applied

sciences
Article
A Field Study of the Impact of Indoor Lighting on
Visual Perception and Cognitive Performance
in Classroom
Qiang Liu 1,2 , Zheng Huang 1 , Zhijiang Li 1, *, Michael R. Pointer 3 , Geng Zhang 4 , Zhen Liu 5 ,
Hanwen Gong 1 and Zhen Hou 1
1 School of Printing and Packaging, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China; [email protected] (Q.L.);
[email protected] (Z.H.); [email protected] (H.G.); [email protected] (Z.H.)
2 Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Digitization and Virtual Reproduction of Color
Information in Cultural Relics, Wuhan 430079, China
3 School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; [email protected]
4 Central South Architectural Design Institute, Wuhan 430000, China; [email protected]
5 College of Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276000, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 12 September 2020; Accepted: 20 October 2020; Published: 22 October 2020


Abstract: In this field study, a series of psychophysical tests were conducted to investigate the impact
of indoor lighting on students’ visual perception and cognitive performance. A typical classroom
of Wuhan University (China) was fitted with tubular light-emitting diode (LED) sources and LED
panel sources in two experiments, respectively. Under the two lighting environments, seventy-nine
college students were invited to complete a group of visual tests, which included colour preference
evaluations of fruit and vegetables and skin tone, perceptual judgement on the atmosphere of the
lighting environment, a reading comfort assessment concerning different paper colours, a Karolinska
Sleepiness Scale (KSS) test quantifying alertness, and the Anfimov test of attention (also concerning
paper colours). These tests were conducted twice, before and after a two-hour self-study under each
lighting environment, with the aim of investigating the impact of visual fatigue on visual perception
and cognitive performance. It was found that the influence of indoor lighting was significant on
skin preference and atmosphere perception, while no measured effects of lighting were observed
on participant’s alertness and attention. Meanwhile, the impact of visual fatigue was also found to
be insignificant in this case. Interestingly, paper colour, rather than indoor lighting, was found to
have a significant impact on the visual comfort of text reading. In addition, degree of proficiency
significantly influenced the proofreading speed and accuracy of the subjects the in Anfimov test,
which we believe should be taken into consideration when implementing similar tests in follow-up
studies. The preliminary findings of this field study should provide a deeper understanding of how
changes in classroom lighting contribute to visual perception and cognitive performance of occupants.

Keywords: indoor lighting; psychophysical experiment; visual perception; cognitive performance

1. Introduction
In the past century and a half, many research projects have investigated the effect of lighting on
the perception of the environment, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism
of visual perception. Studies aimed at finding a correlation between the spectral power distribution
(SPD) of light and human visual perception, including colour fidelity [1,2], colour naturalness [3,4],
colour discrimination [5,6], colour preference [7–9], lighting comfort [10,11], and the whiteness of
lighting [12,13], have obtained positive results. More than fifty colour quality metrics involving

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436; doi:10.3390/app10217436 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 2 of 17

