INTRODUCTION

LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

NAME 467: Control Engineering

Chapter 2: Mathematical Models of Systems

Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET)

Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

February 12, 2019

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 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Modeling Dynamic Systems

The approach to dynamic system modeling can be listed as follows:

1 Define the system and its components.

2 Formulate the mathematical model and fundamental
necessary assumptions based on basic principles.
3 Obtain the differential equations representing the
mathematical model.
4 Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5 Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6 If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system.

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 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Linear System

Let us consider a water flow

control problem.
The water flows at 5
liter/minute

Is it a linear system?
Think about excitation and
response
Two principles: principle of
superposition and principle
of homogenity.

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 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Linear Approximation of Physical Systems

1 What are the conditions for a system to be linear? Explain

with example.
2 Check the the following systems whether they are linear or
non-linear:
1 y = x2
2 y = mx + b

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 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Exercise

1 Worked out example 2.1

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Definition of Laplace Transform

Let f (t) be a real function of a real variable t defined for t > 0.

Then Laplace Transform of f (t) is as follows:

L [f (t)] ≡ F (s) (1)

Z T Z ∞
−st
F (s) ≡ lim f (t)e dt = f (t)e −st dt (2)
T →∞,→0  0+
Here, the condition is 0 < t < T . The complex variable s is√defined
by s ≡ σ + jω, where σ and ω are real variable 1 and j = −1.

1
The real part σ of a complex variable s is often written as Re(s) (the real
part of s) and the imaginary part ω as Im(s) (the imaginary part of s).
Parentheses are placed around s only when there is a possibility of confusion.
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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

The real variable t always denotes time.

It is noticeable that the lower limit on the integral is t = 0+ .
This definition of the lower limit is sometimes useful in dealing
with functions that are discontinuous at t = 0.
When explicit use is made of this limit, it will be abbreviated
t = lim→0  ≡ 0.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

If f (t) is defined and single-valued for t > 0 and F (σ) is absolutely

convergent for some real number σ0 , that is,
Z ∞ Z T
|f (t)| e −σ0 t dt = lim |f (t)| e −σ0 t dt < +∞ (3)
0+ T →∞,→0 

then, f (t) is Laplace Transformable for Re(s) > σ0 . Indeed,

0 <  < T.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Exercise: Check whether e −t is Laplace Transformable or not?

Solution: Z ∞
e −t e −σ0 t dt (4)
0+
Z ∞ Z ∞
−t−σ0 t
e dt = e −(1+σ0 )t dt (5)
0+ 0+
 ∞
1 1 1
− e −(1+σ0 )t =− e −∞ + e0 (6)
1 + σ0 0+ 1 + σ0 1 + σ0
1
< +∞ (7)
1 + σ0
This is true as long as 1 + σ0 > 0 or σ0 > −1.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of e −t .

Solution: The Laplace transform of e −t is determined as follows:
R∞
L [e −t ] = 0+ e −t e −st dt
R∞
L [e −t ] = 0+ e −t−st dt
R∞
L [e −t ] = 0+ e −(1+s)t dt
1 −(1+s)t ∞
 
−t
L [e ] = − e
1+s 0+
 
−t 1 −∞ 1 0
L [e ] = − e + e
1+s 1+s
1
L [e −t ] = [Re(s) > −1]
1+s

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Exercise:
1 Unit step function u(t).
2 Ramp function t.
3 Sine function sin t.
4 Eular number function e −at .

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Definition of Inverse Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform transforms a problem from the real

variable time domain into the complex variable s-domain.
After a solution of the transformed problem has been obtained
in terms of s, it is necessary to invert this transform to obtain
the time domain solution.
The transformation from the s-domain into the t-domain is
called the inverse Laplace transform.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Let F (s) be the Laplace transform of a function f (t), t > 0. The

following contour integral is called the inverse Laplace transform of
F (s)
Z c+j∞
−1 1
L [F (s)] ≡ f (t) = F (s)e st ds (8)
2πj c−j∞
√
Where, j = −1 and c > σ0 .

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Properties and Examples

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

The Laplace transform and its inverse have several

important properties which can be used advantageously in
the solution of linear constant-coefficient differential
equations

1. The Laplace transform is a linear transformation between

functions defined in the t-domain and functions defined in the
s-domain. That is, if F1 (s) and F2 (s) are the Laplace transforms
of f1 (t) and f2 (t), respectively, then a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s) is the
Laplace transformation of a1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t), where a1 and a2 are
arbitrary constants.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 1: Determine the Laplace transform of the

function 3e −t − e −2t .
Solution:
1
L [e −t ] =
s +1
 −2t  1
L e =
 R2
s +
∞
L e −2t = 0+ e −2t e −st dt

 R∞
L e −2t = 0+ e −st−2t dt

 −2t  R ∞ −(s+2)t
L e = 0+ e dt
 ∞
 −2t  1 −(s+2)t
L e = − e
 s +2 0+ 
 −2t  1 −∞ 1 0
L e = − e + e
s +2 s +2
 −2t  1
L e =
s +2
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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 1: Determine the Laplace transform of the

function 3e −t − e −2t .

