Gas Processing

DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2024
Contents
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Contents
Chapter 1 Natural Gas Composition
1.1 Introduction
From Reservoir to Surface
1.2 Natural gas composition
1.3 Natural gas processing plants

Chapter 2 Natural Gas Compressibility

2.1 Gas density
2.2 Relative density
2.3 Mollier diagram review and usage

Chapter 3 Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Separation Process
3.3 Principles of Separation
3.3.1 Gravity Separation
3.3.2 Separation System Problems
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Separation

3.4 Phases Separation

3.4.1 Primary Separation
3.4.2 Secondary Separation
3.4.3 Mist Extraction
3.4.4 Liquid Accumulation
3.4.5 Oil and Water Separation
3.5 Terminology and Applications:
3.5.1 Vessels Terminology
3.5.2 Separator Application
3.6 Stage Separation
3.7 Separators Classification
3.7.1 The Vessel Shape
3.7.2 The Number of Fluids to be Separated

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Contents
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3.8 Separator Internals
3.8.1 Inlet Configuration
3.8.2 Intermediate Configuration
3.8.3 Outlet Configuration
3.9 Separator Operation and Troubleshooting
3.9.1 Separator Control
3.9.2 Troubleshooting
3.10 Operating Problems

Chapter 4 Condensate Stabilization

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Condensate stabilization

Chapter 5 Sweetening Processes

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sweetening processes
5.2.1 Factors for Process Selection
5.2.2 Process Classification
5.3 Operating problems - amine systems
5.3.1 Amine Process Description
5.3.2 Operational Problems
5.4 Amine recirculation calculations

Chapter 6 Dehydration Processes

6.1 Introduction
6.1 Adsorption (molecular sieves, silica gel, bauxite)
6.2 Absorption - glycols (DEA, TEA)
6.3 Direct Cooling (refrigeration with hydrate inhibitor)
6.2 Moisture content / hydrate temperatures
6.2.1 Moisture Content Calculations:
6.2.2 Hydrate Temperature Determination
6.2.3 Permissible Expansion of RD
(Gas without Hydrate formation)
6.3 Glycol dehydration process
6.4 Other dehydration processes
6.5 Inhibitor injection rates

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Contents
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Chapter 7 Propane Refrigeration
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Refrigeration cycle
7.3 Propane refrigeration calculations
7.3.1 Density Estimates
7.3.2 Compression / Power Estimates
7.3.3 Propane Recirculation Rate Estimate
7.3.4 Temperature Approach / Physical Properties

Chapter 8 NGL Fractionation

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cascade refrigeration process
8.3 Turbo expansion process

Chapter 9 LNG Processes

9.0 Process features for LNG technology
9.1 Finding and producing gas
9.2 Gas treatment and liquefaction plant
9.3 Liquefaction processes
9.4 Transport as a liquid
9.5 Receipt in terminals for storage and reqasification

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 Natural Gas Composition

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1.1 Introduction
Field processing generally consists of two distinct categories of operations:

1. Separation of the gas/liquid/water well effluent into its individual phases.

2. Removal of impurities from the separated phases to meet sales/transportation

/reinjection specifications and/or environmental regulations.

The individual unit operations that may be required include:

 Basic field-processing
 Prevention of hydrate formation
 Separation of free liquids and solids from the gas
 Sweetening (removing H2S, CO2)
 Dehydration using TEG, solid desiccants, LTX and CaCl2
 Condensate recovery and HC dew-point control
 Compression
 Flow measurement
 Pipeline transport of natural gas

From Reservoir to Surface

In the reservoir, crude oil almost always contains dissolved methane and other light
hydrocarbons that are released when the pressure on the oil is reduced (i.e. bringing the
oil from the high pressure reservoir to the surface separator). As the gas evolves, the
remaining crude oil liquid volume decreases; this is known as shrinkage. The gas
produced is called associated gas, separator gas or solution gas, etc.

Natural gas produced from a gas reservoir may contain small amounts of heavier
hydrocarbons that are separated as a liquid called condensate. Natural gas containing
condensate is said to be wet gas. Conversely, if no condensate forms when the gas is
produced to surface, the gas is called dry gas.

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1.2 Natural gas composition
The main constituent of natural gas is methane, which is used as fuel for
residential and industrial applications (furnaces, heaters, steam generation, etc.).
When natural gas comes from the reservoir, it may have any of the following
constituents:

Class Component Formula Shorthand

Hydrocarbons Methane CH4 C1
Ethane C2H6 C2
Propane C3H8 C3
i-Butane iC4H10 iC4
n-Butane n C4H10 nC4
i-Pentane iC5H12 iC5
n-Pentane nC5H12 nC5
Cyclopentane C5H10
Hexanes and C6+
heavier
Inert Gases Nitrogen N2 N2
Helium He
Argon
Hydrogen H2 H2
Oxygen O2 O2
Acid Gases Hydrogen Sulfide H2S H2S
Carbon Dioxide CO2 CO2
Sulphur Mercaptans R-SH
compounds
Sulfides R-S-R'
Disulfides R-S-S-R'
Water Vapor H20
Liquid Slugs Free water or
brine
Corrosion
inhibitors
Methonal CH3OH
Solids Millscale and rust
Iron sulfide FeS
Reservoir fines
(sand)

Remember that it is the methane (and ethane) that are desirable as heating fuel or
commercial "natural gas". The heavier components have an undesirable effect of
raising its hydrocarbon dew point to an unacceptable temperature.
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Conversely, natural gas usually has some nitrogen included, which has no heating
value. The heavier ends may be required to compensate for the diminished heat
value of the gas. When the nitrogen content is too high, cryogenic processing
(extreme cold) may be required to remove it. This is very expensive and could
render a gas field uneconomic to produce.

Acid gases; Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) must be removed
to specified minimum levels before the gas is pipelined. This process is termed
sweetening and there are various methods employed in gas plants to do this.

Water: Produced gas is regarded to be saturated with water even if no liquid water
is produced. This water must be removed or "dehydrated” in order to prevent
hydrate formation and reduce corrosion.

As a producer, the gas from the reservoir must be processed in the field to meet
specifications set out by the pipelines. These specifications ensure that the gas sold
to market has predictable qualities such as heating value, corrosion tendency and
water dew point.

Quality requirements for sales gas received by a typical pipeline company

could be as follows:

1. Free of sand, dust, gums, crude oil, contaminants, impurities and other
objectionable substances;

2. Hydrocarbon dew point less than minus ten (−10) degrees Celsius at
operating pressures;

3. Not more than twenty three (23) milligrams of Hydrogen Sulphide per one
(1) cubic meter;

4. Not more than one hundred fifteen (115) milligrams of total sulphur per one
(1) cubic meter;

5. Not more than two (2) percent by volume of carbon dioxide;

6. Not more than sixty five (65) milligrams of water vapour per one (1) cubic
meter;

7. Water dew point less than minus ten (−10) degrees Celsius at operating
pressures greater than 8275 kPa(g);

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 8. Not to exceed forty nine (49) degrees Celsius in temperature;

9. As free of oxygen as possible (in no cases to exceed 0.4% by volume);

10. Minimum Gross Heating Value of thirty six (36) megajoules per cubic
meter.

Summary of Sales Gas Specifications:

Component Specification
HC dew point < −10°C @ operating pressure
<−10°C@ pressure exceeding
Water dew point
8275 kPa(g)
H2S 23 mg/m3 (max)
Total Sulphur 115 mg/m3 (max)
CO2 2% vol. (max)
Water vapour 65 mg/m3 (max)
O2 0.4 % vol. (max)
Temp 49 °C (max)
Gross Heating 36 MJ/m3 (min)
Value

Notes:

Water content:
Water vapour must be removed in a dehydration process. The most typical is
glycol dehydration, but many plants use a dry desiccant technology such as mole
sieves to remove water. If free water forms, it may form hydrates and is also very
corrosive in the presence of carbon dioxide.

H2S content:
H2S is corrosive and very toxic. The gas is typically sweetened using an amine
process. The concentrated acid gas is either converted to elemental sulphur or re-
injected into another formation (fairly recent technology).

Hydrocarbon dew point:

Too much propane or butane (+ other heavy ends) would tend to condense in the
pipeline and cause problems such as slug flow. Pipeline companies have a
specification that requires a producer to remove the heavy ends so that no liquid is
formed in the line.

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Gross heating value:
The gross heating value of a gas depends on its composition. A pure, 100%
methane gas would have a heating value of approx 38 MJ/m3. This would meet
pipeline spec, but if any inerts (nitrogen, argon, helium) are present, they have the
effect of lowering the heating value. Therefore, other molecules such as ethane
(±66 MJ/m3), propane (±94 MJ/m3) or n-butane (±122 MJ/m3) are required to
bring the heating value back up to pipeline spec. This must be accomplished
without exceeding the hydrocarbon dew point spec.

Specs for other products:

Important specifications for LPG streams (both propane and butane) include:

1. Vapor Pressure: Indicates the "light ends" composition of a product. If the

vapor pressure is too high, the product contains too much light material.

2. Volatile residue: Temperature at 95 % evaporation: A sample is left to

evaporate until only 5 % remains; the temperature at this point is taken. If
the temperature is higher than the specification, the amount of "heavy ends"
in the product is too great.

3. Copper Corrosion: A rough indication of sulfur content. A polished strip

of copper is placed in a sample of the product. If the copper changes color,
(black or purple) there is sulfur components present in the product.

4. Moisture Content: Free of moisture and free water.

Natural gas is a naturally occurring complex mixture of hydrocarbon and non-

hydrocarbon constituents which exists as a vapor at room temperature.

The hydrocarbon components of natural gas are:

1. Aliphatic or chain hydrocarbons of which two broad classes are found:

1.1 Paraffin - general formula Cn H2n+2

- saturated hydrocarbons (no double C-C bonds)

n = 1 CH4 methane
n = 2 C2H6 ethane
n = 3 C3H8 propane
n = 4 C H butane
n = 5 C H pentane

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Isomers are compounds which have the same composition and molecular weight
but different structure and properties:

E.G. Butane can be "normal" (straight chain) or "iso" (branched chain) and still
be the same C and H number
Sketch:

1.2 Olefin - general formula Cn H2n

- Unsaturated hydrocarbons (C-C double bonds)

n = 2 C2 H4 ethylene
n = 3 C3 H6 propylene
n = 4 C H butylene

2. Cyclic or ring hydrocarbons of which three classes can be found:

2.1 Naphthenic - saturated cyclic hydrocarbons (Cn H2n)

E.G.

Cyclopropane sketch:

2.2 Aromatic - unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons which are classified by the

benzene ring as part of the Molecule.
E.G.

Styrene sketch:

2.3 Xylenes - two or more methyl groups or side chains attached to the benzene
ring

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Non-hydrocarbon components of natural gas:

A. Nitrogen

A. Sour gas
- hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
- Carbonyl sulphide (COS)
- Carbon disulphide (CS2)
- Sulphur (S)
- Mercaptans (RSH where R = radical group, e.g. ethyl mercaptan =
C2H5SH or R = C2H5)

B. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

C. Water vapor (H2O)

D. Helium (He)

Types of Natural Gas:

1. Associated gas - volatile hydrocarbons found with crude oil which may be
either gas cap or solution gas.

2. Non-associated gas - exists as the gas phase naturally and is not associated
with crude oil.

Nomenclature for Natural Gas:

1) Well Effluent - untreated fluid (gas or liquid) from reservoir.

2) Raw Gas - well effluent gas fed to gas processing plant.
3) Pipeline or Sate Gas - natural gas with quality suitable for fuel use or
purchase
4) Sour Gas - gas containing significant quantities of H2S and CO2.
5) Sweet Gas - gas that does not contain significant quantities of H2S and CO2.
6) Wet Gas - gas contains more than 0.013 L/m3 of condensate (C5+).
7) Dry Gas - gas contains less than " " " " (").
3
8) Rich Gas - gas contains more than 0.094 L/m C3+.
9) Lean Gas - gas contains less than
10) Condensate - hydrocarbon liquids of C5 + extracted from gas.
11) Natural Gasoline - a specification product of set vapor pressure.

Example:
240 kPa at 37.8 °C in RVP bomb
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Note in Figure 1 a typical gas composition and the typical dry/wet/sweet/sour
varieties of natural gas. Figure 2 shows some typical pipeline gas specifications.

Figure 1 Typical and Varieties of Natural Gas

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 Figure 2 Typical Pipeline Gas Specifications
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1.3 Natural gas processing plants
Gas is often sampled at various locations in the field and throughout the
processing facility. Initially, the most important sample provided is the wellhead
or "raw gas" sample. This provides the necessary information for the entire design
of the gas processing facilities.

Since almost all natural gas reservoirs are considered to be water saturated,
dehydration is essential. If gas is not dehydrated or methanol injection used, liquid
water will drop out as soon as the gas is cooled and hydrates could form.

Compression facilities may be required to get the gas from the field to the plant
and are usually required to get the gas from the plant into the pipeline.

The hydrocarbon dew point temperature depends on the composition of the gas. If
too many C3+ fractions are present in the gas, they will liquefy at an undesirable
temperature. This will require hydrocarbon dew-point control facilities such as
refrigeration. The recovery of LPG such as propane and butane can also increase
the profitability of the plant.

If H2S is present in a level above 16ppm, it must be removed. CO2 must also be
removed if it is above 2%. This is usually accomplished by some type of
sweetening unit such as an amine unit.

In Alberta, the total amount of sulfur in the raw gas exceeds 1 ton/day, the sulfur
must be recovered. At minimum, 70 % of the sulfur must be recovered up to a
maximum of 99.9 % recovery. The required recovery depends on the gas plant
inlet sulfur rate. The higher the rate of sulfur at the inlet, the higher recovery that is
required. The recovery levels are set by the Alberta Energy Utility Board (AEUB)
and exceeding the set levels will result in heavy fines or plant closure.

High levels of inert gases such as helium (rare) or nitrogen (common) will lower
the heating value of the gas. Nitrogen may have to be removed through cryogenics
if the economics are profitable. Helium may be recovered if economically viable
but reservoirs containing helium are very rare.

The main purpose of natural gas processing plants is to treat the raw gas brought in
from the field such that the gas can be sold to downstream users.

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There are four basic processing procedures to bring wellhead fluids to either
plant or sales specifications:

1. Separation of gas from free liquids such as water, crude oil, Condensate
LPG, and entrained solids.

2. Removal of dense and recoverable hydrocarbon vapors.

3. Processing of gas to remove water vapor (dehydration).

4. Processing of gas to remove undesirables such as sour components,

nitrogen, and waxes.

In Figure 3 a simplified flow diagram of a gas processing plant shows the basic
processes involved. The different unit operations will be discussed further in future
sections of this course.

The raw gas from the field wells is collected into an inlet separation operation
where water, hydrocarbons (condensate), and solids are removed from the gas
phase.

The gas phase is sweetened (or the sour components are removed), its water
content reduced (dehydration), and any NGL/LPG components removed prior to
the selling of the gas to downstream customers.

The condensate is stabilized (light gases separated from the liquid) and used for
sales to a crude oil refiner or as a diluent for heavy oil/tar sands processing.

The condensed natural gas liquids (mainly propane and butane) are further
separated into propane and butane products.

The sour components separated (mainly H2S and CO2) from the gas can converted
to elemental sulphur (Claus process) which in turn is sold for downstream
customers' use or flared to atmosphere depending on environmental requirements.

In Figure 4 a typical mole balance is shown for a gas processing plant.

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 Figure 3 Simplified Flow Diagram of a Gas Processing Plant

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 Figure 4 Gas Conditions Example

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Assignment 1: Natural Gas Composition and Specifications

Marks
3 1. Name three (3) products that could be made from natural gas.

1 2. Name one (1) product made from the ethane component of natural gas.

2 3. Write out the general formula for an aliphatic paraffin hydrocarbon. Write
out the formula for butane.

2 4. List 3 of the 5 non-hydrocarbon components of natural gas.

2 5. Name the two (2) types of natural gas.

2 6. Explain the difference between "sour" and "sweet" natural gas.

2 7. Explain the difference between "wet" and "dry" natural gas.

2 8. The largest component of natural gas is

4 9. List the four (4) basic processing procedures in a gas processing plant.

10 10. Sketch a simplified flow diagram of a typical gas processing plant.

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 Natural Gas Compressibility

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2.1 Gas density
Although computer methods for predicting physical and thermodynamic properties for
natural gas components are available, hand calculation methods can be used for giving
reliable estimates.

Quick methods of calculating gas density, relative density, and compressibility

will be done in this Module.
When dealing with gases at very low pressure, the ideal gas relationship is a convenient and
generally satisfactory tool. For measurements and calculation for gases at elevated pressure,
the use of the ideal gas relationship may lead to errors as great as 500%, as compared to
errors of 2 or 3 % at atmospheric pressure.

The pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) relationship for gases can be complicated and

require a computer or programmable calculator to solve in a reasonable length of time. A
generalized corresponding state correlation of compressibility factors is reasonably
convenient and sufficiently accurate for normal engineering requirements.

A correction factor, Z, can be used with the volume computed from the ideal gas equation
and then converted to the correct volume for the real gas.

PV = Z n RT

P = gas pressure kPa (abs)

V = gas volume m3
Z = compressibility no units
N = moles of gas
R = ideal gas constant 8.3145 (SI units)
T = gas temperature deg. K.

The equation can be used to calculate gas density in the form:

Density = MW P
8.3145 T Z

MW = molecular weight of gas

Gas densities for single component gases can be determined from Mollier
Diagrams. Gas densities from natural gas mixtures can be determined from critical
temperatures & pressures along with molecular weights of individual components
assuming the mixture analysis in mole fraction is known.
Example of pure component density determination:

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Using the Methane Mollier Diagram in this Module (Fig. 24-24), calculate the
density of methane vapor at 60 deg. C and 5,000 kPa (abs):

Answer = ______ kg/m3

Using the pressure and temperature above, determine the compressibility factor
using the density found above and the equation for density listed on the previous
page (hint: re-arrange the equation):

Z = MW P
R T density

MW for methane is found in Fig. 23 -2

Temperature is in deg. K. = deg. C. + 273.15

Calculations:

Answer = ________ (did you get 0.965????)

2.2 Relative density

Densities or compressibilities for pure component gases can be easily determined
from Mollier Diagrams and the P-V-T equation for gases.

Natural gas mixtures require the determination of an average molecular weight,

and then the use of the P-V-T equation can be used to determine a mixture density.

Compressibility can be determined by using reduced pseudocritical temperatures

and pressures along with a diagram (Fig. 23-4).

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Example:
Calculate the Pseudocritical temperature and pressure and mixture molecular
weight for the following natural gas mixture:

Mole Pseudo Pseudo MW

Component Tc PC MW
Fraction Tc PC mixture
Methane 0.8319
Ethane 0.0848
Propane 0.0437
i-Butane 0.0076
n-Butane 0.0168
i-Pentane 0.0057
n-Pentane 0.0032
n-Hexane 0.0063
Total 1 .0000

Tc = critical temperature (deg. K) for pure component (from Fig. 23-2)

PC = critical temperature (kPa abs) for pure component (from Fig. 23-2)
MW = pure component molecular weight (from Fig. 23-2)
Pseudo Tc = Tc for pure component times mole fraction of pure component
Pseudo PC = PC for pure component times mole fraction of pure component
MW mixture = MW for pure component times mole fraction of pure component

Add up Pseudo Tc and PC for totals (i.e. mixture Tc and PC). Add up MW mixture
for total MW of mixture

Answers: Tc = 218.184 PC = 4565.271 MW = 20.426

Calculation of Pseudocritical Temperature and Pressure for a

Natural Gas Mixture
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Relative density of this gas mixture should be equal to: RD = MW gas / MW of air
(same as density of gas / density of air)

For the mixture given in the notes: RD = 20.426 / 28.9625 = 0.705

Compressibility can be determined using Fig.23-4 and a given temperature and
pressure for the gas mixture along with the pseudo critical temperature and
pressure.

A reduced temperature and pressure for the gas has to be determined first (Tr and
Pr).
Tr = T/Tc Pr = P/Pc

T and P are the given temperature (deg. K.) and pressure (kPa (abs)) of the gas
mixture.

Tc and PC are the pseudocritical temperature and pressure of the mixture.

Example:
The gas mixture given in the notes has a temperature of 40 deg. C. and a pressure
of 5,000 kPA (abs).

Determine the compressibility of this mixture:

Tr= _______ / ________

Pr = _______ / _________
From Fig. 23-4, Z =

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2.3 Mollier diagram review and usage
Using Fig. 24-24, 24-25, 24-27, 24-30, determine the following:
A. Dew point (DP.) temperature for Methane at a pressure of 1,000 kPa (abs):
Answer = _________ deg. C.

Question: What is the Bubble point temperature for methane at the Same
pressure of 1,000 kPa and why?

B. Dew point (DP.) temperature for Ethane at a pressure of 1,000 kPa (abs):
Answer = ________ deg. C.

Question: Compare the Dew points for A) and B) above and explain the
difference in temperatures (hint: look at Fig. 23-2).

C. Determine the latent heat of vaporization for n-butane at 1,000 kPa (abs):
Answer = ________ kJ / kg

D. Determine the entropy of propane at a temperature of 60 deg. C. and a

Pressure of 200 kPa (abs):
Answer = ________kJ/kg °K

E. Determine the density of ethane at a temperature of 20 deg. C. and a

pressure of 1,000 kPa (abs):
Answer = _________ kg / m3

F. Determine the density of ethane at a temperature of 20 deg. C. and a

pressure of 4,000 kPa (abs):
Answer = _________kg/m3

Question: Why is the density so different from E) to F) but at the same

temperature?

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Name: ……………………………………..
Date: ……………………………………….

Assignment #2: Gas Compressibility and Mollier Diagram Data &

Calculations

Marks
3 1. Explain why gas compressibility (z) is important.

5 2. Calculate the average molecular weight for a gas mixture made up of the
following composition:

Mole Fraction
Methane 0.8560
Ethane 0.0565
Propane 0.0450
i-Butane 0.0056
n-Butane 0.0255
i-Pentane 0.0045
n-Pentane. 0.0035
n-Hexane 0.0069

2 3. Determine the relative density of the gas mixture in question 2.

4 4. Explain the difference between bubble point and dew point as it relates to
the Mollier Diagram.

4 5. Determine the pseudocritical temperature and pressure of the gas Mixture in

question 2.

2 6. Determine the compressibility of the gas mixture above assuming the

mixture is at 50 deg. C. and a pressure of 7,000 kPa (abs).

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 Figure 24.24 Methane P-H Diagram

Figure 24.25 Ethane P-H Diagram

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 Figure 24.27 Propane P-H Diagram

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 Figure 24.29 i-Butane P-H Diagram

Figure 24.30 n-Butane P-H Diagram

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 Figure 24.31 i-Pentane P-H Diagram

Figure 24.32 n-Pentane P-H Diagram

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 Figure 23.2 Physical Constants

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 Figure 23.2 Physical Constants (Cont’d)

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 Figure 23.2 Physical Constants (Cont’d)

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 Figure 23.4 Compressibility Factors for Natural Gas

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 Figure 23.5 Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural gases

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 Figure 23.6 Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural gases

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 Figure 23.7 Compressibility of Low-Molecular-Weight Natural gases

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 Gas Liquid Separation

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Chapter 3 Contents
32.1 Introduction

3.2 Separation Process

3.3 Principles of Separation

3.3.1 Gravity Separation
3.3.2 Separation System Problems
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Separation

3.4 Phases Separation

3.4.1 Primary Separation
3.4.2 Secondary Separation
3.4.3 Mist Extraction
3.4.4 Liquid Accumulation
3.4.5 Oil and Water Separation

3.5 Terminology and Applications:

3.5.1 Vessels Terminology
3.5.2 Separator Application

3.6 Stage Separation

3.7 Separators Classification

3.7.1 The Vessel Shape
3.7.2 The Number of Fluids to be Separated

3.8 Separator Internals

3.8.1 Inlet Configuration
3.8.2 Intermediate Configuration
3.8.3 Outlet Configuration

3.9 Separator Operation and Troubleshooting

3.9.1 Separator Control
3.9.2 Troubleshooting

3.10 Operating Problems

Page 2 of 59
 Chapter 3
Gas Liquid Separation
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In an oilfield separation system the substances to be separated are oil, water and gas.
The difference in this case is density.

Before we go on to consider the oilfield separation process in more detail, let's look
at the components to be separated.

Crude Oil this is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons produced from the reservoir in
liquid form. Its density usually ranges from around 40 lb/cu ft, to 55 lb/cu ft.

Natural Gas - which is associated with an oil accumulation may be termed free gas
or dissolved gas.

A- Free Gas is a hydrocarbon mixture which exists in a gaseous state at

reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure. It remains as a gas when it
is produced under normal conditions.

B- Dissolved Gas is dissolved in the oil at a certain temperature and pressure. If

the pressure is ft reduced and/or the temperature is increased, the dissolved
gas may be liberated from the oil. When this occurs the gas assumes the
characteristics of free gas.

The density of the gas depends upon the pressure at which it is confined. At 750 psi a
typical hydrocarbon gas may have a density of 2.25 lb/cu ft. However, at atmospheric
pressure the density of that same gas may only be 0.1 lb/cu ft.

There is a relationship between the volumes of gas and oil produced from a
reservoir. This relationship is known as the Gas Oil Ratio (G.O.R.).

G.O.R. is defined as the volume of gas produced per unit volume of oil production.
The usual oilfield units for this ratio are standard cubic feet per barrel (scf/bbl).

Water produced with oil or gas may be in the form of liquid or vapour. The liquid
water may also be in the form of free water or it may be emulsified in the oil. Other
units in the Petroleum Processing Technology Series will deal with the problems of
oilfield emulsions and water vapour in gas. In this unit we will just concern ourselves
with the separation of free water from the oil and gas.

Page 3 of 59
Produced water is usually salty and has a density somewhat higher than that of sea
water. Typical oilfield water may have a density of 67 lb/cu ft.

If the three reservoir fluids of oil, water and gas were to be placed in a closed
container and allowed to stand, separation would occur.

The water, being the densest of the fluids, would sink to the bottom of the container.
The oil would float on top of the water. Finally, gas, the least dense component,
would occupy the space on top of the oil.

This then is the basis of oilfield separation.

However, reservoir fluids are being continuously produced and must be continuously
separated. This takes place in one or more pressure vessels which are designed to
achieve optimum separation as a continuous process.

3.2 SEPARATION PROCESS

The process can be described as:

 Three phase separation, or

 Two phase separation

The phases referred to are oil, water and gas. In two phase separation, gas is removed
from total liquid (oil plus water). In three phase separation, however, in addition to
the removal of gas from liquids, the oil and water are separated from each other.

Figure 3.1, shows the difference between 2 and 3 phase separation in a very
simplistic way.

Page 4 of 59
 Figure 3.1 The Difference between 2 & 3 Phase Separation in a Very Simple
Way

3.3 PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION

The objective of ideal separation is to separate the hydrocarbon stream into liquid-
free gas and gas-free-liquid.

Ideally, the gas and liquid reach a state of equilibrium at the existing conditions of
Pressure and Temperature within the vessel.

Two factors are necessary for separators to function:

1- The fluids to be separated must be insoluble in each other.

2- One fluid must be lighter than the other.

Separations depend upon the effect of gravity to separate fluids. If they are soluble in
each other, no separation is possible with gravity alone. For example, a mixture of
distillate and crude oil will not separate in a vessel because they dissolve in each
other. They must be segregated in the distillation process.

3.3.1 Gravity Separation

Since a separation depends upon gravity to separate the fluids, the ease with which
two fluids can be separated depends upon the difference in the density or weight per
unit volume of the fluids.

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In the process of separating gas from liquid (Figure 3.2), there are two separation
stages:

1- Separate liquid mist from the gas phase.

2- Separate gas in the form of foam from the liquid phase.

Droplets of liquid mist will settle out from gas, provided:

 The gas remains in the separator long enough for mist to drop out.
 The flow of the gas through the separator is slow enough that no turbulence
occurs, which will keep the gas stream stirred up so that the liquid has no
chance to drop out.

The difference in density between the gas and liquid will determine the maximum
flow rate of gas that will allow the liquid to settle out. For example, mist will drop
out of gas at 52 bars (750 psi) pressure as long as the gas is moving less than
31cm/sec (1 ft/sec). In other words, the separator has to be large enough so that the
gas travels from the inlet nozzle to the outlet nozzle at a rate of 31 cm/sec (1 ft/sec),
or less.

Figure 3.2 Separation Process

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It has been stated that gas at 52 bars (750 psi0 weighs about 0.036 kg/l (2.25 lb/cu.ft),
whereas it weighs only 0.0016 Kg/l (0.10 lb/cu.ft) at 1 bar (15 psi). Since its density
is lower at 1 bar (15 psi), the oil droplets will settle out faster because there is greater
difference in density between the low-pressure gas and oil.

Consequently, the gas can flow faster in the separator. In fact, it can flow at 1.52
m/sec (5 ft/sec) and not interfere with the liquid droplets as they settle out. Gas
bubbles in the liquid will break out in most oilfield applications in 30 to 60 seconds.
Consequently the separator is design so that the liquid remains in the vessel for 30 to
60 seconds. The length of time that the liquid remains in the vessel is called its
residence time.

3.3.2 Separation System Problems

There are many problems that confuse the separation process as follows:

 Slugs of liquid.
 Dust.
 Oil fogs.
 Mists.

Therefore, it is necessary to carry out additional separation to remove them from the
incoming stream.

Dust: causes erosion of compressor intake valves and plugging of small orifices in
various controlling and process equipment.

Oil fogs and mists: Create environmentally and process equipment problems
because they contaminate lubricants, chemical and desiccants.

These are common problems in natural gas pipelines, compressor stations,

conditioning equipment, and control systems.

3.3.3 Factors Affecting Separation

The factors that affect the operation and separation between the oil and gas phases in
a separator are:

 Fluid stream composition.

 Operating pressure.
 Operating temperature.

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Changes in any one of these factors on a given fluid stream will change the amount
of gas and oil leaving the separator.

Foaming and emulsion will also affect the capacity of separation in a separator.
Foam must be broken to obtain a good gas-oil separation. It takes time (length) to
breakout physically; chemical like silicon compounds may be used.

Effect of factors that cause separation

Separation factor Effect of factor

1. Difference in weight of fluid. Separation is easier when weight

difference is greater.

2. Residence time in separator. Separation is better with more time.

3. Coalescing surface area. Separation is better with more area.

4. Centrifugal action. Separation is better at higher velocity.

5. Presence of solids. Makes separation more difficult.

Separation of oil and gas is a critical field processing operation and becomes a part of
the gas processing necessary properly to condition the gas properly.

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3.4 Phases of separation
The total process within the separator can be broken down into 4 parts which we will
follow now (Figure 3.3).

3.4.1 Primary Separation

As the reservoir fluids enter the vessel an initial separation of gas and liquid takes
place. This happens because of:

 a reduction in velocity
 a reduction in pressure
 a change in flow direction

The velocity of the inlet stream is reduced as the fluids flow from a relatively small
diameter pipeline into the large volume separator.

The pressure is reduced by maintaining a controlled pressure on the vessel lower

than that of the inlet stream.

The change in flow direction is accomplished by placing some form of deflector at

the inlet to the separator.

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3.4.2 Secondary Separation
After the initial separation, gas will flow towards the outlet of the vessel. However, it
will still contain a certain amount of liquid in the form of droplets. In the secondary
separation process these liquid droplets are removed from the gas stream.
Liquid droplets which are suspended in the gas stream will tend to fall or 'settle'
towards the bottom of the vessel. This is simply due to the force of gravity.

Figure 3.3 Separator Sections

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The ease with which the droplets will settle out of the gas stream and fall into the
liquid accumulation section of the separator depends on a number of factors. These
include:

 The size of the droplets.

 The density of the liquid droplet compared to the density of the gas.
 The velocity at which the gas stream is traveling through the separator.
 The turbulence which exists in the flowing gas stream.

Of these factors:

 The difference in density between oil and gas and the droplet size will be
determined by the composition of the well stream.

 The velocity of the gas stream is determined by the size of the separator and its
throughput.

 Turbulence can be reduced by having devices called straightening vanes built

into the separator to make the gas flow more streamlined.

Figure 3.4 A Typical Set of Straightening Vanes inside a Vessel

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3.4.3 Mist Extraction

The secondary separation of liquid droplets from the gas by gravity settling will not
usually remove very small particles. These particles tend to remain in the gas stream
in the form of a mist. In order that the gas leaving a separator as free as possible
room liquid, a final mist extraction section is built into the vessel.

Mist extraction is accomplished using either an impingement or a centrifugal force

mechanism.

3.4.4 Liquid Accumulation Section

The lowermost section of a separator is where the liquids from the other three
sections accumulate before being discharged from the vessel. Initially, this liquid will
have gas bubbles entrained within it which must be removed.

Just as liquid droplets tend to fall through a gas stream, gas bubbles tend to rise to the
surface of liquids due to density differences.

The time required for the bubbles to reach the surface and re-enter the gas stream
will vary. However, for most oilfield applications it will occur in one to four
minutes. This means that the liquids must stay in the vessel for this period of time,
which is known as the retention time.