objective and subjective aspects of perception have been proposed, including the Colour Rendering
Index (CRI: Ra) developed by Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) [1], Colour Quality
Scale (CQS: Qa, Qf, Qp, Qg) [2] developed by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
IES-TM-30 metrics (Rf and Rg) [14] developed by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) &
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Memory Colour Rendering Index (MCRI) [15],
Colour Discrimination Index (CDI) [16], and Gamut Volume Index (GVI) [17]. These metrics are
essential and effective tools to inform good professional practice, for example in applied lighting
design and product development in museums and art galleries [11,18], surgical applications [19,20],
industrial inspection [20], and the retail environment [5,21].
In 2001, a third type of photoreceptor, the intrinsic photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC),
was discovered [22,23]. These novel cells are located in the retina of mammals and they have been
shown to have special nerve connections to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is the biological
clock in the brain. The SCN, in turn, has a nerve connection with the pineal gland, responsible for
the regulation of some types of hormones. The discovery of additional nerve connections from the
ipRGC in the eye to the brain has prominently contributed to the understanding of many non-visual
biological effects of lighting, for example, circadian rhythms [24,25], cortisol production [26], melatonin
production [27], concentration [28,29], and alertness [27,30].
Over recent decades, researchers, lighting designers, and architects have realized that lighting
design should be required to consider both visual and non-visual aspects of lighting [31–34]. Based
on such a scientific consensus, researchers have recently focused on the concept of human-centric
lighting (HCL) [35–39], which aims to maximize the benefits of proper lighting and covers a broad set
of technologies. Specifically, HCL provides evidence-based lighting solutions optimized for vision,
performance, alertness, and general human health, in the way of balancing the visual, emotional,
and biological benefits of lighting. In a recent work by Vinh et al. [35], taking selected spectral aspects
of HCL into consideration, a preliminary usefulness metric was proposed to characterize the energy
efficiency of light sources. This HCL metric comprised widespread used measures of colour quality
(e.g., CRI Ra), descriptors of brightness (e.g., CIE Lmes [40]), as well as an indicator of the circadian
effect (the so-called DIN melanopic factor [41]). Additionally, in the latest study by Duong et al. [38]
that concentrated on the up-lighting method and freeform optics, a design of freeform lenses for
HCL was developed. It was proved to be beneficial in obtaining the maximum luminous uniformity
over an indoor space, which might result in less chance of myopia and improvement in health and
mental wellness.
It is necessary, however, to recognize the limitations of what we know at the current stage [37].
For the visual effects of lighting, we know much about how light affects our visual capabilities and
perceptions but, due to the variations in psychophysical studies, a consensus has not been reached
in those topics. For the non-visual effects, we suspect that many parts of the human body are
influenced by light, yet these are relatively unexplored. Thus, as has been announced by many
researchers [34,35,37,42], a full range of lighting research, in both visual and non-visual domains,
is still needed.
In this contribution, therefore, a field study has been carried out with the aim of exploring the
impact of classroom lighting on the visual perception and cognitive performance of the occupants.
Two types of luminaires, tubular LED and LED panel sources, were consecutively installed in a
classroom in two experiments, both of which employed the same experimental protocol. Seventy-nine
college students were recruited to conduct a series of visual evaluations and cognitive tasks under the
two experimental lighting conditions. The tasks were conducted twice for every lighting environment,
before and after a 2-h period of self-study, which intended to investigate the impact of visual fatigue.
According to recent studies, inappropriate selection of paper colour may lead to visual fatigue [43],
