Death:-

• Law does not define death clearly.

• Definition of death (Medico legal definition):
• Death may be defined as permanent & irreversible cessation of three interlinked vital
systems of body, called tripod of life, namely the nervous, circulatory & respiratory systems.
In the United States, a person is dead by law if a Statement of Death or Death certificates
approved by a licensed medical practitioner. Various legal consequences follow death,
including the removal from the person of what in legal terminology is called personhood.

Thanatology:- The study of death in all its aspects.

Taphonomy:-The study of the decomposition processes of human remains.

Death:-
*Section 46 IPC:-The word "death" denotes the death of a human being, unless the contrary
appears from the context.
*The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969:-"Death" means the permanent
disappearance of all evidences of life at any time after live-birth has taken place.
*Bishop's tripod of life:-
Three interdependent vital functions of the body:-
Respiration, Circulation and Brain function (i.e. lungs, heart and brain)
*Sudden death:-When the person is not known to have any disease/injury/poisoning, dies
within 24 hours after the onset of illness (WHO) Most commonly due to diseases of CVSQ(45-
50%).

Types of death :
For the purpose of understanding about death and its mechanism death is divided into two
types (1) somatic death or clinical death.
(2) molecular death.
1. Somatic death/systemic death /Clinical death:
It means complete & irreversible stoppage of vital functions.
2. Cellular death/molecular death:
It means death of tissues & cells of body individually.
1) Somatic death/Systemic death/Clinical death:
It is defined as irreversible cessation of functioning brain, heart, and lungs resulting in
complete loss of sensibility and ability to move the body. It is the extinction of personality or
the death of the body as a whole (soma means body), also known as clinical or systemic
death. The cells of different tissues of the body are still alive and dies after sometime at
different rate.

A) Cessation of heart beating:-Clinical criteria:

1.Absence of pulse (central i.e. carotid)
2. Absence of heart sound on repeated prolonged auscultation.
3.A flat electrocardiogram (ECG).

B) Cessation of breathing:-Clinical criteria

1.Absence of respiratory movement
2. Absence of breath sound on thorough auscultation of chest. (Central)

C) Cessation of brain activity:-Clinical criteria

1.Generalized flaccidity with generalized anesthesia.
2.Dilated fixed pupils, not responding to light
3.Absence of motor responses within the cranial nerve distribution on painful stimuli.
4. Absence of corneal reflexes.
2)Cellular or molecular death and the concept of brain death
Somatic death is followed by progressive disintegration of body tissues and is called as
cellular or molecular death.
In absence of circulation and respiration different cells die at different times. Death of some
cells are mentioned below in sequential order from the earliest:-

Brain death or brain stem death:-

Brain death means irreversible loss of cerebral function. Or
Brain death means that the patient is dead whether or not the function of some other organ
such as heart beat is maintained by artificial means and all the function of the brain must
have permanently and irreversibly ceased.
Brain death: Permanent & irreversible cessation of function of brain irrespective of function
of other organs like heart, lungs.

Types of brain death:

1.Cortical death /cerebral death/ vegetative stage : Loss of function of cerebral cortex., heart
& lungs may work..
2.Brain stem death: Damage & failure of function of brain stem, heart & lungs can not work
independently.
3.Combined brain death: both cortical & brain stem death.
Brain death is now considered as legal death. It has great importance from legal, ethical point
of view & in relation to organ transplantation.
*Cortical death: Death of the cortex with an intact brain stem .Permanent & irreversible
cessation of function of cerebral cortex is called cortical death.
*Brain stem death: Cerebrum is intact but loss of all vital center causes the victim to be
irreversible comatose and incapable of spontaneous breathing.
*Combined brain death: both cortical & brain stem death.

• Criteria for diagnosing brain death:-

(1)The patient must be in a deep coma, which is not due to depressant drugs, metabolic or
endocrine disorder.
(2) The patient must not be in hypothermia.
(3)The patient must be on a mechanical ventilator/heart-lung machine.
(4)Diagnostic test for brain death:-
(a) Absence of corneal reflex.
(b) Dilated and fixed pupil not reacting to light.
(c) Absence of vestibulo-ocular reflex.
(d) Absence of cranial nerve response to painful stimuli.
(e) Absence of cough reflex.

APPARENT DEATH/SUSPENDED ANIMATION:-

(The person appears to be dead but he is not actually dead):-
.The signs of life are reduced to very minimum that it cannot be detected by routine clinical
methods.
.Suspended animation can be produced Voluntarily and involuntarily.
*Mechanism:-During this state, the individual cells utilize the dissolved O, in body fluids and
remain viable. Thus the person comes back to life on resuscitation.