If the separator is of a sufficiently large capacity, this will ensure that the reservoir
fluids stay in the vessel for the required retention time.

You will remember that a 3 phase separation process not only removes gas from
liquid, as we have just seen, but also separates oil and water.

This, in effect, adds a fifth part to the total process within the separator.

3.4.5 Oil and Water Separation Section

Oil and water do not mix. If these liquids are left long enough in a vessel, separation
will occur and the oil will float on top of the water.

Oil and water will separate faster than gas will be liberated from the oil. So, if the
separator is large enough to allow efficient gas separation, then the retention time
required for oil and water separation will be exceeded.

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3.5 TERMINOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS:
3.5.1 Vessels Terminology

The term "oil and gas separator", in oil field terminology, designates a pressure
vessel used for the purpose of separating well fluids into gaseous and liquid
components. A separating vessel may be referred to in the following ways:

1. Oil and gas separator

2. Separator
3. Stage separator
4. Trap
5. Knock-out (vessel, drums, and trap)
Water knockout
Liquid knockout
6. Flash chamber (trap, vessel)
7. Expansion vessel (separator)
8. Scrubber (gas scrubber)
9. Filter (gas filter).

3.5.2 Separator Application

To size and design a separator, certain data and information must be known. There
must be data about the process fluids and operating conditions. You need to know the
service that the separator is to perform and the performance requirements. Often it is
helpful to know something about the system into which the unit will fit. Special
construction and design specifications, if applicable, must be followed. Then all that
information must be interpreted to select the best design and to correctly size it.
Often design data is incomplete and assumptions must be made. Information about
type of service and the relationship to the whole system can be useful in making
better assumptions.

There are also a whole range of different separator designs which can be used or
adapted to fit each need. There are vertical and horizontal designs, longitudinal or
cross flow, an assortment of mist extractor types and designs with and without slug
catching sections.

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Separators
Are mechanical devices used for primary separation to remove and collect liquid
from natural gas, which is normally accomplished with the aid of centrifugal force.

The terms oil and gas separator, separator, stage separator, and trap all refer to a
conventional oil and gas separator. These separating vessels are normally used near
the wellhead, manifold, or tank battery to separate the fluids produced from oil and
gas wells into oil and gas or liquid and gas. They must be capable of handling "slugs"
or "heads" of well fluids.

Production Separator
Also called "bulk separator" or "primary separator", is used to separate one or more
combined well streams at a well site, gathering center, plant or offshore platform. It
can be two or three-phase. "Primary" separation indicates it is the first process of
separation the produced fluids have encountered. If located in a plant, the production
separator might be very large and handle the production from a whole field. In large
plants, several production separators are often used in parallel.

Test Separator
Is usually, connected parallel to a production separator. It is normally sized to handle
one well at a time. Individual wells can be segregated from the main production
stream at the well manifold and processed through the test separator where the
separated phases are then measured. The products are then recombined with the main
stream products.

Knockout (vessel, drum, trap)

Used to remove only water from the well fluid or all liquid oil plus water from gas.
In the case of a water knockout the gas and liquid petroleum are discharged together
and the water is separated and discharged from the bottom of the vessel.

A liquid knockout is used to remove all liquid, oil plus water, from the gas. The
water and liquid hydrocarbons are discharged together from the bottom of the vessel
and the gas is discharged from the top.

Flash Chamber (Separator, Drum)

This is a two-phase vessel used as a subsequent stage of separation to process the
liquid hydrocarbons flashed from a primary separator. The name is applied to the
vessel used as a second stage separator on a cold separation unit. The vessel is
usually of low pressure design-not more than 125 psig working pressure. It rarely
differs from the conventional low pressure separator.

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The secondary purpose is degassing liquid before it enters another process. An
example is in an electrostatic coalescer or desalter where no free gas can be tolerated,
the fluid is first degassed in a flash separator which is elevated above the coalescer so
that once degassed the fluid will remain gas-free.

Expansion Vessel
This name applied to the vessel into which gas is expanded for a cold separation
application. It also is referred to as a cold separator or a low temperature separator.
The vessel differs considerably from the normal separator since it is designed
primarily to handle and melt gas hydrates that are formed by expansion cooling. In
cold separation applications where a hydrate preventative is used, the design may be
very close to that of normal separator. The usual working pressure of this vessel is in
the range of 1000 to 1500 psig.

Filter (Dust Scrubber)

Where liquid is present to a fair degree in a gas stream, the conventional oil and gas
separator will remove any solid particles in the stream. The liquid acts to trap the
solids in the mist extractor (or coalescer) and other sections of the separator. It then
serves as a medium to flow solids out of the vessel.

When gas is dry, there are still solid particles present to interfere with some phases of
gas transmission and distribution. The vessel designed to remove these solids is
called a filter or dust scrubber.

The filter normally uses a dry filter pack to trap undesirable particles. These filter
packs require periodic removal for changing or cleaning.

Scrubber
Scrubbers are usually two-phase, vertical vessels. The scrubber is NOT used as a
primary separation means at a well, and are recommended only for:

1. Secondary operation to remove carryover fluids from process equipment such

as the absorber and the Liquid Dust Scrubber.

2. Gas line separation downstream from separator and where flowlines are not
long.

3. Very high GOR flow streams that is, to "scrub" small amounts of liquid from a
gas stream.

4. Flare scrubbers or vent scrubbers are placed in gas outlet streams from
production separators to remove any residual liquids left or any condensates
that may have formed in the line, prior to flaring or venting.

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 5. Suction and discharge scrubbers are placed upstream and downstream of gas
compressors.

6. Fuel gas scrubbers remove residual liquid from gas just prior to its use as a
fuel.

7. Pipeline scrubbers remove condensate from gas streams flowing through long
pipelines.

Slug Catcher
Or surge drum is a separator designed to separate bulk liquid-gas flow streams which
are surging or slugging. The slug catcher may be also serving as a production
separator, in which case better separation is required. Properly designed it should
smooth out the intermittent flow.

Metering Separators
Separator featuring calibrated liquid chambers are used for metering in either 3-phase
or ordinary 2-phase operation. These vessels register the number of dumps of the
calibrated volume of oil and water and are applicable where individual well tests are
desire or where continuous or frequent data are necessary.

Accumulators
Condensed overhead vapors from distillation columns collect in vessels called
accumulators. These Keep the tower functioning smoothly and prevent tower
fluctuation from down stream equipment. Hence surge residence time is the basic
design factor in designing vessels for this type of service.

Page 16 of 59
3.6 STAGE SEPARATION
The purpose of stage separation is to reduce the pressure on the reservoir liquids a
little at time, in steps, or stages, so that a more stable stock tank liquid will result.
Petroleum liquids at high pressure usually contain large quantities of liquefied
propanes, butanes, and pentanes, which will vaporize or flash as the pressure is
reduced. This flashing can cause substantial reduction in stock tank liquid recovery,
depending on well stream composition, pressure, temperature, and other factors. For
example, if a volatile condensate at 1,500 psig were discharged directly into an
atmospheric storage tank, most of it would vaporize immediately, leaving very little
liquid in the tank.

In many circumstances it may be possible to do this. However, imagine a situation

where the pressure of the reservoir fluids at the wellhead is 2 500 psi and the gas oil
ratio is 2 000 scf/bbl.

If separation is to yield stabilized oil and gas at atmospheric pressure, then the
separator may need to be extremely large. With a throughput of, say, 75 000 bbl/day
of oil, the separator must be capable of handling all that oil plus 150 000 000 cu ft of
gas. The pressure would also have to be reduced in one go, from wellhead conditions
to atmospheric conditions.

The ideal method of separation, to attain maximum liquid recovery, would be that of
differential liberation of gas by means of a steady decrease in pressure from that
existing in the reservoir to that existing in the storage tanks. With each tiny decrease
in pressure, the gas evolved would immediately be removed from the liquid.
However, to carry out this differential process would require an infinite number of
separation stages, obviously an impractical solution. A close approach to differential
liberation can be made by using three or more series-connected stages of separation,
in each of which flash vaporization takes place. In this manner, the maximum
economical amount of liquid can be recovered.

When ideal separation has been accomplished, the, gas and liquids have reached a
state of equilibrium at the temperature and pressure within the vessel. In other
words, at these conditions of temperature and pressure, no further separation would
take place.

In most oilfield applications the goal is to stabilize the crude oil for shipment at
pressures at or near to atmospheric, this means that the separator would have to be
operated at this pressure.

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In order to achieve optimum separation in such a case the process would be carried
out in a number of separator vessels working in series. Each separator would operate
at a lower pressure than its predecessor. This process is known as stage separation.
At each stage the gas which is liberated and separated is removed and the liquid
passes to the next vessel in the sequence.

Stage separation is a process in which gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons are separated
into vapor and liquid phases by two or more equilibrium flashes at consecutively
lower pressures. Two-stage separation involves one separator and a storage tank
(Figure 3.5). Three-stage separation requires two separators and a storage tank. Four-
stage separation requires three separators and a storage tank. The tank is always
counted as the final stage of vapor-liquid separation because the final equilibrium
flash occurs in the tank.

The series of vessels used in a stage separation process is known as a train of

separators. The number of vessels in a train varies, but usually ranges from two to
four. We can refer therefore to a two, three or four stage separation train.

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 Figure 3.5 Stage Separation Flow Diagrams

Page 19 of 59
3.7 CLASSIFICATION OF SEPARATORS
Separators are classified into two ways:
1. The shape of the vessel.
2. The number of the fluids to be separated.

3.7.1 The Vessel Shape

Separators are commonly manufactured in three basic shapes:

1. Horizontal Separator
2. Vertical Separator
3. Spherical Separator

A. Horizontal Separators:

The horizontal separator (Figures 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9) is designed for processing
well stream. The large liquid surface area provides for efficient removal of gas from
the liquid. This type of vessel has a large interface area between the liquid and the
gas phases. Thus, adding more separation when the gas capacity is a design criterion,
the horizontal vessel is more economical in high pressure separators due to increased
wall thickness required with large diameters and, in general, recommended for use
with low gas-oil ratio fluid streams unless additional factors dictate otherwise.
However, the liquid level control replacement is more critical than that in vertical
separator.

Figure 3.6 Three-Phase Horizontal Separator

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 Figure 3.7 Two (bottom) and Three-Phase (top) Horizontal Separators

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Operation of Single Barrel Separator:
The oil and gas mixture enters at (A) (Figure 3.8) and hits an angle baffle (B) where
the direction of flow is changed. Here the heavier liquids fall to the bottom of the
tank while the gas and spray rise. This wet gas passes into a chamber (C) where
small drops gather into larger drops and fall into the liquid at the bottom of the tank.

The partly dried gas goes through a final element where the last liquid particles of
smallest size are removed from the gas by a mist extractor (E) generally similar to
the scrubber dome. The dried gas then goes through the top portion of the tank and
into the gas outlet (F). The liquid from which the gas has been removed moves along
the bottom of the tank past the plates (D) to the oil outlet (H). The plates act as
baffles to keep waves from forming in the liquids.

A- Oil and Gas Inlet

B- Impact Angle
C- De-Foaming Element
D- Wave Breaker and Selector Plate
E- Mist Extractor
F- Gas Outlet
G-Drain
H-Oil Outlet

Figure 3.8 Single Barrel Horizontal Separator

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 Figure 3.9 Typical Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with parallel plates

Advantages of Horizontal Separators:

1. For a given oil and gas capacity, the horizontal usually will be cheaper than
a vertical.
2. A horizontal configuration will be more adaptable to skid – mounting and
on-skid piping.
3. For a given size, more area is available for settling in the liquid phase.
Thus, the horizontal conforms to three phase operation better than does a
vertical.
4. If heating coils or sand jets are required, horizontal configuration is more
adaptable.
5. Foamy crudes are processed more effectively in a horizontal than in a
vertical. The greater surface area between the gas and liquid phases is an
asset in allowing free passage of collapsed foam to the liquid section of the
separator. In fact, if the crude is more than slightly foamy, this feature
alone generally will dictate use of a horizontal vessel.

Disadvantages of Horizontal Separators:

1. Horizontal separator normally have less liquid surge capacity than a
vertical of comparable oil and gas capacity, and.
2. Liquid level control is more critical than with a vertical type.

Page 23 of 59
B. Vertical Separators:

This type (Figure 3.10, 3.11, and 3.12) is capable of handling large slugs of liquid
without carryover to the gas outlet and is best suited for well streams with low liquid
content and high gas volume. The action of level control is not critical.

Due to the greater vertical distance between the liquid level and the gas outlet, there
is less tendency to re-vaporize the liquid into the gas phase. Vertical type is most
often used on fluid streams having considerably less liquid than gas (gas – oil ratio is
high)

Advantages of Vertical Separators:

1. Liquid level and control not as critical as for horizontal;
2. Easier and cheaper to design for surge capacity;
3. With certain designs, more extraneous material (for example, sand, mud,
and corrosion products) can be handled; and
4. Usually easier to clean.
5. Requires less space to install (e.g. offshore applications)
Disadvantages of Vertical Separators:
1. More expensive,
2. Does not adapt to skid-mounted assemblies as well as do horizontals in
most case, and
3. Requires a larger diameter for the same gas capacity.

Figure 3.10 Typical Vertical Three-Phase Separator with parallel plates

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 Figure 3.11 Two-Phase Vertical Separator

Page 25 of 59
 Figure 3.12 Two-Phase Vertical Separator

Page 26 of 59
C. Spherical Separators:

These types of separators (Figure 3.13) are compact vessels arrangement and provide
good gas separation. However, they have very limited surge space and liquid settling
section.

When a well stream can contain excess mud or sand and are subjected to surging
foamy components, the spherical separator is not economical. The liquid level
control is very critical.

These Separators are not as popular today because of their limitations.

However, they are still used in small scale operations.

Operation

Figure 3.13 illustrates the principles of the spherical separator. The well stream
enters the top of the separator and the liquids spread thinly over the hemispherical
baffle and accumulate in the lower part of the vessel. Gas proceeds along the same
initial path between the hemispherical baffle and the separator shell. At the lower
edge of the baffle, the gas passes into the chamber of the separator and rises through
the mist extractor. Gas leaves the separator through the upturned outlet which
emerges from the bottom center of the vessel. The rising liquid activates a float or
level controller to operate the oil valve on the dump line from the separator.

Advantages of Spherical Separators: Its compactness

1. Ease of skid mounting
2. Excellent gas separation capacity per dollar, and
3. Its cleanout and drain features are better than those of a vertical separator.

Disadvantages of Spherical Separators:

1. Is not economical for large gas capacities, and
2. Its surge capacity is limited.

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 Figure 3.13 Spherical Separator

Page 28 of 59
The designation of high or low gas-oil ratio is rather arbitrary. The following are
specific instances in which high or low GOR's usually occur:

Low Gas-Oil Ratio

 Oil well streams.

 Flash tanks in dehydration, and sweetening plants.
 Fractionator's reflux accumulators.

High Gas-Oil Ratio

 Gas well streams.

 Gas pipeline scrubbers.
 Compressor suction scrubbers
 Fuel gas scrubbers.

The terms Flash Tank, Accumulator and Scrubber are commonly used for specific
applications of separators. The vessels are gas-liquid separators.

3.7.2 The Number of Fluids to be Separated

Normally, fluids to be separated are either in two or three phases. If there are two
fluids, such as gas and liquid, the separator to be used is a two -phase separator, may
be horizontal or vertical type. If three fluids are separated, such as, gas oil and water,
the vessel to be used is a three-phase separator. The number of phases refers to the
number of streams that leave the vessel, and not the number of phases that are in the
inlet stream. For example, well stream test separator frequently has gas, oil and
water but only the liquid and gas are separated in the vessel, and flow to another
separator where the oil and water are separated. Consequently, a two-phase separator
is one which the inlet stream is divided into two fluids and a three-phase separator
will have three products.

Some well streams contain sand or either solid particles which are removed in a
separator. Special internal devices are provided to collect and dispose of solid
materials. They are not considered another phase in the classification of the vessel.

A- Two-Phase Separators

The flow in horizontal or vertical separators is similar. The well stream enters the
inlet side and strikes a baffle. Forward motion is stopped temporarily with the heavy
liquids falling to the bottom of the vessel.

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Gas and liquid spray continue through straightening vanes, which cause liquid drops
to form and drop intro the accumulation section.

As in Figures 3.11 & 3.12 flow in a centrifugal separator is somewhat different than
that in conventional types. The vessels are usually vertical and depend on centrifugal
action to separate the fluids. The inlet stream is directed to flow around the wall of
the vessel in swirling motion. The heavier liquid moves to the outside, and droplets
collect on the wall and fall to the bottom. The lighter of the fluids collects in the
middle of the vessel and flows up the outlet pipe.