Hence, by applying property 2 we obtain,

   
1 1
L 3e −t − e −2t = 3
 
−
s +1 s +2
 
 −t −2t
 3 1
L 3e − e = −
s +1 s +2
 3s + 6 − s − 1
L 3e −t − e −2t =

(s + 1)(s + 2)
2s + 5
L 3e − e −2t = 2
 −t 
s + 3s + 2
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

2. The inverse Laplace transform is a linear transformation

between functions defined in the s-domain and functions defined in
the t-domain. That is, if f1 (t) and f2 (t) are the inverse Laplace
transforms of F1 (s) and F2 (s), respectively, then b1 f1 (t) + b2 f2 (t)
is the inverse Laplace transform of b1 F1 (s) + b2 F2 (s), where b1
and b2 are arbitrary constants.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 2: Find the inverse Laplace transforms of the

1 1
functions and . By applying property 2,
s + 1 s +3 
2 4
determine L−1 − .
s +1 s +3
Solution:
   
−1 1 −t −1 1
L = e and L = e −3t
s +1 s +3
Hence,
     
2 4 1 1
L−1 − = 2L −1 − 4L−1
s +1 s +3 s +1 s +3
 
2 4
L−1 − = 2e −t − 4e −3t
s +1 s +3
(answer)
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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

3. The Laplace transform of the derivative dfdt of a function f (t)

whose Laplace transform in F (s) is
 
df
L = sF (s) − f (0+ ) (9)
dt

where f (0+ ) is the initial value of f (t), evaluated as the one-sided

limit of f (t) as t approaches zero from positive values.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

d −t
Problem 3: Determine the Laplace transform of [e ]
dt
using property 3.

Solution:
1
Since L [e −t ] = and limt→0 e −t = 1, then
 s
 + 1  
d −t 1
L (e ) = s −1
dt s +1
 
d −t s −s −1
L (e ) =
dt s +1
 
d −t 1
L (e ) = −
dt s +1
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

4. The Laplace transform of the integral

Rt
0 f (τ )dτ of a function
f (t) whose Laplace transform is F (s) is
Z t 
F (s)
L f (τ )dτ = (10)
0 s

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Rt
Problem 4: Determine the Laplace transform 0 e −τ dτ
using property 4.

Solution:
hR i h i
t t
L 0 e −τ dτ = L [−e −τ ]0
hR i
t
L 0 e −τ dτ = L −e −t + e 0
 

hR
t
i 1 1
L 0 e −τ dτ = − +
s +1 s
hR i −s + s + 1
t
L 0 e −τ dτ =
s(s + 1)
hR
t
i 1
L 0 e −τ dτ =
s(s + 1)
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

5. The initial value f (0+) of the function f (t) whose Laplace

transform is F (s) is

f (0+ ) = lim f (t) = lim sF (s) (11)

t→0 s→∞

This relation is called initial value theorem.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 5: Determine the initial value of e −3t by initial

value theorem.

Solution:
f (0+ ) = limt→0 f (t) = limt→0 e −3t
 
−3t 1
limt→0 e = lims→∞ s
s +3
limt→0 e −3t =1
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

6. The final value f (∞) of the function f (t) whose Laplace

transform is F (s) is

f (∞) = lim f (t) = lim sF (s) (12)

t→∞ s→0

if limt→∞ f (t) exists. This relation is relation is called final value

theorem.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 6: Determine the Laplace transform of the

function (1 − e −t ). Use the transformed function to find
the final value of the function using final value theorem.

Solution:
The Laplace transform of the function (1 − e −t ) is obtained as
follows:
1 1
L [1 − e −t ] = −
s s +1
s + 1 −s
L [1 − e −t ] =
s(s + 1)
1
L [1 − e −t ] =
s(s + 1)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

For the final value problem we know that,

f (∞) = lim f (t) = lim sF (s) (13)

t→∞ s→0

 
1
limt→∞ (1 − e −t ) = lims→0 s
s(1 + s)
1
limt→∞ (1 − e −t ) = lims→0
s +1
limt→∞ (1 − e −t ) = 1
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Exercise 2.4 (Dorf and Bishop):

A laser printer uses a laser beam to print copy rapidly from a

computer. The laser is positioned by a control input r (t), so that
we have
4(s + 50)
Y (s) = 2 R(s) (14)
s + 30s + 200
The input r (t) represents the desired position of the laser beam.
1 If r (t) is a unit step input, find the output y (t).
2 What is the final value of y (t)?