* Conditions Causing Suspended Animation:-

Suspended Animation IN MY NEW HD TV
In - Insanity/iatrogenic as in cardiopulmonary surgeries and anesthesia
M - Mesmeric trance, Morphine overdose
Y - Yoga practitioners
N-Newborn (Most Common)
E - Electrocution
W - Wasting diseases, like cholera
H-Heat stroke/Hypothermia/Hanging
D - Drowning/Drugs like barbiturates
Tv - Typhoid
Medicolegal Importance:-
*Suspended animation should not be mistaken for death.
*If death is declared and certified in this case prematurely, the doctor can be punished for
premature declaration of death.

SIGNS OF DEATH:-
Signs of death can vary depending on the context, but here are some common physiological
signs that indicate someone is approaching death:

1. Decreased Consciousness: The person may become unresponsive or

lose consciousness as the body's systems begin to shut down.

2. Changes in Breathing: Breathing may become irregular, shallow, or

labored. This may include periods of apnea (no breathing) followed by gasping or rapid
breaths.

3. Changes in Heart Rate: The heart rate may become irregular or slow as
the body's circulation slows down.

4. Decreased Blood Pressure: Blood pressure typically drops as the

body's organs begin to fail.

5. Cooling of the Body: The extremities (hands, feet) may feel cool to the
touch as circulation decreases.

6. Changes in Skin Color: The skin may become pale or bluish in color as
oxygen levels decrease.

7. Decreased Urine Output: The person may produce less urine as

kidney function declines.

8. Muscle Relaxation: Muscles throughout the body may relax, leading to a

slackening of the jaw or limbs.
It's important to note that these signs can vary depending on the individual's underlying
health conditions and the specific circumstances of their death. Additionally, some signs may
manifest differently depending on whether death is sudden or expected.
MODES OF DEATH:-
Death can occur through various modes or mechanisms. Here are some common modes of
death:

1. Natural Death: Death occurs as a result of aging or disease processes. This is

the most common mode of death and can include conditions such as heart disease, cancer,
stroke, and respiratory failure.

2. Accidental Death: Death occurs unexpectedly as a result of unintentional

injury or trauma. Examples include car accidents, falls, drowning, and accidental drug
overdoses.

3. Suicidal Death: Death occurs as a result of intentional self-harm. This can

include overdosing on medication, self-inflicted gunshot wounds, or hanging.

4. Homicidal Death: Death occurs as a result of another person's intentional

actions. This can include murder, manslaughter, or other forms of violence inflicted by
another individual.

5. Terminal Illness: Death occurs as a result of a chronic or terminal illness,

often after a prolonged period of decline in health. Examples include end-stage cancer,
advanced Alzheimer's disease, or advanced AIDS.

6. Sudden Death: Death occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, often without

warning. This can include sudden cardiac arrest, pulmonary embolism, or severe allergic
reactions.

7. Euthanasia: Death occurs intentionally to relieve suffering, often with the

assistance of a medical professional. This can include voluntary euthanasia, where the patient
requests death, or involuntary euthanasia, where death is administered without the patient's
explicit consent.
These modes of death can have legal, ethical, and social implications, and they may be
classified differently depending on the jurisdiction and cultural context.

PRESUMPTION OF DEATH:-
The presumption of death is a legal concept used when a person disappears under
circumstances that suggest they are likely deceased, but their body has not been found. This
presumption allows for certain legal processes to be initiated, such as probate of a person's
estate, distribution of assets, or termination of marriage.
This is a legal issue which does not have any medical implication or involvement. It is in
connection with inheritance or succession of property of a person, missing for a long period,
or for claiming insurance money when the individual is alleged to be dead and body is not
found.
Sec. 107 IEA states that a person is presumed being alive, if there is nothing to suggest the
probability of death within 30 years. Sec. 108 IEA states that, if it is proved that the said
person has not been heard of for 7 years by them, who are expected to hear about him if he
would be alive, then death is presumed.
The criteria for declaring someone legally presumed dead can vary by jurisdiction but typically
include:

1. Absence: The person must have been absent from their usual place of residence
or known whereabouts for a significant period, often ranging from several years to a decade
or more, depending on local laws.

2. Unexplained Disappearance: The circumstances surrounding the

person's disappearance must be such that it is reasonable to conclude they are likely
deceased, even though their body has not been found. This could include evidence of a fatal
accident, exposure to hazardous conditions, or other factors that make survival unlikely.