B- Three-Phase Separators

This type handles gas plus two immiscible liquid phases. The two liquid phases
might be oil and water, glycol and oil, etc. The potential application of three phase
separators occurs where space is a major consideration.

The designation of high or low gas-oil ratio is rather arbitrary. The following are
specific instances in which high or low GOR's usually occur:

Low Gas-Oil Ratio

 Oil well streams.

 Flash tanks in dehydration, and sweetening plants.
 Fractionator's reflux accumulators.

High Gas-Oil Ratio

 Gas well streams.

 Gas pipeline scrubbers.
 Compressor suction scrubbers
 Fuel gas scrubbers.

The terms Flash Tank, Accumulator and Scrubber are commonly used for specific
applications of separators. The vessels are gas-liquid separators.

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3.8 SEPARATOR INTERNALS
Production equipment involving the separation of oil and gas usually has a wide
variety of mechanical devices that should be present in some of all separators,
regardless of the overall shape or configuration of the vessel. These mechanical
devices improve the separator’s efficiency and simplify its operation. The most
commonly used devices are:

 Inlet configuration
 Intermediate configuration
 Outlet configuration

3.8.1 Inlet Configurations

In horizontal separators the internal configuration can take many shapes. The most
commonly used are:
 Structural channel iron
 Angle iron
 Cyclone
 Flat plates
 Dished heads
 Schopentoeter

The latter three shapes have been considered optimum for certain applications. These
shapes are used in gas-liquid separators in front of the inlet nozzle of the vessel,
which serve two purposes:

1. To aid in the separation of entrained gas from the liquid.

2. To divert the fluid flow downstream.

In vertical separators, there is a centrifugal inlet device, it causes the primary

separation of the liquid and gas to take place. Here, the incoming stream is subject to
a centrifugal force as much as 500 times the force of gravity. This action stops the
horizontal motion of the liquid droplets together, where they will fall to the bottom in
the settling section.

Inlet Diverters
There are many types of inlet diverters. Figure 3.14 shows two basic types of devices
that are commonly used. The first is a deflector baffle. This can be a spherical dish,
flat plate, angle iron, cone, or just about anything that will accomplish a rapid change
in direction and velocity of the fluids. The rapid change of the fluid velocity
disengages the liquids from the gas due to kinetic energy differences. At the same

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velocity, the higher density liquid possesses more kinetic energy and therefore does
not change direction or velocity as easily as the gas. Thus, the gas tends to flow
around the diverter while the liquid strikes the diverter and then falls to the bottom of
the vessel. The design of the deflector is governed principally by the structural
support required to resist the impact-momentum load. The advantage of using
devices such as a half-sphere or cone is that they create fewer disturbances than
plates or angle iron, cutting down on re-entrainment or emulsifying problems.

Figure 3.14 Two Basic Types of Inlet Diverters

The second device shown in Figure 3.14 is a cyclone inlet that uses centrifugal force
to disengage the oil and gas. This inlet can have a cyclonic chimney, as shown, or
may use a tangential fluid race around the walls. These devices are proprietary but
generally use an inlet nozzle sufficient to create a fluid velocity of about 20 ft/s
(6.096 m/s) around a chimney whose diameter is no larger than two-thirds that of the
vessel diameter.

Page 32 of 59
 Figure 3.15 Inlet Diverter Types

Schoepentoeter
The Schoepentoeter (vane-type) is a Shell-proprietary inlet device and is commonly
used for introducing gas/ liquid mixtures into a vessel or column

It is used to absorb the initial momentum as the well fluid enters the separator. It
tends to deflect the direction of flow causing gas to rise and free liquid to drop that
the flow encounters. A drop in velocity as well as reduction in pressure.

Figure 3.16 shows schematically the typical outline of a Schoepentoter in a vertical

vessel together with its design parameters (for simplicity not all the vanes are
shown).

The geometry of the Schoepentoter is largely standardised so that the choice of

dimensions to be made by the designer is limited to the following:

Page 33 of 59
  The number of vanes per side nv.
 The vane angle, a which is 8 degrees o less.
 The length of the straight part of the vanes, Lv , which shall be 75,
100, 150 or 200 mm. The choice of Lv is also used to fix the vane
spacing.
 The radius of the vanes, Rv, which shall be 50 or 100 mm.

With a Schoepentoeter, it is normal to specify a protruded nozzle, although this is not

essential.

Figure 3.16 Schematic Outline of the Schoepentoeter

a = vane angle, angle made by straight part of vanes with centre line.
B = edge angle, angle made by edge of the row of vanes with centre line.
D = vessel inside diameter, mm.
d1 = inlet nozzle inner diameter, mm
E = available space, mm.
L v = length of straight part of vanes (normally 75, 100, 150 or 200 mm)
N v = number of vanes per side.
R v = vane radius, mm (normally 50 or 100 mm)
t = vane material thickness, mm (normally 3 mm, but typically 5 mm for heavy
duty, e.g. slugs)
Wvo = width of vane entrance opening, mm.

Page 34 of 59
3.8.2 Intermediate configuration

The most commonly used of these intermediate devices are:

 Wave Breaker
 Coalescing plates
 Straightening vanes
 Weir
 Horizontal baffles
 Defoaming Plates

Wave Breakers
In large horizontal vessels, wave breakers may be used to limit wave propagation in
the vessel. The waves may result from surges of liquid entering the vessel. The wave
breakers consist of plates perpendicular to the flow located at the liquid level. On
floating or compliant structures where internal waves may be caused by the motion
of the foundation, wave breakers may also be required parallel to the flow direction.
The wave actions in the vessel must be minimized so level controls, level switches,
and weirs may perform properly.

Stilling Wells
Even where wave breakers are not needed, it may be beneficial to install a stilling
well around any internal floats for level control. The stilling well is a slotted pipe
which protects the float from currents, waves, etc., which could cause it to sense an
incorrect level.

Coalescing Plates
It is possible to use various plate or pipe coalescer designs to aid in the coalescing of
oil droplets in the water and water droplets in the oil. Recent tests using C. E. Natco's
Performax plates indicate that some savings in vessel size are possible. Because of
potential plugging problems, it is recommended that coalescers only be used to
extend the capabilities of existing three-phase separators or where there are severe
space limitations.

Horizontal Baffles
These are used in large gas liquid separators to prevent waves in the liquid phase.

Weir
It is a dam-like structure, which is controlling the liquid level and keeps it at a given
level. Maybe one or two weirs are used in one separator, where one maintains the oil
level and the other the water level.

Page 35 of 59
Straightening vanes
These are used to separate liquid mist from gas and used where hydrate or paraffins
are present. They are used when hydrate or paraffins prevent the use of pads.

Figure 3.17 Straightening vanes

Defoaming Plates
Foam at the interface may occur when gas bubbles are liberated from the liquid. This
foam can be stabilized with the addition of chemicals at the inlet. Many times a more
effective solution is to force the foam to pass through a series of inclined parallel
plates or tubes as shown in Figure 3.18 so as to aid in coalescence of the bubbles.

Figure 3.18 A Schematic of Defoaming Plates

Page 36 of 59
Sand Jets and Drains
In horizontal three-phase separators, one concern is the accumulation of sand and
solids at the bottom of the vessel. If allowed to build up, these solids upset the
separator operations by taking up vessel volume. Generally, the solids settle to the
bottom and become well packed.

To remove the solids, sand drains are opened in a controlled manner, and then high-
pressure fluid, usually produced water, is pumped through the jets to agitate the
solids and flush them down the drains. The sand jets are normally designed with a 20
ft/s jet tip velocity and aimed in such a manner to give good coverage of the vessel
bottom.

To prevent the settled sand from clogging the sand drains, sand pans or sand troughs
are used to cover the outlets. These are inverted troughs with slotted side openings.

Figure 3.19 Sand Jets and Piping Inside Horizontal and Vertical Separator.
Triangular Cover Prevents Plugging of Drains.

Page 37 of 59
3.8.3 Outlet Configuration

These mechanical outlet devices are sometimes used in horizontal and vertical
separators, and the most commonly used are the following.

Mist pad or extractor

Most frequently used in gas-liquid separators and normally located near the gas
outlet that will coalesce small particles (mist) of liquid that will not settle out by
gravity. It breaks oil-water emulsion to help in segregating the two liquids. Not used
where hydrate or paraffin may be present.

The most common mist extraction device is the knitted wire mesh pad which is an
impingement mechanism. (Figure 3.20)

Figure 3.20 A knitted Wire Mesh Pad

This type of mist extractor is placed near to the gas outlet from the vessel. As the gas
containing the very small droplets flows past the wire mesh, the gas turns to flow
round the strands of wire. The droplets, however, tend to continue in a straight line
so they will strike the wire strands and stick to them. As more droplets stick to the
wire, a film of liquid forms which slowly moves to the lowest point on the wire. At
this point the liquid accumulates to form a drop. When the drop is large enough it
will break away from the surface where it has collected. From there it will fall down
to the liquid accumulation section of the separator under the influence of gravity.

Page 38 of 59
 Figure 3.21 The Action of a Knitted Wire Mesh Pad
The use of centrifugal force for mist extraction is usually confined to vessels where
the gas flow is vertically upwards. If the gas stream containing liquid mist is made to
flow in a circular motion, centrifugal force throws the liquid particles outwards. This
causes the particles to impinge on the walls of the vessel or container. Here the small
droplets will coalesce into larger droplets until they are large enough to gravitate to
the liquid accumulation section.
G

Figure 2.22 A Centrifugal Force Type Mist Extractor

Page 39 of 59
In centrifugal extraction, a continual change in gas flow direction at high velocities is
required for small particle removal. This results in relatively large pressure drops
across the extractor, which may limit its application.

The stainless steel woven wire mesh mist-eliminator of thickness 10 – 20 cm (4-8

inch) is considered to be the most efficient type. It is held in place by a sturdy grid
which prevents it from being swept out or torn by a sudden surge of gas, and has
been proven by removing up to 99.5% or ore of the entrained liquids from the gas
stream.

This type offers the greatest area for the collection of liquid droplets per unit volume
as compared to vane type.

Figures (3.23 and 3.24) show two of the most common mist-extraction devices; wire-
mesh pads, and vans. Wire-mesh pads are made of finely woven mats of stainless
steel wire wrapped into a tightly packed cylinder. The liquid droplets impinge on the
matted wires and coalesce. The effectiveness of wire mesh depends largely on the
gas being in the proper velocity range. If the velocities are low, the vapor just drifts
through the mesh pad without the droplets impinging and coalescing. Alternately
high velocity gas can strip the liquid droplets from the wire mesh and carry the
droplets out the gas outlet.

Weir-Mish Pads

Arch Plates

Figure 3.23 Schematic of Two Types of Mist Extractors

Page 40 of 59
Vane-type mist extractors force the gas flow to be laminar between parallel plates,
which contain directional changes. Droplets impinge on the plate surface where they
coalesce and fall to a liquid-collection area where they are routed to the liquid-
collection section of the vessel. Vane-type mist extractors are sized by their
manufacturers to assure both laminar flow and a certain minimum pressure drop.

Figure 3.24 A Common Mist Extraction Device using Vanes

Some separators have centrifugal mist extractors which cause the liquid drops to be
separated by centrifugal force. These can be more efficient than either wire mesh or
vanes and are the least susceptible to plugging. However, they are not in common use
in production operations because their removal efficiencies are sensitive to small
changes in flow. In addition they require relatively larger pressure drops to create the
centrifugal force.

Page 41 of 59
The selection of a type of mist extractor involves a typical cost benefit analysis. Wire
mesh pads are the cheapest; however, mesh pads are the most susceptible to plugging
with paraffins, gas hydrates, etc. With age, mesh pads also tend to deteriorate and re-
lease wires and/or chunks of the pad to the gas stream. This can be extremely
damaging to downstream equipment such as compressors. Vane units, on the other
hand, are more expensive. Typically, vane units are less susceptible to plugging and
deterioration than mesh pads. The selection of a type of mist extractor is affected by
the fluid characteristics, the system requirements, and the cost.

It is recommended that the sizing of mist extractors should be left to the

manufacturer. No specific sizing technique has been identified for mist extractors and
therefore no method is presented in this manual. Experience indicates that if the
gravity-settling section is designed to remove liquid droplets of 500 micron or
smaller diameter, there will be sufficient space to install a mist extractor.

Figure 3.25 Mist Extractors in Various Types Vessels

Page 42 of 59
Vortex Breakers
The liquid outlet should be equipped with anti-vortex devices to prevent a vortex
from forming, and gas from going out with the liquid. Several types are shown in
Figures 3.26 & 3.27.

Figure 3.26 Outlet Vortex Breaker

Figure 3.27 Three Views of Typical Vortex Breaker

Page 43 of 59
3.9 OPERATORS AND TROUBLESHOOTING
3.9.1 Separator Control

Separators have two major control points:

1. Pressure control.
2. Level control.

A- Pressure Control (Figure 3.28)

The pressure of the separator must be rather constant, independent of the operation of
adjacent equipment. Usually, this means a back pressure valve on the gas outlet, any
off-set due to flow rate changes normally no problem.

However, the vessel design pressure and high pressure alarm or shut down controls
must be consistent with the range of pressure expected for the proportional setting
and off-set anticipation.

The pressure on a separator should be held as high as possible in order to the best
possible operation. Increasing the pressure reduces the actual volume of gas, and
thereby lowers the velocity of the gas in the vessel. Therefore, pressure is regulated
with a pressure control valve, which regulates the flow of gas leaving the vessel.

Figure 3.28 Separator Pressure and Level Controls

Page 44 of 59
B- Level Control (Figure 3.28)

1. Two-Phase Separators Level Control

In horizontal separators the point at which you hold the level of liquid in the
separator can have a significant effect on the separation of the vessels. The level of
the liquid in the separator needs to be enough, so that the volume of the liquid in the
vessel will provide the desired residence time for gas bubbles to break out.

It should be apparent that the separator and control design should be compatible if
the liquid level is high, the residence time will be more than is required. This will not
affect the quality of the liquid that is withdrawn from the vessel, but will reduce the
vapor disengaging space and can result in some liquid carrying over in the outlet gas
stream
.
In a vertical separator the liquid level control point will usually not have much
effect on the quality of the gas out of the vessel because the vapour space is usually
several meters (feet) high, and a few centimeters (inches) will have little effect.

Example: (Figure 3.29)

A 60 cm (24 inch) diameter horizontal separator is designed to operate with the

vessel half full of liquid. What will be the effect on the vapor disengaging space if
the liquid level varies 8 cm (3 in.) from the middle of the vessel? The effect of
changing the level 8 cm (3 in.) is as follows:

From this, you see that changing the level 8 cm (3 in.) increases or reduce the volume
of vapor space about 30%. The change would be less in a larger diameter vessel.

Page 45 of 59
Figure 3.29 Effects of 8 Cm (13 In.) Change in Level in 60 cm (124 In) Diameter

The point at which the level controller should be set will depend upon how rates of
liquid and gas entering the vessel. If the gas rate is above design, and the liquid rate
is less, you should run with a lower level to allow more room in the vessel for vapor
disengaging. On the other hand, if the liquid rate in up, and the gas rate is down, you
should raise the level in order to provide more liquid residence time.

It is often difficult to determine whether the liquid residence time is sufficient to

allow gas bubbles to break out. If it is dumping into an atmospheric tank, you might
get some idea its gas content by observing the amount of gas that is being vented
from the tank.

The gas leaving a separator usually flows to another process vessel, and liquid
carryover will usually fall out in it. If liquid carryover is noticed, it can often be
stopped by lowering the liquid level. Generally, liquid carryover in the gas stream
will cause more operating problems than gas bubbles in the liquid stream.
Consequently, it is usually better to hold the liquid level on the low side rather than
the high side in horizontal separators.

Page 46 of 59
2. Three Phase Separator Level Control

Level control in separators handling water and oil is a little more involved because
control of the water level will effect residence time of both water and oil.
Furthermore, these vessels are often in a service in which the quantities of water and
oil often in during the operation of the separator.

For example, a new oil well might make 7000 m3 /d of gas, 40 m3 /d of oil and 1 m3
/ d of water (250 M cf/d of gas, 250bbl/d of oil and 6 bbl/d of water). After 5 years,
the production may change to 11 000 m3 /d of gas, 30 m3 /d of oil and 15 m3 /d water
(400 M cf/d of gas, 200 bbl/d of oil and 100 bbl/d of water). During the early stage
of production, most of the liquid section is filled with oil.