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Solution:

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

7. The Laplace transform of a function f (t/a) (time scaling) is as

follows: h  t i
L f = aF (as) (15)
a
where, F (s) = L [f (t)]

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 7: The Laplace transform of e −t is s+11

.
−3t
Determine the Laplace transform of e applying Property
7 (Time Scaling).

Solution:
1
We can consider a = .
 3  
 1 1  1 1 
L e −3t = 

= s +3
3 1 3
s +1
3 3
 −3t  1
L e =
s +3
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

8. The inverse Laplace transform of the function F (s/a)

(Frequency Scaling) is as follows:
h  s i
L−1 F = af (at) (16)
a
where, L−1 [F (s)] = f (t)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 8: The inverse transform of s+1 1

is e −t .
1
Determine the inverse transform of 1 s+1 applying Property
3
8 (Frequency Scaling).

Solution:
We can
h consider a = 3.
−1 s i
L F = af (at)
h  as i
L−1 F = 3e −3t
a
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

9. The Laplace transformation of the function f (t − T ) (Time

Delay), where T > 0 and f (t − T ) = 0 for t ≤ T , is

L [f (t − T )] = e −sT F (s) (17)

where, F (s) = L [f (t)]

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 9: The Laplace transform of the function e −t is

1
s+1 . Determine theLaplace transform of the function
e −(t−2) t > 2
defined as: f (t) = using Property 9,
0 t≤2
with T = 2.

Solution:
e −2s
L [f (t)] = e −2s .L [e −t ] =
s +1
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

10. The Laplace transform of the function e −at f (t) is given as

follows:
L e −at f (t) = F (s + a)
 
(18)
where, F (s) = L[f (t)] (Complex Translation).

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 10:The Laplace transform of cos t is s 2s+1 .

Determine the Laplace transform of e −2t cos t from
Property 10 with a = 2.

Solution:
s +2 s +2
L e −2t cos t =
 
2
=
(s + 2) + 1 s2 + 4s + 5
(answer)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

11. The Laplace transform of the product of the two functions

f1 (t) and f2 (t) is given by complex convolution integral
Z c+j∞
1
L [f1 (t)f2 (t)] = F1 (ω)F2 (s − ω)dω (19)
2πj c−j∞

where, F1 (s) = L [f1 (t)] and F2 (s) = L [f2 (t)]

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 11: Obtain the Laplace transform of the product

e −2t cos t by application
 −2t  of 1Property 11 (Complex
Convolution). L e = s+2 and L [cos t] = s 2s+1 .

Solution:   
 −2t  1 R c+j∞ ω 1
L e cos t = dω =
2πj c−j∞ ω2 + 1 s −ω+2
s +2
2
(answer)
s + 4s + 5
The details of ths contour integration are not carried out here
because they are too complicated and unnecessary. The Laplace
transform of e −2t cos t was very simply determined in previous
example using Property 10. There are, however, many instances in
more advanced treatments of automatic control in which complex
convolution can be used effectively.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

12. The inverse Laplace transform of the product of the two

transforms F1 (s) and F2 (s) is given by convolution integral
Z t Z t
−1
L [F1 (s)F2 (s)] = f1 (τ )f2 (t − τ )dτ = f2 (τ )f1 (t − τ )dτ
0+ 0+
(20)
where, L−1 [F1 (s)] = f1 (t) and L−1 [F2 (s)] = f2 (t)

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem 12: Determine the inverse Laplace transform of

s
the function F (s) = (s+a)(s 2 +1) by application of Property

12. L−1 s+11

= e −t and L−1 s 2s+1 = cos t.
   