3. Inquiry and Due Diligence: Usually, there must be evidence that a

thorough search or inquiry has been conducted to locate the missing person, including efforts
by law enforcement, family members, or other relevant parties.
Once a person is declared legally presumed dead, their estate can be settled, insurance claims
can be processed, and legal matters such as inheritance and spousal rights can be addressed.
However, it's important to note that the presumption of death does not necessarily mean the
person is confirmed deceased, as their body may still be discovered in the future.
Presumption means an act of accepting that something is true until it is proved not true. If
certain facts are established, a judge or jury must assume another fact that the law
recognized as a logical conclusion from the proof that has been introduced. A Rule of law
which permits a court to assume a fact is true until it is proven otherwise.
Examples:
(i) A child born of a husband and wife living together is presumed to be the natural child of
the husband, unless there is a conclusive proof he is not;
(ii) A person who has disappeared and not heard from for seven years is presumed to be
dead, but the presumption could be rebutted if he/she is found alive;
(iii) An accused person is presumed innocent until proven guilty.

Classification of Presumption
1. Rebuttable Presumption (Sections: 79-85, 89 & 105) Both in Common Law and in Civil Law,
a rebuttable presumption is an assumption made by a court, any fact or issue that is taken to
be true unless someone comes forward to contest it and prove otherwise. For example, a
defendant in a criminal case is presumed innocent until proved guilty.
2. Irrebuttable or Conclusive Presumption (Sections: 41, 112 & 113) Irrebuttable presumption
refers to such type presumption which cannot be overcome or changed by any additional
evidence or argument made by any party or individuals. Irrebuttable presumption also called
Conclusive Presumption or absolute presumption. For Example, the accused is a child below
7. It will be conclusively presumed under the Pakistan Penal Code that he had not the mental
capacity to commit the crime. The court will not allow evidence to be led on the point that in
fact he had such capacity.

Section 4 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of

1872):
(i) May Presume:- Whenever it is provided by this Act that the Court may presume a fact, it
may either regard such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved, or may call for proof of
it.
(ii) Shall Presume:- Whether it is directed by this Act that the Court shall presume a fact, it
shall regard such fact as proved, unless and until it is disproved.
(iii) Conclusive Proof:- When one fact is declared by this Act to be conclusive proof of another,
the Court shall, on proof of the one fact, regard the other as proved, and shall not allow
evidence to be given for the purpose of disproving it.
The Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872):-
Section 107: Burden of proving death of person known to have been alive within thirty years
When the question is whether a man is alive or dead, and it is shown that he was alive within
thirty years, the burden of proving that he is dead is on the person who affirms it.
Section 108: Burden of proving that person is alive who has not been heard of for seven years
Provided that when the question is whether a man is alive or dead, and it is proved that he
has not been heard of for seven years by those who would naturally have heard of him if he
had been alive, the burden of proving that he is alive is shifted to the person who affirms it.
Comments: Sections 107 and 108 have to be read together, because both the sections are
complementary to each other. Section 107 is based on the principle of continuity of life,
whereas section 108 is regarded as proviso to section 107. On the other hands, section 107
deals with the presumption of continuance of life, whereas section 108 deals with the
presumption of death.

Principle of Section 107 and 108 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act
No. 1 of 1872)
Section 107 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872) lays down that if a person is proved
to have been alive within 30 (thirty) years it shall be presumed that he is alive and the burden
of proving that he is dead, lies on that person who affirms that he is dead.
Section 108 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872) lays down that when it is proved
that a man has not been heard of for 7 (seven) years by those who would naturally have
heard of him if he had been alive, the burden of proving that he is alive lies on the person
who affirms it.

Presumption under Sections 107 and 108 of the Evidence Act,

1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872)
Section 107 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872) suggests that whenever a person in
question is found to be alive within 30 (thirty) years, irrespective of suggestion of his being
dead, the court shall presume that he is alive unless and until any positive proof of his being
dead is proved.
Whereas the presumption under section 107 is rebuttal, the presumption under section 108 is
about to fact of death. In order to qualify the latter presumption, it has to be proved that the
man in question has not been heard of for 7 (seven) years by those persons who would
naturally have heard of him, and they have taken all steps to trace him out and his
whereabouts.
This is the presumption of continuity of life that person may be alive up to 30 (thirty) years
after he was last seen. If a married woman wants to remarry she has to prove that her
husband remains unheard for 7 (seven) years (Section 108) or she has to wait up to 30 (thirty)
years. However, a person who was not heard for more than 7 (seven) years cannot be
considered to be dead only on that day on which suit was filed.