asthenopia [44], and even some ocular diseases (e.g., keratitis and conjunctivitis [45,46]). Thus,
investigating the impact of paper colour (white, yellowish-white, and green) on reading comfort and
attention under different light sources was another purpose of this work. In addition, inspired by the
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measure of colour discrimination capability) caused by test repetition [47,48], we also investigated
error score
whether variations
there were found
practice in the Farnsworth–Munsell
effects (i.e., impact of 100 Hueof
degree Testproficiency)
(a typical measure
in the of colour
adopted
discrimination capability)
psychophysical approaches. caused by test repetition [47,48], we also investigated whether there were
practice effects (i.e., impact of degree of proficiency) in the adopted psychophysical approaches.
2. Method
2. Method
2.1. Experimental Design
2.1. Experimental Design
The experiments were approved by the ethics committee of the School of Printing and
The experiments
Packaging, were approved
Wuhan University. by theidentification
The project ethics committee codeofisthe School of
250000210 Printing and
(approved Packaging,
on 20 October
Wuhan University. The project identification code is 250000210
2019). Informed consent was obtained from all participants for being included in the study. (approved on 20 October 2019).
Informed consent was obtained from all participants for being included
In this study, two experiments were consecutively conducted in one classroom at Wuhan in the study.
In this in
University study, two experiments
Wuhan, China (30.53° were consecutively
N, 114.36° E). Bothconducted in onewere
experiments classroom
designedat Wuhan
withinUniversity
the same
in Wuhan, China ◦
(30.53but N,with
114.36 ◦ E). Both experiments were designed within the same experimental
experimental protocol, different luminaires (Experiment 1: tubular LED sources; Experiment
protocol,
2: but with
LED panel different
sources). luminaires
Seventy-nine (Experiment
students 1: tubularfrom
(person-time) LEDWuhan
sources;University
Experiment 2: LED
were panel
invited to
sources). Seventy-nine students (person-time) from Wuhan University were
participate in the research. All the experiments were conducted after 6:30 p.m. to avoid unintended invited to participate in
the research.
variables All the
caused experiments
by the presence were conducted after 6:30 p.m. to avoid unintended variables caused
of daylight.
by the presence of daylight.
Each experiment involved Sessions 1, 2, and 3, as shown in Figure 1. In Session 1, participants
were Each
askedexperiment
to complete involved
six tasksSessions
related 1, to2,visual
and 3,perception
as shown in and Figure 1. In performance.
cognitive Session 1, participants
The first
were asked to complete six tasks related to visual perception and cognitive
was the colour preference evaluation of a plate of multicoloured fruit and vegetables, followed performance. The first
by
was the colour preference evaluation of a plate of multicoloured
the visual evaluation of skin tone preference. These approaches are widely adopted in thefruit and vegetables, followed by the
visual evaluation
measurement of skinquality
of colour tone preference.
of light sourcesThese[3,7,9].
approaches
The thirdare task
widelywasadopted
to assessinthetheatmosphere
measurement of
the indoor lighting environment in terms of four attributes: Uncomfortable/Comfortable,ofCool/Warm,
of colour quality of light sources [3,7,9]. The third task was to assess the atmosphere the indoor
lighting environment
Negative/Active, in terms of four
and Tense/Relaxed. attributes:
Next, Uncomfortable/Comfortable,
the participants Cool/Warm,
were asked to complete theNegative/Active,
proofreading
and Tense/Relaxed.
task of the Anfimov Next,
test the participants
[49–52]. The visual were asked to
comfort complete of
assessment thetext
proofreading task of the
reading associated Anfimov
with three
test [49–52]. The visual comfort assessment of text reading associated with
differently coloured pieces of paper (white, yellowish-white, and green) was conducted next. The last three differently coloured
pieces
task was ofthe
paper (white, Sleepiness
Karolinska yellowish-white,
Scale (KSS)and test
green)
[53].was
Theconducted
details of thenext. The last
six tasks will task was the
be described
Karolinska
in Section 2.4.Sleepiness Scale (KSS) test [53]. The details of the six tasks will be described in Section 2.4.