Solution:
 
−1 s Rt
L 2
= 0+ e −(t−τ ) cos τ dτ
(s + 1)(s + 1)
 
−1 s Rt
L 2
= e −t 0+ e τ cos τ dτ
(s + 1)(s + 1)
 
−1 s 1
L 2
= (cos t + sin t − e −t ) (answer)
(s + 1)(s + 1) 2

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Short Table of Laplace Transforms

Name Function Laplace Transform

Unit impulse δt 1
1
Unit step 1(t) s
1
Unit ramp t s2
n!
Polynomial tn s n+1
Exponential e −at s+a
1
ω
Sine wave sin ωt s 2 +ω 2
s
Cosine wave cos ωt s 2 +ω 2
Damped sine wave e −at sin ωt ω
(s+a)2 +ω 2
Damped cosine wave e −at cos ωt s+a
(s+a)2 +ω 2

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Application of Laplace Transforms

1 Spring-mass damper system
2 General form

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Spring Mass System

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

General Form

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

The application of Laplace transforms to the solution of linear

constant-coefficient differentials equations is of major
importance in linear control system problems.
Two classes of equations are of general interest:
n
X diy
ai =u (21)
dt i
i=0
n m
X diy X diu
ai = bi i (22)
dt i dt
i=0 i=0

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

The following terms should be recognized:

n m
X diy X diu
ai = bi i (23)
dt i dt
i=0 i=0

1. y (t) and Y (s) Outputs (t-domain and s-domain)

2. u(t) and U(s) Inputs (t-domain and s-domain)
3. a Coefficients (a0 to an−1 are constants, an = 1)
4. b Coefficients (b0 , b1 , ..., bn are constants)
5. n Order of the equation (n ≥ m)
6. i Counter (1 to n)
7. k Counter (1 to n − 1) for initial conditions
8. t Time, independent variable

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Solving Class One Equation

The general form of Class One differential equation, for which we

need a solution, is:
n
X diy
ai i = u (24)
dt
i=0

A set of initial conditions are required in order to solve this

equation. These are:

dky
≡ y (0)k (25)
dt k t=0+

Where, k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1.

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

1 From Property 3, we know that the Laplace transform of the

df
derivative of a function f (t) whose Laplace transform in
dt
F (s) is  
df
L = sF (s) − f (0+ ) (26)
dt
where f (0+ ) is the initial value of f (t), evaluated as the
one-sided limit of f (t) as t approaches zero from positive
values.
2 In this case, for practical purpose we can write
 
dy
= L y 0 (t) = sY (s) − y (0)
 
L (27)
dt

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Now let us apply Laplace transform to equation (1) or (4).

" n #
X diy
L ai i = L [u(t)] (28)
dt
i=0

n
" #
X diy
L ai i = U(s) (29)
dt
i=0

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Let us now utilized mathematical induction technique:

For i = 1,  
dy
= L a1 y 0 (t)
 
L a1 (30)
dt
 
dy
= a1 L y 0 (t)
 
L a1 (31)
dt
 
dy
∴ L a1 = a1 [sY (s) − y (0)] (32)
dt

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 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

For i = 2,
d 2y
 
= L a2 y 00 (t) = a2 L y 00 (t)
   
L a2 2 (33)
dt

Let us take g (t) = f 0 (t), where L [g (t)] = G (s)

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 L g 0 (t)
 
(34)
dt

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 {sG (s) − g (0)} (35)
dt

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 {sL [g (t)] − g (0)} (36)
dt

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 sL y 0 (t) − y 0 (0)
  
(37)
dt
55 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering
 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 sL y 0 (t) − y 0 (0)
  
(38)
dt

d 2y
 
L a2 2 = a2 s [sY (s) − y (0)] − y 0 (0)

(39)
dt

d 2y
 
∴ L a2 2 = a2 s 2 Y (s) − sy (0) − y 0 (0)
 
(40)
dt

56 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

For i = 3 we have,

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = L a3 y 000 (t) = a3 L y 000 (t)
   
(41)
dt

Let us take g (t) = f 0 (t), where L [g (t)] = G (s)

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 L g 00 (t)
 
(42)
dt

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 s 2 G (s) − sg (0) − g 0 (0)
 
(43)
dt

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 s 2 L [g (t)] − sg (0) − g 0 (0)
 
(44)
dt

57 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 s 2 L [g (t)] − sg (0) − g 0 (0)
 
(45)
dt

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 s 2 L y 0 (t) − sy 0 (0) − y 00 (0)
   
(46)
dt

d 3y
 
L a3 3 = a3 s 2 [sY (s) − y (0)] − sy 0 (0) − y 00 (0)
 
(47)
dt

d 3y
 
∴ L a3 3 = a3 s 3 Y (s) − s 2 y (0) − sy 0 (0) − y 00 (0)
 
(48)
dt

58 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Therefore, we have the following:

For i = 1
dy
L a1 = a1 [sY (s) − y (0)]
dt
For i = 2 
d 2y
L a2 2 = a2 s 2 Y (s) − sy (0) − y 0 (0)
 
dt
For i = 3 
d 3y
L a3 3 = a3 s 3 Y (s) − s 2 y (0) − sy 0 (0) − y 00 (0)
 
dt
Hence, for i = n
n n−1
" !#
d ny
  X X
n n−1−k k
L an n = an s Y (s) − s y (0) (49)
dt
i=0 k=0