Distinguished between section 107 and section 108 of the

Evidence Act, 1872:-
Although sections 107 and 108 of the Evidence Act, 1872 (Act No. 1 of 1872) have to be read
together, because both the sections are complementary to each other, but there are some
differences between two sections and which are as follows:
1. Section 107 provides burden of proving death of person known to have been alive within
30 (thirty) years, whereas section 108 provides burden of proving that person is alive who
has not been heard of for 7 (seven) years.
2. Section 107 deals with the presumption of continuance of life, whereas section 108 with
the presumption of death.
3. Section 107 lays down that if a person is proved to have been alive within 30 (thirty) years
it shall be presumed that he is alive, whereas section 108 lays down that when it is proved
that a man has not been heard of for 7 (seven) years it shall be presumed that he is dead.
4. The presumption under section 107 is rebuttal, whereas the presumption under section 108
is about to fact of death.
5. Example: If a married woman wants to remarry she has to prove that her husband remains
unheard for 7 (seven) years (Section 108) or she has to wait up to 30 (thirty) years (Section
107)
So, these are the general differences between section 7 and section 8 in the light of the
Evidence Act 1872. (Act No. 1 of 1872)

POSTMORTEM CHANGES:-
Postmortem changes, also known as postmortem phenomena or postmortem processes, refer
to the physiological and physical changes that occur in a body after death. These changes can
vary depending on factors such as temperature, environmental conditions, and the time
elapsed since death.

CLASSIFICATION OF POSTMORTEM CHANGES:-

A)Immediate change after death:-

1. Stoppage of function of nervous system.
2. Stoppage of respiration.
3. Stoppage of circulation.
B) Early changes after death:-
1. Facial pallor.
2. Loss of elasticity of skin.
3. Primary relaxation of the muscles.
4. Changes in the eye.
5. Cooling of the dead body.
6. Post mortem staining.
7. Rigor mortis or postmortem rigidity.
C) Late changes:-
1. Putrefaction or ordinary decomposition.
2. Adepocere formation
3. Mummification.

Some common postmortem changes include:

1.CHANGES IN THE EYES:-

Loss of corneal reflex (unreliable)
Corneal opacity
Flaccidity of eyeball
eyebal
Pupils
Retinal vessels
Vitreous changes.

A) Corneal Haziness:-in 1 hour

• Deposition of dust and drying

B) Flaccidity of eyeball:-
. Normal Intraocular tension = 10-22 mm Hg
• Within half/2 hrs after death, IOP decreases gradually from 20 mm Hg to 0 mm Hg
• Helpful in detecting TSD

C) Pupil:-
• Initially, dilated due to iris muscle relaxation.
• Later, constricted with the onset of rigor mortis.
• Pupillary state after death is not an indication of their antemortem appearance.

D)Tache Noire Sclerotica:-

. Cause: Drying/desiccation, deposition of cellular debris & dusta
Location: Sclera & conjunctiva
Appearance: two triangles at each side of the iris (base on the limbus, apex at the outer
canthus)
Color change: First yellow, then brown and finally black Time since death: 4 hours

E) Retinal Changes:-
• Kevorkian sign/cattle trucking/railway trucking signa The earliest sign after death in eye.
• Appearance: Fragmentation or segmentation of blood columns in retinal vessels
• Cause: Loss of blood pressure
• Visualized by ophthalmoscope
• Time since death: Appears within seconds to minutes after death, persists till 1 hour

F) Vitreous Changes:-
• Linear increase in the Potassium & Hypoxanthine levels seen
In determination of postmortem interval, Potassium level from vitreous is the best one. (The
main advantage of vitreous potassium method is that it may be carried out up to 4-5 days
after death) •
The rise of potassium concentration per hour is 0.17-0.24 mmol/hour.
• Madea’s formula & Sturner’s formula for postmortem interval form vitreous K+

2. Algor Mortis: -This refers to the cooling of the body after death as it reaches
equilibrium with the surrounding environment. The rate of cooling can be influenced by
factors such as ambient temperature, clothing, and body size.
After death, the heat production stops due to the inactivity of the heat regulating center after
somatic death. Because of which, there is fall of core temperature of body after death. Body
core temperature is measured.
Algor mortis helps in determination of time since death.

Pattern of Algor Mortis:-

• The curve is Sigmoid/inverted ‘s’ shaped.