Water level is operated near its lowest control point. After 5 years the water level
must be raised in order to provide sufficient residence time for the water production

Control of the water level in the above case was accomplished with a level controller
having its float partially immersed in water and the remainder in oil. The float that is
used on the controller must be designed for the difference in specific gravities of the
oil and water that are in the vessel. You can visualize the float as being heavy enough
so that it sinks in the oil but floats in water a float used to control the level of oil in a
gas-oil interface would not function in an oil-water interface.

The oil-water interface is often difficult to detect. Wood, rags, scale and dirt that
sinks in oil but floats on water will accumulate at the interface. This material tends to
promote foam or an emulsion of water and oil. Consequently there may be no clear
cut interface, but instead, a layer or trash will form between the oil and water. The
mixture will cause erratic action of the level controller.

Page 47 of 59
It is not unusual for a gauge glass to show a distinct interface when this layer is in the
separator. This is illustrated below.

If one of the gauge glass connections to the vessel is in the trash layer, the glass may
fill with the material, and an interface cannot be seen. When this occurs, the trash
layer should be drained from the vessel.

In order to get away from level control in an emulsion, the level of oil and water is
usually controlled by the methods shown in Figure 3.30

In the vertical separator shown in Figure 3.30 the oil level can be changed a few
cm (inches) by resetting the level controller. In the horizontal separator, the level in
the oil setting chamber is fixed by the height of the weir on the oil bucket. The
volume of oil within the bucket is relatively small, and no significant change in the
oil settling volume will result from a change in level within the bucket.

In most separators, the total liquid settling volume is fairly constant. The volume of
the oil and water settling sections depends upon the location of the interface location
of the interface on the separators in Figure 3.30 depends on the level in the water
draw- off chamber the level should be low at low water rates, and raised as the water
rate increases.

Page 48 of 59
 Figure 3.30 Three Phase Separator Interface Control

Page 49 of 59
3.9.2 Troubleshooting

Frequent problems with separators are:

1. Liquid carryover in the outlet gas stream.

2. Inability to maintain constant liquid level.
3. Failure of coalescing devices to function properly so that one or both liquid
streams contain an excessive quantity of the other liquid.

The procedure for finding and eliminating the cause of the problems is discussed in
detail below.

Page 50 of 59
A- Troubleshooting Procedure for Liquid Carry Over in Outlet Gas Stream

Cause of Carry Over Troubleshooting Procedure

1. Excessive inlet gas flow rate Check gas flow rate and cut back to design
rate

2. High liquid level which cuts Check liquid level.

down vapor disengaging Blow down gauge glass.
space Lower level to design point

3. Coalescing plates or mist pad or a. Check temperature and pressure to

centrifugal device is plugged determine if hydrate can form.
with dirt or hydrate
b. Measure pressure drop across device. It
should be less than 0.1 bars [2 psi]. If drop
across mist pad is 0, pad may have torn or
come loose from its mounting. Pressure
drop measurement should be made at
design gas rate. High pressure drop
indicates plugging. Internally inspect if
necessary

4. Excessive wave action in liquid Check or install horizontals baffles.

5. Operating pressure is below Check pressure and raise to design or lower

design gas rate in proportion to reduction in pressure

6. Liquid API gravity is higher Check liquid gravity. If it is above design, gas
than design rate will have to be cut in proportion to
difference in gravity.

Page 51 of 59
B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

1. Float is totally covered with a. Blow down gauge glass to get accurate
liquid level reading.

b. If float cage is external, blow it down to be

sure pipes between cage and vessel are not
plugged.

c. When gauge glass and float cage are clean,

check to see if float is covered with liquid.

d. Manually drain enough liquid from vessel

so that ½ of float is immersed.

2. Liquid level is below float a. Perform steps a & b above.

Note: Level controller will not b. If level is below float, close valve in liquid
function if the liquid level line to allow level to rise until float is ½
is above or below the covered.
float. The float must be
partially immersed in c. Put level controller in service.
liquid in order for the
controller to work.

3. Liquid flow rate has changed. a. If level controller does not have reset, the
level control point on the controller will
have to be changed each time the liquid to
be changed each the liquid flow rate makes
a significant change.

b. If controller has reset, it can be adjusted to

take care of changes in liquid flow rate.

Page 52 of 59
B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level
(Continued)

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

4. Liquid enters vessel in slugs. a. Lower level set point on controller.
Level controller does not
react fast enough to drain b. Lower proportional band setting.
liquid.
c. In some cases it may be helpful to install a
valve positioned on the level control valve
in order for it to open rapidly.

5. Level control valve is not a. Check valve action to see that it is not
operating properly. closing when it is supposed to open.
b. Stroke-valve to full open and closed
positions to see that the spring tension is
not too tight or too loose, and that nothing
is under the valve seat to prevent it form
closing.
c. Check liquid flow rate with valve fully
open to see that there is no restriction in the
line.

6. Wave action is causing Install float shield.

internal float to move.

7. Level controller shows no a. Manually twist torque tube or float arm to

response to change in level. see that controller shows response. If there
is no response, repair controller. If
controller shows response, float has
apparently drooped off, or liquid level is
above or below float.
b. Check liquid level as described in items 1
and 2.
c. Manually open and close drain valve so
that the liquid level travels the full length
of the float. If the controller shows no
response, the float had fallen off.

Page 53 of 59
B- Troubleshooting Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level
(Continued)

Cause of Changing Level Troubleshooting Procedure

8. Float in oil-water interface is a. Check for emulsion in vessel by draining a

totally immersed in emulsion. line connected to the vessel near the float.

b. Drain emulsion from vessel if it is present.

9. Gravity of oil has changed so a. Check gravity of liquid.

that float will not respond to
change in level. b. If it is different from design, consult level
controller supplier to get a new float.

Page 54 of 59
C- Troubleshooting Procedure When One Liquid Contains an Excessive
Amount of the other Liquid.

Cause of Excessive of One Troubleshooting Procedure

Liquid

1. The flow rate of one or both Check flow rates and cut back to designing
liquids is high. rates.

2. The temperature of the liquids is Check the temperature and raise it to design
below design.

3. Filters or coalescing material is a. Check pressure drop across coalescing

plugged. device
.
b. Clean or replace coalescing material or filter
elements.

4. Interface level is float above or a. Blow down gauge glass and cage to get
below float so that level accurate level indication.
controller will not function.
b. Open or close valve in liquid lines as
required bringing interface level to center of
float.

5. Improper interface level a. If oil contains water interface level is too

high. Level must be lowered.

b. If water contains oil, interface level is too

low. Level must be raised.

The gauge glass that indicates the liquid level is probably the most important
operating device on a separator. It is also one of the easiest devicse to plug with dirt
and debris, and cause it to shown a flase level.

Gauge glasses should be cleaned with a broush or with a chemical solution of

frequent intervals; and the gauge valves should be blown as required to prevent an
accumulation of dirt in them.

Page 55 of 59
3.10 OPERATING PROBLEMS
Some of the major problems encountered in the operation of oil and gas separators
are due to foam, paraffin, sand, emulsions and slugging.

3.10.1 Foamy Crudes

This is caused when the oil fails to release the gas quickly enough as it passes
through the vessel, and a layer of oily bubbles forms on top of the liquid surface.

Another major cause of foam is impurities other than water in the crude oil that are
impractical to remove before the stream reaches the separator. Foam presents no
problem within a separator if the internal design assures that the rate of foam breakup
is faster (or at least equal to) the rate of buildup.

The level control displacer on the oil side of the weir is designed to operate in a
liquid. It cannot float in foam.

When the float sinks in the foam it indicates a false low level to the level controller
and the oil outlet valve will close. This can result in the carry-over of liquids with
the gas stream and a possible shutdown of the gas facilities downstream.

The problem

Foaming in a separating vessel is a threefold problem and may be outlined as

follows:

1. Mechanical control of liquid level is aggravated because any control device

must deal with essentially three instead of two phases.

2. Foam has a large volume-to-weight ratio. Therefore, it occupies more than its
appropriate share of vessel space, which would otherwise be available to allow
minimum gas and oil velocities.

3. In an uncontrolled foam bank, it becomes impossible to remove separated gas

or degassed oil from the vessel without entraining some of the foamy material
in either the liquid or gas.

Information concerning the general characteristics of foam within separators is of

little value, since the vessels contain no windows or ports to inspect the interior.
However, information on characteristics of foaming liquids may be compared with

Page 56 of 59
respect to known oil-gas separation results and predictions within given vessels can
be derived.

To stop this happening, anti-foam agents are often injected into the inlet stream to
prevent foaming.

Use of a Foam Comparator

Comparison of foaming tendencies of a known oil to new one about which no

operational information is known can be made on the basis of observations in a foam
comparator. The results provide comparison of the relative foam problem, which
may be expected with the new oil as weighed against the known oil production.
Then a related amount of adjustment can be made in the design parameters, as
compared to those found satisfactory for the known case.

It should be noted that the amount of foam varies with pressure levels between which
gas is liberated and also with the characteristics of the liquid at separator conditions.
Therefore, comparators do not take into account all function of foam formation.
Though no measure of quantitative foaming effect can be taken into account,
qualitative comparisons of two different crude or two conditions of one crude are
most valuable in separator application decisions. In some cases, the effects of
temperature may be found to be quite spectacular and frequently is overlooked in the
design of separators for foaming conditions. The influence of this effect can be
evaluated by use of a foam comparator.

Results of a foam comparator test will allow a manufacturer to design the internals of
the separator to most efficiently process the foam by breaking it into its gaseous and
liquid phases before it leaves the separator.

Depressants

Foam depressants are available that often will do a good job in increeasing the
capacity of a given separator. However, in sizing a separator to handle a particular
crude, the use of an effective depressant should not be assumed as charateristics of
the crude and the foam may change during the life of the field. Sufficient capacity
should be provided in the separator to handle the anticipated production without use
of a foam depressant inhibitor. Once in operation, use of a foam depressant may
allow more throughput than the design capacity. This is valuable in expansion
programs. To anticipate this effect, it is a good idea to oversize lines and valves
entering and leaving a separator.

Page 57 of 59
3.10.2 Paraffin

Separator operation can be adversely affected by an accumulation of paraffin. Mist

extractors, in particular, are prone to malfunction by accumulations of paraffin.
Where it is determined that paraffin is an actual or potential problem, use of a type of
mist extractor prone to plugging should be avoided; and manways, handholes and
nozzles shoud be provided to allow steam, solvent or other type of cleaning of the
separator internals.

3.10.3 Sand

Sand can be very troublesome in separators. These difficulties are evidenced mainly
by cut-out of valve trim, plugging of separator internals and accumulation in the
bottom of equipment. Special hard trim can minimize effects of sand on the valve.
Accumulations of sand can be alleviated by the inclusion of jets for injection of
water, steam or possibly a side stream of the production periodically into the bottom
of the vessel.

Plugging of separator intermals is a problem that must be given considerable

consideration in the design of the separator. A design that will promote good
separation and have a minimum of traps for sand accumulation may be difficult to
attain. The design that provides the best mechanism for separating the gas and oil
phases probably will provide areas for sand accumulation. A practical balance of
these factors is the best solution, and the experience of a separator manufacturer is
invaluble in providing a workable solution to the problem.

3.10.4 Emulsions

A common operating problem is that caused by the water and oil forming an
emulsion.

This is a mixture of two immiscible liquids where one of the liquids is dispersed
throughout the other in the form of very small droplets. In the oilfield, the dispersed
liquid is usually the water.

An emulsion may be classed as 'tight' or 'loose'. Milk is a tight emulsion. It is a

mixture of butter fats and water and it cannot be easily broken.

Salad dressing is a loose emulsion. It is a mixture of oil and vinegar. When you
shake the bottle an emulsion forms and the small globules of oil and vinegar can be
seen with the naked eye. If you let the bottle stand for a few minutes the emulsion
will break down and the oil will begin to float on the top of the vinegar.

Page 58 of 59
If emulsions are found in a separation process they may be tight or loose. The type
will depend, for example, on the nature of the oil being produced and the amount of
water present.

If a stable emulsion has been formed betwwen the oil and water phases upstream of
the separator or in the vessel, separation of these phases is not practical. The
combined water and oil stream must be removed from the separator and routed to
other equipmnt for separation into two phases. This separation usually can be
accomplished in a conventional treater.

When emulsion tendencies are present, the settling time required to achieve an
acceptable separation of oil and water may be longer than that required to adequatly
clean the gas in any vessel configuration. In this case, it will be necessary to remove
the water and oil phases from the vessel and route them to another separator for
further processing. Frequently, it is possible to appreciably lower the settling time
necessary for water-oil separation by application of heat in the liquid section of the
separator.

Over a period of time an accumulation of emulsified material and /or other impurities
usually will form at the interface of the water and oil phases. In addition to adverse
effects on the liquid level control, this occurrence will also decrease the liquid
settling time in the separator with a resultant decrease in water-oil separation
efficiency,however, in some cases, the emulsion can be treated in the separator itself.
This involves the injection of a chemical into the well fluids. This chemical, which
is called a demulsifier, helps to break down the emulsion and allows the separator to
do its job.

3.10.5 Slugging

Slugging occurs when, for some reason or another, there is an intermittent, rather
than a constant, flow of well fluids into the separator. In some instances the flow may
cease altogether for a few seconds and then a slug will arrive.

This intermittent flow can cause rapid fluctuations in separator levels and pressures.
The controllers react to these changes by rapidly opening and closing their respective
valves in an attempt to bring the situation under control. In severe cases the control
system may become unstable resulting in a shutdown.

Page 59 of 59
 Condensate Stabilization

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Page 1 of 9
4.1 Introduction
Condensate stabilization is a unit operation in a gas processing facility whereby the
liquid hydrocarbons separated in the inlet separation unit are further processed to
produce a stable quality condensate (pentane plus) product for downstream use such as a
crude (heavy) oil diluent and/or gasoline blending in a crude oil refinery. Any recovered
light ends (methane to butane fractions) are processed with the gas phases through the
rest of the gas processing facility.

In most cases, fractionation or distillation is used to help separate any lighter end
fractions from the liquid condensate fraction. In some cases, a partial demethanization is
used to help reduce any light end or gas loadings to the condensate stabilization unit
itself.

4.2 Condensate stabilization

Partial demethanization can be done between the inlet separation and gas sweetening unit
operations in order to help partially stabilize the condensate at high inlet pressures seen
from the inlet separator. This helps reduce the low molecular weight gas fractions
(methane, H2S, CO2, etc.) that will have to be removed in the regular condensate
stabilizer. Therefore, there will be less recompression power required for the lower
pressure gas volumes that have to be reintroduced into the gas phase train (sweetening)
of the plant (Figure 7).

Referencing Figure 8. a typical condensate stabilization system can be seen. The

hydrocarbon liquid phase of an inlet separator is withdrawn from the separator vessel
and preheated to approximately 283 °F. and introduced into a distillation column called
the "condensate stabilizer". In this diagram, the column has 30 trays with the feed being
introduced on tray number 13. The overhead vapors are condensed with the non-
condensed gases going to the low pressure gas train while the reflux is used for column
operation. The bottoms (420 °F.) are cross exchanged with the feed and fed to
condensate storage. The reboiler in this case is a direct fired heater using plant fuel gas.
The fired heater is required for the high boiling temperatures on the condensate fraction
versus the available heat from high pressure steam. Figure 9 shows an example of a
direct fired heater used in a condensate stabilizer system. The bottoms temperature of the
column can be adjusted to accommodate the required quality of the condensate to be
produced. The quality most measured in the condensate is called the "Reid Vapor
Pressure" (RVP).

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 Figure 7 Inlet Separators & Condensate Demethanizer

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Page 3 of 9
 Figure 8 Stabilizing System

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 Figure 9 Fired Stabilizer Heater

The RVP in the stabilized condensate represents the vapor pressure (psia) required
for downstream uses. The typical composition of the stabilizer bottoms will
normally contain butane and heavier fractions. The amount of butane can be
measured indirectly by the RVP. In Figure 10 it can be seen that the split on a
condensate stabilizer will be between propane (the light key) and butane (the
heavy key). As well, the different grades of natural gasoline can be determined by
use of the RVP and "% evaporated at 140 °F." measurements. The RVP is in
'psia' units and the % evaporated is shown accordingly.

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Page 5 of 9
The grades are then derived from the RVP and evaporation data by noting that data
in the grade number itself. For example, a Grade 34-25 means that the natural
gasoline has a RVP of 34 psia with a 25% evaporation at 140 °F. The higher the
grade, the lower the initial boiling point, higher the butane content, lighter the
specific gravity, and less heavies in the gasoline. The grade is important for
gasoline blending and crude/heavy oil dilution purposes (addition calculations).

Figure 10

The additional Figures 11 to 14 are for reference only. They show typical
fractionation details similarly discussed in the distillation topic covered previously.
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 Figure 11 Fractionator

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 Figure 12 Reboilers Arrangement

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Name: ………………………
Date: ……………………….