59 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Hence we can obtain,

n i−1
" !#
X X
ai s i Y (s) − s i−1−k y k (0) = U(s) (50)
i=0 k=0

The transform of the output is,

Pn Pi−1 i−1−k y k (0)
U(s) i=0 k=0 ai s
Y (s) = Pn i
+ P n i
(51)
i=0 ai s i=0 ai s

The time solution is,

"P P #
  n i−1 i−1−k y k (0)
U(s) ai s
y (t) = L−1 Pn i
+ L−1 i=0 k=0
P n i
i=0 ai s i=0 ai s
(52)

60 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Important Notes

Note that the right hand side of the s-domain solution is the
sum of two terms: a term dependent only on the input
transform, and a term dependengt only on the initial
conditions.
Pn Pi−1 i−1−k y k (0)
U(s) i=0 k=0 ai s
Y (s) = Pn i
+ P n i
(53)
i=0 ai s i=0 ai s

61 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Important Notes

The denominator of both terms is the same and is the

characteristic polynomial.
Pn Pi−1 i−1−k y k (0)
U(s) i=0 k=0 ai s
Y (s) = Pn i
+ P n i
(54)
i=0 ai s i=0 ai s

We can write it as
n
X
ai s i = s n + an−1 s n−1 + ... + ai s + a0 (55)
i=0

62 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

In the time solution y (t), the first term on the right is the
forced response and the second term is the free response of
the system.
"P P #
n i−1
ai s i−1−k y k (0)
 
−1 PU(s) −1 i=0 k=0
y (t) = L n i
+L Pn i
i=0 ai s i=0 ai s
(56)

Direct substitution into these equations yield the transform of

differential equation, the solution transform Y (s) and time
solution y (t). But it is often easier to directly apply the basic
properties to determite the solution, especially when the order
of the differential equation is low.

63 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problem: Determine the output of the following system in

d 2y dy
s-domain: + 3 + 2y = 1(t) = unit step. The initial
dt 2 dt
dy
conditions are: y (0) = −1 and = 2.
dt t=0
Clue:
1 Identify n
2 Identify a0 , a1 , a2 , ...
3 Identify y 0 (0), y 1 (0), y 2 (0), ...
4 Put these in Equation 31/33/34
5 or Directly apply the properties!
−(s 2 + s − 1)
6 The solution is Y (s) =
s(s 2 + 3s + 2)
64 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering
 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Problems for Term Final Examination

1 Determine the output transform Y (s) and the time solution

y (t) of the following constant-coefficient differential eqiuation:
n m
X diy X diu
ai = bi i (57)
dt i dt
i=0 i=0

Consider necessary assumptions by yourself.

2 Determine the output transform Y (s) and the time solution
y (t) of the following constant-coefficient differential equation:

d 2y dy du
2
+3 + 2y = + 3u (58)
dt dt dt
Consider u(t) = e −4t , y (0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 0.

65 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Exercise

Determine the characteristic equation, poles and zeroes of the

following system. Also, find various conditions of damping of the
system.
d 2y dy
M 2 +b + ky = r (t) (59)
dt dt
Consider the following initial conditions:
r (t) = 0
y (0) = y0
dy
= 0 at t = 0
dt
k b
Plot the pole zero diagram of the system for = 2 and = 3.
M M

66 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Solution

The Laplace transformation of the equation yields:

 
dy
M s 2 Y (s) − sy (0) − (0) + b (sY (s) − y (0)) + kY (s) = R(s)
dt
(60)
or,

Ms 2 Y (s) − Msy0 + bsY (s) − by0 + kY (s) = 0 (61)

or,

(Ms + b)y0 p(s)

Y (s) = 2
= (62)
Ms + bs + k q(s)

67 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION Properties and Examples
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION Application of Laplace Transforms
TRANSFER FUNCTION Important Notes

Solution

The denominator of the polynomial q(s), when set to zero, is

called the characteristic equation because the roots of this
equation determine the character of the time response.

q(s) = 0 (63)

Ms 2 + bs + k = 0 (64)
The roots of the characteristic equation is called poles of the
system.

68 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

TRANSFER FUNCTION

69 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering

 INTRODUCTION
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Function

The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio

of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace
transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.
The transfer function of a system (or element) represents the
relationship describing the dynamics of the system under
consideration.

70 / 70 Zobair Ibn Awal, PhD NAME 467: Control Engineering