrum is usually taken twice the diameter of the pin at
fulcrum. The boss is provided with a 3mm thick phosphor bronze bush to take up the wear.
4. One end of rocker arm has a forked end to receive roller.
5. The outside diameter of the eye at the forked end is also taken as twice the diameter of pin.
The diameter of roller is slightly larger (at least 3mm more) than the diameter of eye at the
forked end. The radial thickness of each eye of the forked end is taken half the diameter of pin.
Some clearance about 1.5mm must be provided between the roller and the eye at the forked end
so that roller can move freely. The pin should, therefore be checked for bending.
6. The other end of rocker arm (i.e. tappet end) is made circular to receive the tappet which is a
stud with a lock nut. The outside diameter of the circular arm is taken as twice the diameter of
the stud. The depth of section is also taken twice the diameter of stud.
State and justify material for push rod.

Answer:
Material:- 1018 steel tubing
Push rods are typically made of 1018 steel tubing, which is not strong enough for springs
that have more than 400 psi of open pressure, or engines that exceed 7,000 rpm.
Pushrods made of 4130 or 4140 Chromoly which is a chrome-alloy steel with a medium
carbon content and . 8% - 1.1% molybdenum for strength. Pushrods made of 4130 or 4140
Chromoly tubing are much stronger

Describe design procedure for valve spring

Helical compression spring is used as valve spring.

Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
W = Axial load on the spring,
= Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D/d,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load W.

1. Mean diameter of spring coil

D = Inside diameter of spring + Diameter of spring wire
Since the diameter of spring wire is obtained from maximum spring load , therefore maximum
Twisting moment on the springs.

And we also know that

Maximum twisting moment
From these equations Mean diameter and Diameter wire is calculated.
Now considering Wahl’s stress factor (k),
We know that spring index

And Wahl’s stress factor

.
K= Wahls correction factor= +

We know that maximum shear stress (),

From this equation diameter of wire is calculated and Larger values of diameter of wire (d) is
selected.
2. Number of turns of the coil
We know that deflection of the spring(δ),

from this equation number of turns are calculated.

Taking the ends of the springs as squared and ground, the total number of turns,
n' = n +2
2. Free length of spring

LF = n’X d + δmax + 0.15 δmax

.Pitch of the coil
We know that pitch of the coil