ASSIGNMENT #4 - CONDENSATE STABILIZATION

Marks
1 1. Name the most important component in stabilized condensate (hint: (RVP).

4 2. Describe the function of "partial demethanization".

4 3. Explain why a direct fired heater is used in condensate stabilization.

4 4. Describe how a "Grade" is determined for natural gasoline:

2 5. Which grade of natural gasoline is higher in butane content?

"Grade 34 - 70" or "Grade 14 - 25"? Explain the difference.

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Page 9 of 9
 Sweetening Processes

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5.1 Introduction
Natural gas sweetening is the term generally used to describe the removal of hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other sulphur compounds such as carbonyl
sulphide (COS), carbon disulphide (CS2), and mercaptans (RSH) that may be present in
the gas stream. Gas sweetening is also referred to as gas treating or acid gas removal.

There are several reasons for removing the acid gas components from the gas stream:

1) Safety and Environmental Protection:

- H2S is a dangerous and extremely toxic poison

- Sulphur compounds can be oxidized into sulphuric acids (acid Rain) in the
atmosphere

2) Product Specification:
- H2S product specification normally limited to 0.25 −1.0 grain H2S per 100
SCF of gas (5.75 x 10−6 kg/m3 [7 ppm] − 23.0 x 10−6 kg/cm3 [28 ppm])

- CO2 concentrations are generally limited to 2% by volume

3) Corrosion Prevention:
- H2S is potentially a very corrosive material especially combined with
other contributing factors (water vapor, heat, or pressure). A similar
potential exists with CO2.

4) Improved Heating Value:

- CO2 has no heating value and H2S is low heating value.

5) Prevention of CO2 Solid (Dry Ice) Formation:

- CO2 can create problems by forming a solid at cryogenic plant temperatures
such as those at cascade refrigeration and turbo expander plants.

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5.2 Sweetening processes
5.2.1 Factors for Process Selection

5.2.1.1 Type of Impurities to be Removed

 The type of process depends on what sour components need to be removed.

 Mercaptans, COS and/or CS2 may limit or eliminate some processes. For
example, the Sulphinol process removes mercaptans the most effectively of
all processes.

5.2.1.2 Concentration of Impurities and Degree of Removal Desired

 Some processes are suitable for removal of large quantities of acid gas.

 Some processes may not sweeten to sales gas specifications.

 Some process has the capacity to remove AG (acid gas) components to a

very low residual.

5.2.1.3 Acid Gas Selectivity

 Selectivity is an indication of the degree of removal that can be obtained for
one acid gas constituent as opposed to another. There are processes that are
more selective for one acid gas component versus another.

5.2.1.4 Operating Conditions

 The value of gas, temperature, and pressure conditions play a significant
role in the selection of a sweetening process.

 Economic advantages can be seen with higher or lower volumes of gas to be

treated depending on the process.

5.2.1.5 Hydrocarbon Composition

 Some sweetening solvents absorb relatively large amounts of hydrocarbons
as well as the acid gas impurities.

 Sulphur produced from a Claus unit is quite sensitive to the presence of

heavier hydrocarbons in the acid gas feed. Additional acid gas (AG)
processing may be required.

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5.2.1.6 H2S to CO2 Ratio
 A high ratio has been found to be less corrosive than a low ratio.

 High ratio gas will permit higher acid concentrations in the absorbing
solution (hence lower circulation rates).

5.2.1.7 Capital and Operating Costs

 Final selection will depend upon comparative costs and features of the
processes (reclaiming required, energy, solvent losses, royalties, etc.).

5.2.2 Process Classification

Acid gas removal processes may be classified as regenerative or non-regenerative

using a batch or continuous, dry or wet system.

Figure 15 shows a list of different processes for gas sweetening.

5.2.2.1 Regenerative Sweetening Process

Regenerative sweetening processes are used to remove the acid gas Components
and then are returned to their original condition for re-use. The amine absorption
process is one example of a regenerative process commonly used in the gas
processing industry. Another regenerative process is the mole sieve process.

The amine system is a continuous wet process using the absorption mechanism
while the mole sieve system is a batch dry process using the adsorption
mechanism.

5.2.2.2 Non-Regenerative Process

Non-regenerative processes absorb or adsorb AG components from the gas stream
but form other compounds which cannot be economically returned to their original
state for re-use. These processes would normally be used for small quantities of
acid gases and used commonly in conjunction with other regenerative processes
for trace clean up of AG components.

Some non-regenerative processes such as "Chemsweet", "Sulfa-Check", or "Sulfa

Treat" are used in the field gathering of natural gas to treat low acid gas
concentrations at the well sites. Non-regenerative processes are not economical for
high concentration acid gas streams.

5.2.2.3 Batch Processes

A batch process is one in which a limited amount of sweetening agent is placed in
a vessel (contactor or adsorber). A limited volume of acid gas can be removed
before the agent has to be taken out of service to be regenerated, discarded, or
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Page 4 of 12
replaced. Examples of batch processes are mole sieve, iron sponge, and "Sulfa
Treat" processes. In most cases, batch processes will use two or more vessels for
'on-line run / off-line regenerate' system.

5.2.2.4 Continuous Processes

Continuous processes are designed to have the spent sweetening agent
continuously withdrawn from the contact vessel as fresh or regenerated sweetening
agents are added to the vessel. Examples of continuous process systems are amine
sweetening, "Chemsweet", and some direct oxidation processes.

Sweetening processes can be further classified as chemical solvent, physical

solvent, or direct conversion processes. Chemical solvent processes are based on
reversible chemical reactions such as alkanolamines (MEA, DEA, or DGA) or
alkaline salt solutions (potassium carbonate).

Physical solvents utilize organic solvents and accomplish AG removal by physical

adsorption (Sulfinol and Selexol).

Direct conversion processes involve the reaction of H2S to produce elemental

sulphur. There are two types of reaction processes - oxidation reaction using an
alkaline salt solution and oxygen and stoichiometric using a liquid solvent which
may serve as a catalyst to yield elemental sulphur.

Amine Chemistry
The degree of sweetening possible in a contactor depends on two things -how
closely equilibrium can be approached on the top tray and the residual acid gas
content of the lean amine going into the contactor at the top tray.

The adjustments that can be made to help change the approach to equilibrium are
the solution concentration and the solution circulation rate.
For a given solution strength, the circulation rate follows the inlet gas rate up and
down.

Each liter (or gallon or mole) of amine will ideally carry a predetermined amount
of acid gas with it. This is called the acid gas pickup or loading. The concentration
should also stay within a certain range. Too low a concentration causes pumping
rates, higher reboiler heat input, decreased regeneration effectiveness, higher
amine losses, and a sour residue gas. Too high a concentration may cause higher
reaction temperatures in the contactor which in turn cause incomplete absorption,
sour residue gas and increased corrosion.

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Design solution concentrations vary. MEA (monoethanolamine) solution strength
runs from 15−30 %. DEA (diethanolamine) solution strengths run 22 − 30%.
DGA (diglycolamine) solution strengths can run up to 65%.

Figure 15

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The best and most economical running of sweetening contactors should be at high
pressure and low temperature. The regeneration process is best run at low pressure
and higher temperatures.

Different removal agents have advantages and disadvantages:

Agent Advantages Disadvantages

MEA easy to sweeten acid gas to high circulation
pipeline specs. rates required.

cheap and easy to reclaim higher vapor losses

removes COS and CS2 irreversible

reactions with COS and
CS2

Sulphinol removes mercaptans increases hydrocarbon

content of sweet gas

reduced circulation rates cost of chemical

reduced vapor losses need reclaimer and is

hard to reclaim
Iron Sponge removes H2S and mercaptans batch process, dump /
dispose if small quantities

remote/self running unit near low gas rates with low

H2S

can be used at the wellhead

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5.3 Operating problems - amine systems
5.3.1 Amine Process Description
Figure 16 shows a typical process flow diagram for the basic amine unit.

The sour gas enters the inlet scrubber for removal of any free water and/or
condensed hydrocarbons prior to entry into the amine contactor.
The scrubbed sour gas is then fed upward through the trays of the contactor where
it comes into intimate contact with the amine flowing down and across the trays
(similar to distillation). The amine reacts with the acid gas components and is
withdrawn from the bottom of the contactor as a "rich amine" i.e. the amine
solution contains the sour gas components.
The sweet gas exiting the top of the contactor is put through an outlet Scrubber to
ensure removal of any carried-over amine solution entrained in the gas. The rich
amine is then introduced into a flash tank where the pressure is reduced in order to
flash off any dissolved hydrocarbons that may be in the amine solution itself.
Some of the acid gas that is flashed off as well is scrubbed with regenerated amine
to remove the acid gas components from the flashed hydrocarbon gas.
Some hydrocarbon liquids may also settle out in the flash tank which can then be
removed.
The flashed rich amine is then cross exchanged with the hot regenerator bottoms
prior to entry into the regenerator. The rich amine flows downward over the trays
in the stripping section and comes into contact with the rising stripping vapor
produced in the reboiler. The stripping vapor is mostly steam that heats up the rich
solution causing the release of the acid gases. The stripper overheads are
condensed and returned to the column (reflux section) while the acid gases non-
condensable) are sent to sulphur recovery.

The hot stripped amine solution (called lean amine) is then cross exchanged with
the cold rich amine coming from the flash tank. The lean amine is then trim cool
as/if necessary prior to re-entry into the contactor. The amine temperature must be
at least 5 deg C. higher than the sour gas in the contactor to help prevent
hydrocarbon condensation. The lean amine is pumped back up to contactor
pressure since the regenerator runs at low pressure.

An "optional" piece of equipment is called an amine "reclaimer". A reclaimer is

usually a batch still where the amine is "cooked" at higher temperatures vaporizing
the amine and venting the vapor back to the regenerator. A residue consisting of
chemical degradation products is disposed of. Filters are also used in the amine
plant to filter out solids and dissolved organics.
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 Figure 16 Typical Amine Plant Process Flow Diagram

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Page 9 of 12
5.3.2 Operational Problems

5.3.2.1 Hydrocarbon condensation

 Most common cause of foaming in contactor. Some other causes of foaming
could be finely divided solids, degradation products, corrosion inhibitors,
plug valve greases, impurities in solution makeup water.

 Must keep lean amine temperature to contactor at least 5 °C (10 ° F) higher

than the inlet gas temperature

5.3.2.2 Inlet Gas Temperature to Contactor

 Should be less than 40 °C. (105 °F) to minimize amine loss and improve
acid gas removal

5.3.2.3 Corrosion
 Most serious problem associated with the amine process
 Acid gases cause corrosion where they are at their highest concentration and
temperature i.e. lean/rich exchanger, stripping section of regenerator, and
reboiler.
 Corrosion minimization by:
- limit AG pick-up per mole of amine
- regenerator operation at lowest temperature possible
- use low pressure, saturated steam in the reboiler
- eliminate/filter degradation products
- proper location of flash control valve
- stress relieve equipment
- eliminate turbulence points from the amine flow path
- pass the rich amine on the tube side of the cross exchangers (easier
cleanup/repair)
- amine addition to reflux loop on regenerator

5.3.2.4 Amine Degradation

 Amine solution degradation not only reduces the effectiveness of amine for
sweetening but also causes corrosion problems.

 Thermal degradation caused from excessive temperatures which cause the

amine to decompose.

 Chemical degradation caused by reaction of amine with gas stream

impurities such as CO2, CS2, COS and mercaptans. Sulphur compounds can
also react with iron/rust to form iron sulphide solids.

 Oxidative degradation caused when amines are in the presence of oxygen.

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5.3.2.5 Amine Losses
 Losses can be incurred by entrainment of the solution in the gas streams,
vaporization, degradation, foaming, mechanical leaks, and spillage.

 Minimizing losses can be done through mist eliminators, water wash

following the amine contactor, and maintaining a sufficient reflux on the
regenerator.

5.4 Amine recirculation calculations

5.4.1 Calculate the circulation rate required for an amine solution (liters/min)
given the following information:

Gas flow = 3,000,000 m3 per day (standard conditions)

H2S content = 3% volume
CO2 content = 3% volume
15% MEA solution
AG pickup = 0.025 m3 per liter of solution

a. Find AG flow in gas:

AG in m3 per day = 3,000,000 x 0.06 = 180,000 m3 per day

b. Find amount of 15% MEA solution required in liters per minute:

Solution flow = 180,000 m3/d x (1.0 / 0.025) liters/m3 x (1/24 x 1/60) d/min
= 5,000 liters/min (1,321 us gpm)

5.4.2 Calculate the amine circulation rate in liter/minute given the following
information:

Gas flow = 180,000 m3 per day (same as above example)

Amine = 25 % solution of DEA
AG pickup = 0.82 mol AG per mol DEA
Density of 25% solution = 1.033 kg per liter
Molecular weight of DEA = 105
Assume 23.64 m3 per k-mol for gas (= ideal volume)
Solution flow = 180,000 m3/d × (1.0 / 23.64) k-mol/m3 ×105 kg DEA /k-mol ×
(1.0 / 0.82) mol DEA/ mol AG x (100/25) kg solution/kg DEA
= 3.9 x 10s kg per day solution
= (3.9 x 106) kg/day × [(1/24) × (1/60)] days/min × (1.0/1.033)
liters/kg
= 2.621 liters / minute (692 us gpm)
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Name: ………………………………..
Date: …………………………………

ASSIGNMENT #5 - GAS SWEETENING

Marks :
5 1. Name 5 reasons for natural gas sweetening.

10 2. Sketch a typical process flow diagram for a gas sweetening unit and label
the various unit operations accordingly (sketch on an extra piece of paper).

2 3. The best operating conditions are _____ pressure and temperature for
absorption/adsorption.

2 4. The best operating conditions are _____ pressure and ____ temperature for
regeneration.

6 5. Calculate the amine recirculation rate in liters/min for the following

conditions: (use an extra piece of paper)

Gas flow = 4,000,000 STD m3 per day

Hydrogen sulphide content = 3% vol.
Carbon dioxide content = 2% vol.
Solution strength = 24% wt kg DEA / kg solution
Solution density = 1.04 kg / liter solution
Acid gas pickup = 0.80 k-mol AG per k-mol amine
Molecular Weight =120 kg / k-mol amine
Molar Volume for gas = 23.64 STD cubic meters / k-mol gas

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 Dehydration Processes

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6.1 Introduction

Gas dehydration is the removal of water associated with the production of natural gas.
The removal of water has some advantages

1. Prevents the formation of hydrates

2. Reduces corrosion in downstream equipment and piping
3. Minimizes the condensation of water that could accumulate in low spots hence
reducing pipeline capacity
4. Minimizes freezing in any low temperature unit operations downstream (ice).

There are three major methods of gas dehydration:

6.1 Adsorption (molecular sieves, silica gel, bauxite)

Normally done with a dry desiccant using a batch/bed process. Typically a 3 bed system
is used. Two beds in series dry the gas (first bed = lead bed and second bed = guard bed)
and the third bed is regenerated with a hot gas recirculation and water
condensation/knockout system.

The regenerated bed becomes the new guard bed while the old lead bed is taken off-line
for regeneration. The old guard bed becomes the new lead bed. This cycle is repeated
based on a timed cycled and/or moisture breakthrough on the lead bed. Desiccants in the
bed will have a finite life due to oil and hydrocarbon fouling.

6.2 Absorption - glycols (DEA, TEA)

Normally done with a liquid or wet desiccant using a continuous process.

Glycol absorption is one of the most common methods of dehydration. Process consists
of an absorption tower or contactor which allows the moist gas to be dehydrated with
lean (dry) glycol. The resultant rich (wet) glycol is regenerated in another column
(stripper) and reused in the contactor. This process is analogous to the amine sweetening
process.

6.3 Direct Cooling (refrigeration with hydrate inhibitor)

Uses a heat removal and water condensation method in a continuous Process.

Absorption is used when large volumes of water must be removed while
adsorption is used to reach very low moisture content necessary for cryogenic
operations.
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6.2 Moisture content / hydrate temperatures

The moisture content of gas is important from a downstream user viewpoint. The
use of gas as an energy source dictates a low moisture content to help minimize
heating value, pipeline knockout/capacity, and corrosion impacts. The use of gas
as a chemical manufacturing feedstock is important especially in low temperature
processes (ice from freezing).

The hydrate formation in natural gas is a result of pressure and temperature

combinations. The gas has an ability to form hydrated molecules of gas which can
plug up equipment if allowed to do so. This is a chemical bonding similar to
certain kinds of desiccant and the ability to bond with water molecules. To prevent
hydrate formation, a minimum temperature for a given pressure must be
maintained.