Figure 1.
Figure Experimental procedure.
1. Experimental procedure.

In Session
In Session2,2,the participants
the participantswere instructed
were to conduct
instructed a 2-h period
to conduct a 2-h of self-study
period in the classroom,
of self-study in the
during which only paperwork with white paper was allowed, i.e.,
classroom, during which only paperwork with white paper was allowed, i.e., no light-emitting no light-emitting devices (e.g.,
computers,
devices (e.g.,tablets, phones)
computers, werephones)
tablets, allowed.were Suchallowed.
an arrangement was to make sure
Such an arrangement was that the only
to make sure light
that
in the classroom came from the experimental luminaires. It should be noted
the only light in the classroom came from the experimental luminaires. It should be noted that that this study was carried
this
out in was
study December
carried2019,
out when the final2019,
in December exams of thethe
when university wereofapproaching.
final exams the university Thus,
werethe participants
approaching.
were able
Thus, the to concentratewere
participants on revision
able tofor their final exams,
concentrate e.g., reviewing
on revision for their textbooks
final exams,and e.g.,
doingreviewing
exercises.
Session 3, which
textbooks and doing exercises.adopted the same experimental procedure as Session 1, was performed after
the 2-h self-study
Session 3, whichperiod. Thus,the
adopted each participant
same experimentalcompleted the sixasvisual
procedure tests
Session 1, twice under the same
was performed after
lighting environment, before and after the self-study period, respectively. As
the 2-h self-study period. Thus, each participant completed the six visual tests twice under the samenoted above, this protocol
aimed toenvironment,
lighting investigate thebefore
impactand of visual fatigue
after the on the results
self-study period,ofrespectively.
the tests. In addition,
As notedone group
above, of
this
experienced
protocol aimedparticipants who had
to investigate engagedofinvisual
the impact Experiment
fatigue1onandthea second
results group
of the of participants
tests. without
In addition, one
group of experienced participants who had engaged in Experiment 1 and a second group of
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participants
such without
experience
participants such
weresuch
without experience
bothexperience
involved inwere were both involved
Experiment
both involved
2. This inin Experimentaimed
arrangement
Experiment 2. This
2. This arrangement
toarrangement aimed
verify any possible
aimed
to verify
to verifyeffects
practice any possible
any possible practice
on the results
practice effects
ofeffects on the
the results
the psychophysical
on resultstests.
of the
of the psychophysical
Strictly speaking, the
psychophysical tests. Strictly
impact
tests. Strictly speaking,
of speaking,
visual the
fatigue
the
impact
revealed
impact of
ofbyvisual fatigue
any comparison
visual revealed
fatigue revealed by
between any
by any comparison
thecomparison between
results of Session
between the
1 and results
the Session
results ofof Session
3 was 1 and
confounded
Session Session
by the
1 and Session 33
was confounded
impact
was confounded
of another by by
form theofimpact
the impact
practiceof ofeffect,
another
another form
thatform
is, the ofinstant
of practice
practice effect, that
experience
effect, that is, the
obtained
is, theininstant
instant
Sessionexperience
1. In this
experience
obtained in Session 1. In this study, we assumed the instant practice effect between Session 11 and
obtained
study, we in Session
assumed the1. In this
instant study,
practice we assumed
effect between the instant
Session 1 practice
and Sessioneffect
3 to between
be Session
negligible accordingand
Session
to
Session 33 to
to be
be negligible
the insignificantnegligible
differenceaccording
accordingbetween to the
to the insignificant
experienced
insignificant differenceand
participants
difference between experienced
inexperienced
between experienced participants
participants
participants in
and inexperienced
and inexperienced
Experiment participants
2 (see Section in Experiment
3). Therefore,
participants in Experiment
only the22 (see
(see Section
possible 3). Therefore,
impact
Section 3). Therefore, only the
of visual fatigue
only the possible
caused impact
by the
possible 2-h
impact
of visual
visual fatigue
self-study
of fatigue
between caused
Session
caused by 1the
by theand2-hSession
2-h self-study
self-study between Session
3 is between
discussed Session 11 and
and Session
in the following Session 33 is
sections. is discussed
discussed intook
In total, itin the
the
following sections.
approximately
following sections. Inand
threeIn total, itit took
a half
total, took
hoursapproximately
to conduct each
approximately three
three and aa half
half hours
experiment.
and hours toto conduct
conduct each each experiment.
experiment.