• Three phases:
■ Phase I: NO decrease in body core temperature for the first 1-2 hours. (isothermic phase)
■ Phase II: Steep decline in BCT at linear pattern (intermediate phase) (0.4-0.7 degree Celsius
per hour)
■ Phase III: very gradual decline (terminal phase)
• The III phase of the curve (terminal phase) is slightly above the base line due to bacterial
activity.

Sites of Measuring Core Body Temperature:-

Rectum (8-10 cm above anus) – Common site – Except in the case of sodomy
Subhepatic (inferior surface of liver)
External auditory meatus (tympanic membrane)
Nose (cribriform plate)
Lower end of esophagus

Instrument: Chemical thermometer (thanatometer) or electronic thermocouple.

The fall in temperature starts in 15 minutes to ½ hour
The average rate of fall of the body temperature is 0.4°-0.7°C/hr
The body attains environmental temperature in 16-20 hours after death.

Factors Affecting Algor Mortis:-

Environmental temperature (major factor): Rate of fall is directly proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the dead body and the environmental temperature
Humidity: Cooling is more rapid in a humid rather than in a dry atmosphere, since moist air is
better conductor of heat.
Media of disposal: Cooling is earliest in water, and late in buried bodies.
Built of cadaver: Obese bodies cool slowly, and lean bodies rapidly.
Age and sex: Rate of loss of heat is more in children and the elderly. Females retain body heat
for a comparatively longer period because of their subcutaneous fatty tissue.
Clothings: A well-covered body retains heat for a longer period.
Mode of death: In case of sudden death in a healthy individual, the body tends to cool slowly.

Medico legal importance:-

. Helps in estimation of time since death.
. It is a sign of death.
. Rapid cooling of a dead body delays the processes of rigor mortis and decomposition.

Postmortem Caloricity:-
• Body temperature remains elevated for the first 2 hours after death.
• Normally, there is a steady decline in body temperature after death.
But in this state, the body temperature does not fall in the initial few hours after death.
Mechanism (Increased Endogenous Heat Production During Death):-
Disturbed regulation of heat production before death heat stroke, Pontine hemorrhage.
• Heat production due to muscle convulsions – tetanus, strychnine poisoning
Heat production due to excessive bacterial activity, as in septicemic conditions, cholera and
other fevers.

Medico legal importance:-

Postmortem Caloricity leads to wrong estimation of time since death(TSD).

3.Rigor Mortis: Rigor mortis is the stiffening of muscles after death due to the
depletion of ATP, which is needed for muscle relaxation. Rigor mortis typically begins within a
few hours after death, peaks around 12-24 hours, and then gradually dissipates over the
following 1-3 days.

Time of Onset:-
*Temperate climates – 3-6 hours
*Tropical climates – 1-2 hours
••Rigor mortis generally occurs when body is cold.
••Not related to nerves action.
••Develops in paralysed limbs also.
••First appear in involuntary muscles.
••Last to be affected finger and toes muscles.

Mechanism:-
Postmortem, there is continuous and progressive hydrolysis of the ATP. Once the ATP stores
are exhausted, the muscle goes into a state of contraction.
The reduction of ATP causes stiffness and rigidity.
Rigor mortis begins in 1-2 hours after the period of primary relaxation.
Muscular Involvement:-
Rigor mortis involves both voluntary & involuntary muscles (involuntary muscles earlier than
voluntary muscles)
Rigor mortis involvement is independent of nervous innervation (RM is noted even in
hemiplegic limb).

Order of Appearance of Rigor Mortis:-

Rigor involves myocardium initially within 1 hour. Then it spreads externally.
Nysten’s rule (1811); -states that rigor mortis usually develops sequentially – proximodistal
(descending pattern).

Shapiro’s rule (1950);-RM is a biochemical process which occurs simultaneously in all the
muscles.
In small muscles, rigidity appears earlier
In larger muscles, rigidity appears later

Nysten’s Rule (1811):-

Sequence of Rigor Appearance:-

Myocardium, eyelids, neck and lower jaw, then face, chest muscles, upper limb, abdomen,
lower limb and lastly fingers and toes

Sequence of Disappearance:-
Rigor mortis disappears in the same order of appearance in which it develops.
Rigor mortis begins in 1-2 hours, progress in 3-4 hours and complete in 6-12 hours.

Rule of 12:-
.It takes roughly 12 hours to appear,
.Persists for another 12 hours
• Disappears in another 12 hours.
Factors/Conditions influencing Rigor Mortis Onset and Duration:-
Rigor mortis does not occur in a fetus <2 months old.