In both the cases of moisture content and hydrate temperatures, certain correlations
have been made to determine levels of moisture and temperatures at which
hydrates may (or may not) form hydrates. In this section, various graphs
representing empirical data will be used to help determine moisture content and
hydrate temperatures.

6.2.1 Moisture Content Calculations:

Water content is normally expressed in milligrams per cubic meter at standard

conditions (15 °C. and 101.325 kPa). This is a standard adopted by the Gas
Producers Association (GPA). The water content data is shown in graphical form
with water content on the 'y-axis', temperature on the 'x-axis', and pressure on the
different curves on the graph. Different graphs are made up for the 'sweet gas' and
the sour components in the gas such as CO2 and H2S.

For any given pressure and temperature, the moisture content for the different
components can be found and when multiplied with their respective compositions,
and added, the total moisture content can then be found.

In-Class Example:

Reference Figures "15.14", "15.21" and "15.22"

Question: Find the moisture content of a gas at 20.000 kPa and 70 °C, if it is made
up of 35 mole % H2S and 10 mole % CO2.

1. Find moisture content of sweet gas in Figure 15.14 = 3,200 mg/m3

(note: psia conversion from kPa)
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Page 3 of 14
 2. Find moisture content of CO2 in Figure 15.21 = ___ mg/m3
3. Find moisture content of H2S in Figure 15.22 = ___ mg/m3
4. Find total moisture content in gas.

Total moisture content = sum of (individual moisture content times mole fraction.

Therefore moisture content = 0.55 (3,200) + 0.10 (____) + 0.35 (____)

= _____ mg/m3 water at standard conditions

6.2.2 Hydrate Temperature Determination

Reference Figures "15-1", "15.2","15.3", "15.4", "15.5” and"15.6"

1. Determine "relative density" of gas mixture (if applicable):

Sum of (mole fraction times mole weight for components)

RD =
Molecular weight of air (= 28.964)

2. If RD not equal to "methane, 0.6, 0.7,0.8,0.9, or 1.0", then linear interpolate

for proper RD and take data point intersection with given pressure to find
the minimum hydrate temperature (x-axis).

Question: Determine the minimum hydrate temperature of a 0.6 relative density

gas at 2.000 kPa.
Answer = ___ °C, according to Fig. 15-1

6.2.3 Permissible Expansion of RD

(Gas without Hydrate formation)

Given an initial pressure and final expansion pressure along with a relative
density, find intersection of the two pressures and read the initial temperature
curve. If temperature in between curve, estimate temperature to the closest degree.

Question: Determine the minimum possible initial gas temperature required for
expanding a gas of 0.8 relative density from 20,000 to 5.000 kPa and
not form hydrates:

Using Figure 15.2:

Intersection of 20,000 (y-axis) and 5,000 (x-axis)
Minimum initial temperature = ____ °C
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 Figure 15.14

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 Figure 14.21 CO2 Water Content to be used in Equation 1

Figure 14.22 H2S Water Content to be used in Equation 1

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Figure 15.1 Pressure-Temperature Curves for Predicting Hydrate Formation

Figure 15.2 Permissible Expansion of a 0.6 Relative Density Natural Gas

without Hydrate Formation
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 Figure 15.3 Permissible Expansion of a 0.7 Relative Density Natural Gas
without Hydrate Formation

Figure 15.4 Permissible Expansion of a 0.8 Relative Density Natural Gas

without Hydrate Formation
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 Figure 15.5 Permissible Expansion of a 0.9 Relative Density Natural Gas
without Hydrate Formation

Figure 15.6 Permissible Expansion of a 1.0 Relative Density Natural Gas

without Hydrate Formation

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6.3 Glycol dehydration process
In Figure 22, the wet gas enters an inlet scrubber where any free phase water and
hydrocarbon liquid (condensate) is separated prior to entry into the absorber
(contactor). The absorber is where the wet gas is contacted with lean glycol
(99.5%+ glycol) using a counter current flow of gas upward and lean glycol
downward. The absorber will use trays (similar to a distillation column) or packing
(depending on the cleanliness of the gas and liquid) for the required contact and
absorption to take place. The dry gas is forwarded to NGL/LPG recovery for
hydrocarbon liquids removal. The rich glycol (water laden) is sent to the
regenerator for preheat, then to a flash vessel for an absorbed gas removal. The
rich glycol is then filtered to remove any solid components and minimize fouling
of the dehydration process. The rich glycol enters the stripping column
(regenerator) where the water content in the glycol is removed by application of
heat (direct fired reboiler). The rich glycol will be heated to 175 − 200 °C. The
water vapor and any off gas is sent to condensation and recovery while the lean
glycol (99.5 %+) is cooled by cross exchange with the cool rich glycol entering the
stripper. The lean glycol is then pumped and trim cooled prior to re-entry to the
absorber.

In some applications, a hydraulic pump is used for pumping the lean glycol back
into the absorber (low pressure to high pressure) by using the pressure drop of the
rich glycol going to the flash tank.

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 Figure 22 Glycol System Flow Diagram

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Page 11 of 14
6.4 Other dehydration processes
A dry desiccant process can be used for gas dehydration, especially for low
moisture content applications. As mentioned in Section 5.1, the dry desiccant
process uses adsorption for removal of water. Normally a fixed bed of desiccant is
used and regenerated once saturated with water. The gas temperatures should be in
the 25−40 °C range for best adsorption with low velocities (0.1 − 0.25 meters/sec)
through the drying beds. Regeneration is done with lower pressure gas in a
recirculation loop and at high temperatures of approximately 200 °C. The
recirculation loop is heated passed through the saturated bed where the hot gas
picks up the moisture. The hot wet gas is then condensed for removal of water and
recirculated back for reheat and re-entry to the wet bed to be regenerated.

Some limitations on desiccant life are seen in industry such as poisoning by sour
gas components and deposition of hydrocarbons. The beds are also operated on a
timed cycle (8 hours drying, 6 hours regeneration, 2 hours cooling) and/or
moisture breakthrough of the lead bed.

The capital cost of a solid desiccant system can be 3 times that of a comparable
glycol unit with higher operational costs as well but can be more efficient and have
better capacity for water removal, especially for low temperature operations.

Another dehydration process involves the use of refrigeration with the addition of
a hydrate inhibitor (glycol injection) in order to remove water. This process relies
on the use of cheap refrigeration costs as well as condensing capacity being
available for adequate water removal.

6.5 Inhibitor injection rates

Inhibition utilizes injection of one of the glycols or methanol into a process stream
where it can combine with the condensed aqueous phase to lower the hydrate
formation temperature at a given pressure. Both glycol and methanol can be
recovered with the aqueous phase, regenerated, and re-injected. Glycols can be
used for services down to −25 °C, while methanol can be used below −25 °C.
Glycols such as monoethylene glycol or ethylene glycol (EG), diethylene glycol
(DEG), and triethylene glycol (TEG) have been used for hydrate inhibition. The
most popular has been ethylene glycol.

To be effective, the inhibitor must be present at the very point where the wet gas is
cooled to its hydrate temperature. For example, in refrigeration plants, glycol
inhibitors are typically sprayed on the tube-sheet faces of the gas exchangers so
that it can flow with the gas through the tubes. As water condenses, the inhibitor is
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Page 12 of 14
present to mix with the water and prevent hydrates. Injection must be in a manner
to allow good distribution to every tube or plate pass in chillers and heat
exchangers operating below the gas hydrate temperature.

The inhibitor and condensed water mixture is separated from the gas stream along
with a separate liquid hydrocarbon stream. At this point, the water dew point of the
gas stream is essentially equal to the separation temperature. Careful separator
design will allow nearly complete recovery of the diluted glycol for regeneration
and re-injection.

The regenerator in a glycol injection system should be operated to produce a

regenerated glycol solution that will have a freezing point below the minimum
temperature encountered in the system. This is typically 75-80 mass %.

The maximum inhibitor concentration in the free water phase may be

approximated by Hammerschmidt's equation:

2335 × XR
d =
1.8 × MI (1− XR)
Where:
d = hydrate temperature minus actual temperature or depression of the water
dew point or the gas hydrate freezing point (°C)
MI = molecular weight of the inhibitor
XR = mass fraction of inhibitor (rich or in aqueous phase)

Once the value of the rich inhibitor is determined (XI), then an injection rate can
be calculated assuming the lean inhibitor concentration is known by using the
equation:
XR × MH2O
MI =
XL − XR
Where:
MI = mass of inhibitor injected per unit time
MH2O = water removed in system (Figure 15.14)
XL = lean inhibitor concentration chosen

Class Exercise:

A natural gas stream flowing from an off-shore platform at 2.83 MMSm3 per day
at 38 °C and 8300 kPa (abs) arrive on shore at 4 °C and 6200 kPa (abs). The
hydrate temperature of the gas was found to be 18 °C. Calculate the amount of 100
% methanol and 80 mass % EG inhibitor required to prevent hydrate formation in
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this pipeline. Assume no vaporization or hydrocarbon liquid losses. Molecular
weight for methanol is 32 and for EG is 62.

Name: ……………………………..
Date: ………………………………

ASSIGNMENT #6 - DEHYDRATION

Marks
4 1. List 4 reasons for gas dehydration.

3 2. List the three major methods of gas dehydration.

5 3. Find the moisture content of a gas at 25 °C and 10,000 kPa if it is made up

of 5 mole % CO2 and 30 mole % H2S.

3 4. Find the minimum hydrate temperature of a 0.7 relative density gas at

10,000 kPa.

5 5. Find the final expanded pressure that a gas can be taken to without hydrate
formation if the initial pressure is 20,000 kPa and the temperature is 60 °C.

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 Propane Refrigeration

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7.1 Introduction
Refrigeration is used in gas processing for low temperature applications primarily in the
NGL/LPG recovery areas. The use of propane as a refrigerant is common in the gas
processing industry since it is readily available from feedstock processing and has the
necessary physical properties to achieve the cold temperatures required for NGL/LPG
recovery. The use of adiabatic flashing on propane can produce cold enough
temperatures to chill natural gases down to the required −20 to −30 °C, normally used
for recovery of hydrocarbon liquids at the pressures (6,000 − 7,000 kPa) maintained in
the natural gas stream.

The main thrust of refrigeration is to use a refrigerant to remove enough heat energy at a
lower pressure to maintain a cold temperature on a separate stream or process while at
the same time use heat rejection on the refrigerant at a higher pressure (after
compression) within a recirculation loop. This loop is called a refrigeration cycle.

Propane has physical properties suitable for refrigeration i.e. relatively cold temperatures
at lower pressures and warm temperatures at higher pressures which can be cooled with
air or cooling water with no problem. A "Pressure-Enthalpy" diagram for propane (see
Figure 23) demonstrates the relationship between pressure (kPa), enthalpy (KJ/kg),
temperature (°C), specific entropy (KJ/kg-K), and specific volume (m3/kg) which is the
inverse of density (kg/m3). Any set of conditions can be shown on the diagram along
with the state (vapor, liquid, vapor-liquid).

Certain information with respect to the refrigeration cycle can be determined from the
diagram. Modern methods use equations of state on a computer-calculated system (e.g.
HYSYS physical properties database). Information on compression, cooling, and heat
duty can be found given certain conditions.

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 Figure 23 Propane P-H Diagram

7.2 Refrigeration cycle

The refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 24. Natural gas coming from the
dehydration process is chilled or cooled to a sufficient temperature in order to
condense and remove natural gas liquids (propane, butane, and heavier). The heat
duty required for cooling is facilitated by the use of cold propane in the
refrigeration cycle. The heat exchange between the cold propane and the natural
gas is normally done in a chiller or heat exchanger (a kettle exchanger is shown in
the diagram). The propane is vaporized as the heat is removed from the natural gas
which in turn heats up the propane. The vapor is then scrubbed of any entrained
liquid (typically demister/knockout system) and then compressed to a higher
pressure. The higher pressure propane is hotter due to the heat of compression and
energy content of the propane from the chiller. The propane is then cooled by air
or water to condense it. The condensed liquid is then put through an adiabatic flash
or pressure letdown.

The flash is normally down across some kind of throttling device like a control
valve. The reduction of pressure causes a reduction in temperature (known as the
Joules-Thompson effect). The cold temperature propane is then reused to chill
more gas as heat duty or demand dictates.

Some typical temperatures and pressures are shown on the diagram.

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 Figure 24 Simplified Refrigeration Circut
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7.3 Propane refrigeration calculations
Reference the Propane "Pressure Enthalpy Diagram" (Figure 23)

7.3.1 Density Estimates

 Determine the density of propane gas at 1.000 kPa and 80 °C:

Using Figure 23, specific volume = 0.06 m3/kg = 1 / 0.06 = 16.7 kg/m3

 Determine the density of propane saturated vapor at 1.000 kPa:

Answer = ____ kg/m3

 Determine the density of propane saturated liquid at 1.000 kPa:

Answer = ____ kg/m3

7.3.2 Compression / Power Estimates

 Determine the theoretical discharge temperature (100% efficiency if 200

kPa and −5 °C, propane were compressed to 1000kPa:
Answer = ____ °C

(Note: 100% efficiency = isentropic)

 Find enthalpy change in above question (enthalpy at 200 kPa. −5 °C, versus
enthalpy at 1000 kPa.____ ° C):
Answer = ____ KJ/kg

 Find the true discharge temperature if the compression efficiency is 65%:

Hint: Calculate change in enthalpy by taking 100% change and divide by

0.65. Find resultant temperature at 1,000 kPa and new enthalpy change
starting from the 200 kPa, −5 °C starting point.
Answer = _____ °C

 Find the power required in K-watts at a compressor efficiency of 65% if the

propane recirculation rate is 7.000 kg/hr:

Hint: Take the enthalpy change (KJ/kg) found above and multiply by
propane flow and convert the K-joules to K-watts.
Answer = ______ K-watts

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7.3.3 Propane Recirculation Rate Estimate

 Find the propane recirculation rate required for a chiller heat load of
800,000 KJ/hr if the pressure in the chiller is 200 kPa and the propane
condensing temperature is 42 °C.

Hint: Calculate the total enthalpy change (KJ/kg) for the propane and divide
it into the total chiller heat load to give kg/hr
Answer = ______ kg/hr

7.3.4 Temperature Approach / Physical Properties

 Find the propane pressure in a chiller if it operates with a 5 °C, temperature

approach with a natural gas mixture cooled to −25 °C:

Hint: Find pressure of saturated vapor in chiller for propane at the

temperature exiting the chiller given the temperature of the gas and the
approach
Answer = ____ kPa

 Find the propane condensing pressure in a condenser using ambient air at 25

°C and an approach of 10 °C.

Hint: Find pressure of saturated vapor at temperature exiting the condenser.

Answer = ___ kPa

 Estimate the compressibility factor "z" of propane at 3.000 kPa and 100 ° C:

density (ideal) [(MW) (P)] / [(R) (T)]

"z" = =
density (real) (1.0 / specific volume)

where
P = kPa
T = deg. K
R = 8.3145
MW = 44.1
Answer = ______

 Estimate the specific heat capacity of propane at a constant pressure of 500

kPa and temperature of 100 °C.

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Page 6 of 7
 Hint: Find the enthalpies at 500 kPa for 80 and 120 °C, take the difference
and divide by 120−80 or 40 °C.
Answer: ______ KJ / kg-°C

Name: …………………………….
Date: ……………………………...

ASSIGNMENT #7 - REFRIGERATION

Using the propane "pressure-enthalpy" diagram.

Marks

10 1. Determine the density of propane for the following conditions:

(2) 1.1 gas at 2,000 kPa and 90 °C = __________

(2) 1.2 saturated vapor at 2,000 kPa = _____________
(2) 1.3 saturated liquid at 2,000 kPa = _________
(4) 1.4 "z" value for gas at 2,000 kPa and 90 °C

2 2. Determine the pressure and temperature of the propane leaving the chiller
where the natural gas is chilled to −15 °C with a 5 °C approach.

2 3. Determine the condensing temperature of propane vapor if 25 °C air is used

for the condenser with 10 °C approach.

1 4. Determine the propane pressure for question (3) above.