2.2. Experimental
2.2. Experimental
2.2. Setup
Experimental Setup
Setup
All
All the
All the experiments
the experiments took
experiments took place
took place
place in in
in aaa classroom
classroom (Figure
classroom (Figure
(Figure 2) 2) at
2) at Wuhan
Wuhan University,
at Wuhan University, which
University, which was
which was
was
equipped
equipped with
equipped with tubular
with tubular LED
tubular LED and
LED and LED
and LED panel
LED panel sources
panel sources for
sources for Experiment
for Experiment 1 (Exp.1)
Experiment 11 (Exp.1) and Experiment
(Exp.1) and 2 (Exp.2),
and Experiment
Experiment 22
respectively.
(Exp.2), Specifically,
(Exp.2), respectively.
respectively. six classic
Specifically,
Specifically, six
six LED tubes
classic
classic LED
LED were installed
tubes
tubes at a height
were installed
were installed at of
at 3 m forof
aa height
height ofExp.1,
33 m and
m for
for nine
Exp.1,
Exp.1,
commercially
and nine
and available available
nine commercially
commercially LED panels
available LED
LED were installed
panels
panels at the same
were installed
were installed height
at the
at the samefor
same Exp.2.
height
height forAn
for X-Rite
Exp.2.
Exp.2. Ani1X-Rite
An Pro2
X-Rite
spectrophotometer (measurement geometry: 45 ◦ /0◦ ; spectral range: 380–730 nm; wavelength step:
i1 Pro2
i1 Pro2 spectrophotometer
spectrophotometer (measurement
(measurement geometry:
geometry: 45°/0°;
45°/0°; spectral
spectral range:
range: 380–730
380–730 nm; nm; wavelength
wavelength
10 nm;
step:
step: 10measuring
10 nm; aperture:
nm; measuring
measuring 3.5 mm)
aperture:
aperture: 3.5 was used
3.5 mm)
mm) was to measure
was used
used the SPDs.
to measure
to measure the SPDs.
the Before
SPDs. eacheach
Before
Before experiment,
each all the
experiment,
experiment, all
all
luminaires
the luminaireswere switched
were on
switched for
onat least
for at 30 min
least 30 to
minensure
to they
ensure had
they stabilized.
had
the luminaires were switched on for at least 30 min to ensure they had stabilized. After that, an X- After
stabilized. that,
After an X-Rite
that, an i1
X-
Pro2,
Rite i1
Rite which
i1 Pro2, had
Pro2, whichbeen
which hadcalibrated
had been by measuring
been calibrated
calibrated by a calibration
by measuring white
measuring aa calibration tile, was
calibration white placed
white tile, on
tile, wasthe measurement
was placed
placed onon the
the
plane (2 m directly below the light sources) with a standard white tile in the geometry of 45 ◦ /0◦ to
measurement plane (2 m directly below the light sources) with a standard
measurement plane (2 m directly below the light sources) with a standard white tile in the geometry white tile in the geometry
obtain
of 45°/0°
of SPDs.
45°/0° to The SPDs
to obtain
obtain of the
SPDs.
SPDs. Thesix
The tubular
SPDs
SPDs LEDsix
of the
of the sources
six tubular
tubular showed some small
LED sources
LED sources variation,
showed
showed someprobably
some because
small variation,
small variation,
they were not
probably because
probably new.
because theyThe nine
they were LED
were not panel
not new.
new. The sources
The nine were
nine LED
LED panelpreviously
panel sources unused
sources were and had
were previously consistent
previously unusedunused andSPDs,
and had as
had
shown in Figure
consistent
consistent SPDs, 3.
SPDs, as shown
as shown in in Figure
Figure 3. 3.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. The
The classroom
The classroom used in
classroom used
used in the
in the experiment
the experiment with tubular
experiment with tubular LED
LED (left)
(left) and
and LED
LED panel
panel (right)
(right) sources.
sources.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Relative
Relative spectral
spectral power
power distributions
distributions of
of the
the experimental
experimental light
light sources.
sources.

The classroom
The classroom isis located
located on
on the
the ground
ground floor
floor of
of aa four-story
four-story building
building and
and has
has an
an area
area of
of 101.2
101.2 m
m22
(11.5 ×× 8.8
(11.5 8.8 m).
m). It
It can
can accommodate
accommodate 36 36 students
students with
with partitions
partitions between
between each
each of
of the
the desks,
desks, ensuring
ensuring
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The classroom is located on the ground floor of a four-story building and has an area of 101.2 m2
(11.5 × 8.8was
that there m). no
It can accommodate
interference amongst36 students withduring
participants partitions between
the tests. The each of the desks,
illuminance at the ensuring
centre of
that there
each desk was
wasno interference
measured withamongst
a Testo participants
540 illuminance during the (measurement
meter tests. The illuminance at the centre
range: 0–99,999 lux,
of each desk was measured with a Testo 540 illuminance meter (measurement range:
measurement accuracy: ±3%), as shown in Table 1. The measuring devices adopted in this study were 0–99,999 lux,
measurement accuracy: ±3%), as shown in Table 1. The measuring devices adopted
recalibrated 15 days before the experiments. All the photometric and colorimetric parameters are in this study
were
basedrecalibrated 15 daystaken
on measurements beforeprior
the experiments.
to the start ofAll the photometric
formal experiments. and colorimetric
Figure parameters
4 visualizes colour
are based on measurements taken prior
gamut properties of the experimental sources.to the start of formal experiments. Figure 4 visualizes colour
gamut properties of the experimental sources.
Table 1. The photometric and colorimetric properties of the experimental light sources.
Table 1. The photometric and colorimetric properties of the experimental light sources.
Measurement Experiment Max Min Average Standard Deviation
Measurement Experiment
Exp.1 Max
255 Min
110 Average
155 Standard
39 Deviation
Illuminance (lux)
Exp.2
Exp.1 457
255 211110 299155 7539
Illuminance (lux)
Exp.2
Exp.1 457
6825 6493211 6688299 8975
CCT (K) Exp.1 6825 6493 6688
CCT (K) Exp.2 5225 4956 5139 6889
Exp.2 5225 4956 5139 68
Exp.1
Exp.1
75
75
7171 74 74 1.00
1.00
CRIRa
CRI Ra
Exp.2
Exp.2 92
92 9292 92 92 0.00
0.00
Exp.1
Exp.1 77 7171 75 75 2.24
2.24
IESRfRf
IES
Exp.2 87
Exp.2 87 8787 87 87 0.00
0.00
Exp.1 96 94 95 0.82
IES Rg Exp.1 96 94 95 0.82
IES Rg Exp.2 101 101 101 0.00
Exp.2 101 101 101 0.00