A)Early onset (usually short duration):-

.Muscle fatigue/convulsions and exhaustion before death Racing, Strychnine, Tetanus
.Deaths from wasting diseases Cholera, TB
.Hot weather
.OPC poisoning, HCN,

B) Late onset (usually longer duration):-

.Muscles that are healthy and at rest before death
.Asphyxia, hemorrhage, pneumonia
.Cold weather
.CO poisoning

CONDITIONS SIMULATING A (LOOKING LIKE) RIGOR

MORTIS;-
.Cadaveric spasm (unknown mechanism, may be neurogenic)
.Heat stiffening (due to muscle protein coagulation)
.Cold stiffening (due to solidification of subcutaneous fat)
.Gas stiffening (due to gas accumulation evolved from putrefaction).

a)Cadaveric Spasm (Instantaneous Rigor);-

The group of voluntary muscles which were at strenuous work just before death goes into a
sudden state of stiffening, instead of passing to primary flaccidity after death.

Salient features of cadaveric spasm:-

.Seen immediately after death with no primary relaxation phase
.Involves only a group of voluntary muscles (which were in contraction before death)
.Exclusively Antemortem in nature and it cannot be produced artificially
.Great force is required to overcome the stiffness.
.Cadaveric spasm passes into rigor mortis without interruption and disappears when rigor
disappears.
.The attitude/last act of the person at the time of death is preserved. The cause and manner
of death can be determined.
.Mechanism: Unknown, Neurogenic
Conditions:-Firearm in the hands of victims in suicidal gunshot injuries, plants and weeds in
the hands of victims in drowning, the weapon in the hands of victims in cut throat injuries
suggesting the manner of death.

b) Heat Stiffening;-
If the body is subjected to heat exposure at > 65°C, Stiffness is produced.
Mechanism:-
Muscle protein coagulation due to heat.
Conditions:-
Burns
High voltage electric shock
Attitude:-
The legs are flexed at the hips and knees, the arms are flexed at the elbows and held out in
front of the body and the fingers are hooked like claws.
Fate:-
The stiffening remains until decomposition.
The normal rigor mortis does not occur in heat stiffening.

c) Cold Stiffening:-
If a body is exposed to freezing temperatures, the tissues becoming frozen and stiff,
simulating rigor.
Mechanism:-
Freezing of body fluids
Hardening of the subcutaneous fatty tissue.
Fate:-
On exposing the body to warm atmosphere, cold stiffness disappears, followed by normal
rigor mortis occurring rapidly and passes off quickly.

Medico legal importance:-

. Sign of death and indicates molecular death
. TSD :- During summer, if rigor mortis has not set in, death might have occurred within 2 hrs.
If rigor mortis has involved the whole body then death might have occurred between 12-
24hrs . In winter season, the above timings are roughly doubled.
. Position of body at the time of death, eg, if body is lying on its back with its lower limbs
raised in air, it indicates that it reached full rigidity elsewhere.

4.Livor Mortis: Also known as lividity or postmortem lividity, this is the pooling of
blood in the lowest parts of the body due to gravity. Livor mortis causes discoloration of the
skin, creating a purplish-red coloration in areas where blood has pooled.

Postmortem Lividity:-It means discolouration or staining of the skin and

organs after death due to accumulation of fluid blood in the dependent parts of the body.
Post mortem staining/Hypostasis/Suggilation/ Vibices/ Livour mortis.
1-3 hr. Starts
6-8 hr. Fixes.
Color of Livor Mortis:-
The color of livor mortis depends on the type of hemoglobin .Normally, the lividity is bluish or
purple due to the presence of deoxyhemoglobin.
Lividity is more intense in:-
.Asphyxial deaths
.Sudden deaths
(Wherever the blood is more fluidic)
Lividity is less intense in:-
.Lobar pneumonia
.Anemia
.Hemorrhage
(Wherever the blood coagulates quickly or reduced amount of hemoglobin)

Areas of Pallor in Lividity:-

“Contact pallor/Pressure pallor”
■Parts of the body which are in tight contact with the ground do not show staining:
Examples: occipital area, shoulder blades, buttocks, posterior aspects of thighs, calves and
heels
Butterfly-shaped pattern over back.

Vibices:-
■Often, skin under collar band, waist bands and belts remain pale due to tight contact and
seen as pale stripes or bands known as vibices.

Medico legal Importance:-

. Helps in estimating the time of death.
. Indicates the posture of the body at the time of fixation and death
. Indicates the moving of the body to another position
. Color of lividity may indicate the cause of death -poisoning.