10 5. If propane is compressed from 300 kPa and an initial temperature of 10 °C

to superheated vapor at 1,000 kPa, determine:

(3) A- the theoretical compressor discharge temperature (100%

efficiency)

(3) B- the true discharge temperature if the efficiency is 70%

(4) C- the power required (in K-watts) at a compressor efficiency of 70%

and a propane recirculation rate of 5,000 kg/hr:

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 NGL Fractionation

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Page 1 of 8
8.1 Introduction
A method of NGL recovery and fractionation involves the use of turbo-expansion and
cascade refrigeration. If refrigeration can be done with a lower pressure, the ability to
extract ethane along with LPG's and condensate is possible. The ethane and LPG
fractionation pressures are normally lower than the sales gas pressure (200−300 vs. 900
psig) hence the "free pressure drop" through an expander can be utilized while at the
same time part of the energy produced from the expander can be coupled into the
recompression of any methane fraction for sales gas. The quick drop in pressure causes
the temperature to drop, and the heavier ends condense out. Similar to propane
refrigeration, the Joules-Thompson effect can be utilized with other hydrocarbons to
produce even colder temperatures. Methane and ethane refrigeration can be used to
produce much colder saturated liquid/vapor temperatures for NGL recovery and
fractionation. The distillation of methane (demethanizer) and ethane (deethanizer) can be
done at these temperatures prior to any propane, butane, and condensate fractionation.
The methane is produced for sales gas and plant fuel, the ethane is used in ethylene
production, while the LPG's are separated for commercial use as propane and butane.
The condensate is stabilized and used for gasoline blending and/or heavy oil (tar sands as
well) dilution.

8.2 Cascade refrigeration process

Figure 27 illustrates a cascade refrigeration system for natural gas chilling prior to
demethanization. In this case, direct cooling using propane and ethane refrigeration is
done to achieve up to -100 to -150 deg. F. temperatures required (at 200 - 300 psig) for
methane distillation. A separator is used to knockout any liquids (C2+) for the
demethanizer feed.

Cross exchange is done with the cold methane produced from the separator in
between the ethane and propane chillers prior to sales.

The cascade effect shows when a progressively colder gas cross exchange is used.
Ethane saturated liquid/vapor temperatures are much colder than propane at relatively
low pressures. In the case of propane (as outline in Lesson # 8.0) can chill gas down to
−40 °F. depending on the chiller pressure. Methane can chill gas down to −260 °F. in
cryogenic operations (see Figure 28).

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 Figure 27 Cascade Refrigeration

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Page 3 of 8
 Figure 28 LNG Cascade Cycle

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Page 4 of 8
8.3 Turbo expansion process
Figure 29 shows a typical gas extraction operation where the natural gas is first
dehydrated to a very low moisture content (less than 1 ppm and/or −100 °C
dewpoint). The drying is normally done using a molecular sieve operation and is
necessary to prevent ice and hydrate formation once the chilling/refrigeration is
done.

The natural gas, after dehydration, is chilled by a set of cascade chillers utilizing
gas cross exchange with the demethanizer overheads (typically −150 °C) being
used on the 'cold' and 'hot' gas exchangers and propane refrigerant used on the
middle ('chiller') exchanger. The condensed liquids are separated and then fed to
the demethanizer (lower feed tray in column) while the vapor stream is expanded
from the gas pressure (900 psig) to demethanizer pressure operation of
approximately 250 psig.

The methane is distilled, reheated by the cross exchangers on the gas feed, and
then forwarded to the booster compressor which is driven by the turbo-expander.
The gas, mainly methane, is forwarded to sales after recompression and ambient
cooling (20−30 °C typically).

The demethanizer bottom contains 98% ethane plus LPG's and condensate is
forwarded to the deethanizer for ethane distillation and then LPG fractionation.

A simplified process diagram for an ethane extraction plant utilizing turbo-

expansion and refrigeration is shown in Figure 30. Natural gas in brought in and
compressed to about 760 psig and then dried to 1 ppm water or less. The gas is
then chilled by using demethanizer overheads (−150 °F) and propane refrigeration.
The cold gas stream is then allowed to separate out any condensed liquids in the
prechill drum.

The condensed liquids are fed to the demethanizer while the vapor is cross
exchanged with the condensed liquids and low pressure drum liquid feed to the
demethanizer prior to entering the chiller separator. The chiller separator liquids
are flashed to match the turbo expander discharge pressure and then allowed to
separate out any liquids which are in turn fed to the demethanizer. The chiller
separator vapor is run through the turbo-expander and then tied into the flashed
chiller separator liquids prior to entry into the low pressure drum.

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Page 5 of 8
 Figure 29

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Page 6 of 8
 Figure 30 Simplified Process Schematic

The chilled low pressure drum liquids are then fed to the demethanizer while any
vapors are used for the demethanizer condenser and inlet gas cooling cross
exchange and subsequent recompression for sales gas use.
The demethanizer operates at 240 − 250 psig (top vs. bottom) and -150 °F to 15 °F
(top vs. bottom). A slip stream on inlet gas is used as reboiler energy for the
demethanizer (see Figure 29) hence making this column virtually using no energy.

The demethanizer bottom (98% C2+) is then forwarded the deethanizer for
separation of ethane from the LPG's and condensate. This column is typically
operated with a reheated feed from the demethanizer bottoms (30 °C and a
subsequent pressure of 400 psig). The deethanizer is operated at around 400 − 410
psig (top vs. bottom). The ethane overheads are pumped to about 1,300 psig and
heated to pipeline delivery temperatures (20−30 °C. The bottoms containing C3+ is
sent to LPG storage and subsequent fractionation.

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Page 7 of 8
Name: …………………………
Date: …………………………..

ASSIGNMENT #8 - NGL FRACTIONATION:

Marks
4 1. Define what is meant by the term "cascade refrigeration"

4 2. Explain why turbo expansion is used in gas processing.

12 3. Sketch a turbo expansion process which recovers methane and ethane.

Label all unit operations and streams. Use a separate piece of paper.

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 LNG Processes

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Page 1 of 11
9.0 Process features for LNG technology
Abstract

LNG technology and operation is a combination of many familiar concepts and

practices of other facilities and some unfamiliar aspects arising primarily from the very
low temperatures.

Conditioning and pretreatment of natural gas as preparation for liquefaction requires

removal of free liquids, mercury, water, sulfur compounds, carbon dioxide, and heavy
hydrocarbons. The natural gas conditioning processes for liquefaction are almost similar
to the conditioning for pipeline, fuel, and petrochemical purposes, but the specifications
are much more stringent.

Liquefaction of natural gas requires basically the removal of energy in the forms of
sensible and latent heat. There are different processes available and various
modifications of each process. The liquefaction processes are targeting minimum
external energy required to produce LNG.

There are different types of tanks for the LNG storage. To maintain the LNG as
cold liquid at atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to maintain the temperature at
approximately −162 °C. This section will cover the process features and
considerations for the main LNG technologies.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

LNG trade has grown steadily since the mid of 1960's. Now consumer countries,
such as Thailand, India and China will be joining the ranks of traditional markets
in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Europe and USA.

The consumers will need, in the medium and long term, to import a significant
portion of gas from remote fields located in the Middle East, West Africa or from
offshore fields. Since new supply sources are still further away, interest in the
LNG chain is reinforced.

In order to allow for future developments of natural gas utilization and to preserve
LNG competitiveness in comparison with the importation of gas through pipelines,
a key-condition is that delivered LNG stays at competitive market price.

Liquefaction plants are generally classified as either peak-shave or base-load

plants, depending on their size/role.

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Page 2 of 11
Peak-Shave facilities are usually relatively small (typically up to 100,000 tpa) and
are used to overcome mismatches between supply and demand. They liquefy and
store excess natural gas during periods of low demand and vaporize it at times of
peak demand. Many peak-shave plants were built in the 1970s and 1980s primarily
in Europe and North America.

Base-Load plants supply several thousand tpd of LNG, usually for marine
transportation. The number of base-load trains operating or under-construction
world-wide is now about 80 trains. The major development has been in
maximizing capacity of major equipment to improve individual train capacity. The
drive has been and will continue to be the economy of scale which translates into
reduced total plant cost per unit LNG produced includes improvement in
equipment reliability and performance.

LNG Train Size Development was as follows:

Year of design Nominal Train Capacity Range (MMtpa)

1960−1970 0.5−1.1
1970−1978 1.2−1.6
1979−1991 2.0−2.6
1992−1995 2.5−3.0
1996−2001 3.0−4.0

FEATURES OF LNG CHAIN

1. Finding and producing gas.

2. Gas treatment and liquefaction
3. Gas Transport as a liquid (LNG)
4. Receipt in terminals for storage and re-gasification Features of LNG Chain
are shown in Figure 9.1.

9.1 Finding and producing gas

Natural gas from wells is reduced in pressure as required, gathered, followed by
gas condensate separation and then transported. Condensate is stabilized before
storage, while gas will flow for further treatment.

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Page 3 of 11
 Figure 9.1 Features of LNG Chain

9.2 Gas treatment and liquefaction plant

Typical LNG liquefaction plant is given in Figure 9.2.

Gas Treatment

The natural gas must be treated before it can be liquefied to prevent freezing,
plugging and corrosion in the cryogenic system downstream liquefaction
equipment, and meet product LNG specification. The impurities present are
mercury, Carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide, and heavy hydrocarbons. The
natural gas conditioning processes for liquefaction are almost similar to the
conditioning for pipeline, fuel, and petrochemical purposes, but the specifications
are much more stringent

Mercury Removal

Presence of mercury in the feed gas has proven have a disastrous effect on the
aluminum equipment processing LNG. Mercury content in the natural gas feed
should be reduced to nil or to a maximum of 0.01 microgram per normal cubic
meter. Mercury removal vessels shall be located either prior to the pretreatment
absorber unit or downstream of the mole sieve dryers.

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 Figure 9.2 Typical Flow Diagram for LNG Facilities

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Page 5 of 11
Acid Gas Removal

The main reasons for removing acid gases from the natural gas feed are to upgrade
its quality of purity and heating valve , and to ensure that CO2 , H2S are reduced to
a level that will not cause hydration or freeze out in downstream cryogenic
equipment. The CO2 content of the feed gas is reduced to 50−100ppm, while the
H2S should be reduced to less than 3 PPM. Selection of the most suitable treating
process or combination of processes depends on the type and concentration of the
acid gas to be removed and its removal level MEA. Benfield, DEA , MDEA and
Sulfinol are typical processes used for this purpose.

Gas Dehydration

The treated gas must be completely dehydrated (contains nil water vapor) before
liquefaction to prevent hydrate formation and icing of the downstream cryogenic
equipment. This is achieved in the following steps:

a. Cooling the feed gas to a temperature close to its hydrate formation

temperature to allow the maximum amount of water to be condensed and
separated , and lets a minimum amount of water in the gas which is then
routed to the molecular sieve dryers.

b. Final drying by flowing the gas through adsorption molecular sieve beds.

NGL Recovery

Components heavier than natural gas feed to liquefaction are extracted for
recovery of natural gas liquid (NGL) and refrigerant make-up. In addition,
aromatics such as benzene may need to be removed to less than 2 PPM to avoid
cold end freeze out. Cryogenic scrub is commonly used.

NGL produced from the scrub tower is then fractionated into C2, C3, C4, and C5+
components (if desired).

9.3 Liquefaction processes

Natural gas liquefaction requires removal of sensible and latent heat over a wide
temperature range using a refrigerant. There are different processes available and
various modification of each process.

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Liquefaction Processes are:

Cascade cycle (Philips, APCI) C3/MR cycle (APCI) MR cycle (APCI,

PRICHARD) MR/MR cycle (APCI, Technip/SNAM)

Each liquefaction process has its own merits and more than one of the processes
may be economical, depending on capacity of the plant being considered. There
are numbers of variants of each cycle, with some common features between them.
The proportion of total capital cost due to machinery is always high in liquefaction
processes. Reduced power consumption generally leads to lower capital and
operating costs.

Technology Comparison

The two main liquefaction processes are Philips optimized cascade Process and
Air Products and Chemical Inc. (APCI) process.

Phillips Optimized Cascade Cycle:

The Philips optimized cascade process utilizes pure component refrigeration

cycles, Figure 9.3. Initial chill down is achieved by propane refrigeration system.
Conventional shell and tube exchangers or brazed aluminum exchangers can be
used in the propane refrigeration system.

The second stage of chill down is completed using ethylene refrigeration cycle.
The third final stage of chill down and liquefaction occurs in the methane
refrigeration cycle. Brazed aluminum Heat Exchanges are utilized for the ethylene
and methane refrigeration systems.

The three refrigerant circuits generally have multi stage refrigerant expansion and
compression, each typically operating at three evaporation temperature levels.
After compression, propane is condensed with cooling water or air, ethylene is
condensed with evaporating propane and methane is condensed with evaporating
ethylene.

A scrubber column is used in the Phillips design to remove heavy hydrocarbon

components. The location of the scrubber can be adjusted within the process
depending on the level of NGL recovery desired. Liquids withdrawn from the
scrubber column are routed to a fractionation train where the desired NGL
products can be extracted and fractionated (if desired).

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The cascade cycle is flexible in operation, since each refrigerant circuit can be
controlled separately. It has relatively low power and small Heat Exchanger
surface area. The major disadvantage of the cascade cycle is the relatively high
capital cost due to the number of refrigeration compression circuits, (The Phillips
design utilizes six frame 5C drivers for 3.6 MM tpa plant) each requiring its own
compressor and refrigerant storage. Maintenance and spare equipment costs tend
to be comparatively high due to the large number of machines. By optimizing
machinery selection the cascade cycle can be competitive with the pre-cooled
mixed refrigerant cycle.

Figure 9.3Cascade Cycle (Simplified)

APCIC3/MCR Cycle:

The APCI process utilizes a propane pre-cooled/mixed component refrigerant

(MCR) process, Figure 9.4. Inlet gas received from the pre-treatment facilities is
pre-chilled utilizing a multi-stage propane refrigeration system. Cold feed gas
from the outlet of the low stage propane chiller is routed to a scrubber column to
remove heavy hydrocarbons. Scrubber column liquids are routed to NGL
fractionation system, where the desired NGL products can be extracted and
fractionated. Vapor from the scrubber column is further cooled and liquefied in the
main MCR cryogenic heat exchanger prior to being let down in pressure and
routed to the LNG storage tanks .

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 Figure9.4 Typical Three Stages MCR

The main heat exchanger is really the key to the APCI process and represents
much of APCI's patented technology. The exchanger is a coil wound aluminum
tube multi pass configuration. The MCR process uses a separate closed loop
refrigeration cycle consisting of a multi component mixture of nitrogen, methane,
ethane and propane. Nitrogen is supplied from a separate source, typically an air
separation system, the remaining Gas components are typically supplied from the
inlet gas stream and the NGL fractionation section .APCI process utilizes larger
sized refrigeration compressor drivers (Frame 6&7)

The propane pre-cooled MCR process is the most common cycle. The most
important factor in the success of the MCR cycle is its high efficiency, and
consequent low power consumption.

9.4 Transport as a liquid

Shipping entails use of specialized cryogenic tankers to transport liquefied gas
under atmospheric pressure over long distances. Key aspect in the design of those
vessels is the ability to withstand low temperature.

9.5 Receipt in terminals for storage and reqasification

Simplified flow scheme for the receiving terminal shown in Figure 9.5.

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 Figure 9.5 Receiving Terminal Flow Scheme

Terminals

LNG is delivered from tankers to dedicated coastal terminals where it is stored and
then re-gasified when required .A critical factor for the sitting of LNG Terminals
is sufficient depth to receive the tankers.

Each terminal has a number of berths with unloading arms which connect the ship
to the on-shore unloading facilities. The unloading arms are insulated to minimize,
as far as possible, heat transfer from the atmosphere.

LNG Storage

LNG requires specialized storage facilities. Those may be either above or in-
ground level.

The majority of above ground tanks are double wall cylindrical metal tanks with a
dome-shaped roof. The inner shell is usually made of nickel, steel or aluminum to
withstand the very low temperatures. The outer shell is designed to contain the
LNG and is constructed of steel and partially covered with earth for extra
protection. The space between the two tanks is well insulated.

In-ground tanks normally consist of a thin stainless steel membrane, surrounded by

insulation and a shell of reinforced concrete. In general in-ground tanks are more
difficult and expensive to build, but they can be placed closer together, resulting in
significant saving in land cost and avoids possibility of LNG spillages at ground
level.
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Re-Gasification

LNG is re-gasified at the terminal through the process of vaporization The LNG is
slowly warmed up. There are several types of vaporization, but operating in the
same principle.

The LNG is passed through a series of tubes or panels which are heated by the
surrounding air or sea water .Care has to be taken throughout this process to
prevent sea water from turning to ice, and in winter the sea water may be warmed
up in advance. Once vaporized, the re-gasified LNG is regulated to the correct
pressure and then metered and odorized before entering the pipeline supply system
to consumers.

REFERENCES

 Development in natural gas liquefaction, Hydrocarbon Processing, April

1999.
 CM liquefaction process, Hydrocarbon Engineering, April 1999.
 LNG world overview, Hydrocarbon Processing, March 1987.
 C3-MR processes for base load liquefied natural gas Eighth International
Conference of LNG, June 1986.

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