Medico-Legal Importance of postmortem Lividity:-

*It is a reliable sign of death
*It gives the information about the position of the body at the time of death
*Time since death can be estimated
*Colour suggest the cause of death
*Distribution of lividity may give the information about the manner of death

5.Decomposition: Decomposition is the breakdown of body tissues by

microorganisms and enzymes after death. This process can lead to the release of gases, foul
odors, and changes in the body’s appearance, including bloating, skin discoloration, and tissue
liquefaction.

6.Putrefaction: Putrefaction is a stage of decomposition characterized by the

breakdown of organic matter by bacteria and other microorganisms. This process produces
strong odors and can lead to the formation of gases, such as methane and hydrogen sulfide,
which can cause the body to bloat and distend.

Putrefaction is retarded by:-

. Temperature <0°C
. Temperature >48°C
. Hot dry air
. Wasting disease like anemia
. Certain poisons.

Putrefaction is enhanced by:-

. Summer
. Anasarca
. Peritonitis
. Septicaem
. Septicaemia

Medico legal importance:-

. Helps in estimation of TSD
. Identification of deceased is impossible bin advanced decomposition
. No opinion can be given as to cause of death, except in case of poisoning, fractures and
firearm injuries in advanced putrefaction.

7.Adipocere Formation(saponification) :-Adipocere, also known as

grave wax or corpse wax, is a waxy substance formed from the hydrolysis and hydrogenation
of body fat in the presence of moisture and bacterial activity. Adipocere can act as a
preservative, slowing down further decomposition.
Commonly seen in bodies immersed in water or in damp warm environment.
8.Mummification: Mummification occurs in dry environments where moisture is
rapidly removed from the body, leading to desiccation and preservation of tissues. This
process can occur naturally in arid climates or artificially through embalming techniques.
These postmortem changes are important for forensic investigators and medical examiners to
understand when estimating the time and circumstances of death.

EMBALMING:- THANATOPRAXIA:-
It is the treatment of the dead body with antiseptics and presevatives to stop putrefaction
and preserve the body.
.Embalming a body within 6 hours satisfactory result.
.It produces a chemical stiffening similar to rigor mortis.
.Embalming rigidity is permanent and normal rigor does not occur.

Constituents of a typical embalming fluid:-

.Preservative-Commonly a mixture of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde. Methanol is used to
hold the formaldehyde in solution.
.Germicide – Phenol
.Humectant (to preserve the moisture) – Glycerin .
.Buffer (to maintain the pH) – Sodium borate/sodium bicarbonate.
.Anticoagulants-Sodium citrate/sodium oxalate
.Dyes (to restore the body’s natural coloration) – eosin
.+ Perfume – wintergreen
. Vehicle – water up to 10 L
Note: Ethanol is not a constituent of embalming fluid.

Methods of Injection:-
.Continues injection and drainage
.Continuous injection and disrupted drainage .
.Alternate injection and drainage
.Discontinuous injection and drainage Best method of injection
• Injection done in High pressure & Low flow

Disadvantages of Embalming:-
.Difficult to interpret injury/diseases
.Alteration of appearance of the body
. Detection of poisons/drugs very difficult. • .Dislodgement of thrombi/emboli.
Color of embalmed bodies in Jaundice cases is green. In jaundice embalming, the use of
formaldehyde as the primary preservative initiates a chain of events that causes yellow-green
color reaction to occur in most cases.

TIMES OF INCIDENT;-

Estimation of the time of death in forensic investigations, also known as the time of incident
or postmortem interval (PMI). Determining the time of death can be a complex process and
often involves analyzing various factors and postmortem changes. Here are some methods
used to estimate the time of death:

1. Algor Mortis: As mentioned earlier, algor mortis refers to the cooling of the
body after death. By measuring the body’s temperature and comparing it to the
ambient temperature, forensic investigators can estimate the time elapsed since
death.

2. Rigor Mortis: The onset and resolution of rigor mortis can provide clues about
the time of death. Rigor mortis typically begins within a few hours after death, peaks
around 12-24 hours, and then gradually dissipates over the following 1-3 days.
 3. Livor Mortis: Livor mortis, or the settling of blood in the body’s lowest parts,
can also be used to estimate the time of death. The color, distribution, and fixation of
lividity can provide insights into the timing of death.

4. Insect Activity: Forensic entomology involves studying insect activity on and

around the body to estimate the time of death. Certain insects, such as blow flies,
beetles, and mites, colonize a body in predictable stages, and their presence and
developmental stage can be used to calculate the PMJ.

5. Scene Investigation: Observations of the scene where the body was found,
including environmental conditions, weather patterns, and any evidence of activity or
disturbance, can help narrow down the time frame of death.

6. Biochemical Changes: Postmortem biochemical changes, such as the

breakdown of blood proteins or the release of certain enzymes, can also be used to
estimate the time of death, although these methods are less commonly used and may
require specialized laboratory analysis.

It's Important to note that estimating the time of death is often not precise and may involve a
range of possibilities rather than a specific time. Forensic investigators typically use a
combination of these methods and consider multiple factors to arrive at their best estimate of
the time of death.

DISPOSAL OF DEAD BODY:-

The disposal of a dead body can be done through various methods, depending on cultural,
religious, legal, and practical considerations. Here are some common methods:

1. Burial: Burial involves placing the body in a grave, often within a coffin or shroud,
and covering it with soil. Burial practices can vary widely between cultures and
religions, with some traditions including specific rituals and ceremonies.
 2. Cremation: Cremation involves the combustion of the body into ashes and bone
fragments through high heat. The ashes are typically collected and may be stored in an
urn, scattered in a meaningful location, or buried.

3. Entombment: Entombment involves placing the body in a tomb or mausoleum,

often within a casket or crypt. This method is common in cultures or religions that
practice above-ground burials.

4. Donation to Science: Some individuals choose to donate their bodies to

medical schools, research institutions, or organ donation programs for scientific study
or transplantation purposes.

5. Natural Burial: Natural burial involves burying the body in a way that minimizes
environmental impact and encourages decomposition. This may include using
biodegradable materials for the coffin or shroud and avoiding embalming chemicals.

6. Sea Burial: Sea burial, also known as burial at sea, involves disposing of the body
in the ocean. This method is often chosen by individuals with a connection to the sea
or by military personnel.

7. Sky Burial: Sky burial is a traditional Tibetan and Mongolian practice where the
body is placed on a mountaintop or exposed platform to be consumed by birds of prey.
This method is based on the belief of giving back to nature and facilitating the cycle of
life and death.

COLLECTION OF EVIDENCES BEFORE CREMATION:-

Collecting evidence before cremation is crucial in forensic investigations, particularly in cases
where foul play is suspected or when the cause of death is uncertain. Here are some steps
that forensic investigators may take to collect evidence before cremation:

1. External Examination: A thorough external examination of the body is

conducted to document any visible injuries, marks, or abnormalities. Photographs and
detailed notes are taken to record the condition of the body.

2. Trace Evidence Collection: Trace evidence such as fibers, hairs, soil, or

gunshot residue may be collected from the body’s clothing, skin, or hair using
specialized tools and techniques.

3. Biological Sample Collection: Biological samples such as blood, saliva,

hair, and tissue may be collected for DNA analysis, toxicology testing, or other forensic
examinations. These samples can provide valuable information about the individual’s
health, drugs ,exposure to toxins.

4. Documentation of Medical Devices: If the deceased had medical

devices such as pacemakers, artificial joints, or prosthetics, these should be
documented and removed prior to cremation to prevent potential hazards during the
cremation process.

5. X-rays and Imaging: X-rays or other imaging techniques may be used to

identify internal injuries, fractures, or foreign objects that may not be visible during
the external examination.

6. Documentation of Personal Effects: Personal effects found with the

body, such as clothing, jewelry, or personal belongings, should be carefully
documented, photographed, and preserved as potential evidence.
 7. Collection of Dental Records: Dental records, including dental
impressions, X-rays, and charts, may be collected to aid in identification and to
document dental anomalies or injuries.

8. Documentation of Scene Findings: If the body was found at a specific

location, investigators should document the scene, collect any relevant evidence, and
conduct a thorough search for additional clues.

It’s important for forensic investigators to work quickly and efficiently to collect evidence
before cremation, as the process may alter or destroy certain types of evidence. Coordination
between forensic experts, medical examiners, law enforcement agencies, and funeral homes
is essential to ensure that evidence is properly collected, preserved, and analyzed in
accordance with legal and ethical standards.

Bibliography:-
• Lynch A Virginia .Fundamentals Of Forensic Nursing: Death. Ist ed. Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers (P) Ltd ;2024.pg (143-154).
• Biswas Gautam.Review Of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology: Death .5th ed. Jaypee Brothers
Medical Publishers (P) Ltd ;2022.pg (138-173).
• Magendran J. New SARP Series Of Forensic Medicine: Thanatology. 5 th ed.CBS Publishers
&Distributors Pvt Ltd ;2022 pg (02-13).