Figure 4.4.Colour
Figure Colourgamut
gamutgraphics of theofexperimental
graphics light sources
the experimental light based
sourceson IES TM-30-18
based specification.
on IES TM-30-18
Despite the slight
specification. spectral
Despite the power distribution
slight spectral (SPD)
power variations(SPD)
distribution among tubular LEDs
variations in Exp.1,
among tubularthe gamut
LEDs in
shapes of those light sources were quite consistent. Thus, only one light for each experiment
Exp.1, the gamut shapes of those light sources were quite consistent. Thus, only one light for each is shown.
experiment is shown.
2.3. Subjects
A totals of seventy-nine volunteers (person-time) were invited to participate in this study. All the
2.3. Subject
subjects were Chinese students at Wuhan University, and had passed the Ishihara Colour Vision Test.
A total of seventy-nine volunteers (person-time) were invited to participate in this study. All the
Generally, they were mainly from eastern (n = 30) and southern (n = 23) China, with a few (n = 3)
subjects were Chinese students at Wuhan University, and had passed the Ishihara Colour Vision Test.
from western China. In Exp.1, there were 36 subjects—18 males and 18 females—aged between 17 and
Generally, they were mainly from eastern (n = 30) and southern (n = 23) China, with a few (n = 3) from
19 years (mean = 18.2 years, SD = 0.60). None were aware of the purpose of the research.
western China. In Exp.1, there were 36 subjects—18 males and 18 females—aged between 17 and 19
In Exp.2, a group of 23 subjects (Group A, 11 males and 12 females, aged between 17 and
years (mean = 18.2 years, SD = 0.60). None were aware of the purpose of the research.
19 years, mean = 17.9 years, SD = 0.62) who had taken part in Exp.1 were recruited again. In addition,
In Exp.2, a group of 23 subjects (Group A, 11 males and 12 females, aged between 17 and 19
a second group of 20 naïve subjects (Group B, 5 males and 15 females, aged between 16 and 26 years;
years, mean = 17.9 years, SD = 0.62) who had taken part in Exp.1 were recruited again. In addition, a
mean = 22.0 years, SD = 2.48) were invited to participate. Since there were only 36 desks in the classroom,
second group of 20 naïve subjects (Group B, 5 males and 15 females, aged between 16 and 26 years;
the two groups of subjects participated in Exp.2 on two separate nights. To be specific, Exp.2 with
mean = 22.0 years, SD = 2.48) were invited to participate. Since there were only 36 desks in the
subjects from Group A was conducted one week after Exp.1, while the subjects in Group B participated
classroom, the two groups of subjects participated in Exp.2 on two separate nights. To be specific,
in Exp.2 two days later. As noted above, this arrangement was aimed at investigating the possible
Exp.2 with subjects from Group A was conducted one week after Exp.1, while the subjects in Group
impact of any practice effect (or degree of proficiency) upon the results of the psychophysical tests.
B participated in Exp.2 two days later. As noted above, this arrangement was aimed at investigating
the possible impact of any practice effect (or degree of proficiency) upon the results of the
psychophysical tests.
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2.4. Experimental Procedure

2.4. Experimental
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10,Procedure
x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
The procedure for Exp.1 and Exp.2 is shown in Figure 1 above. Before the formal experiments,
all theThe
2.4. procedurewere
luminaires
Experimental for Exp.1
switched
Procedure andon Exp.2
for is
at shown
least 30inmin Figure 1 above.
to ensure theyBefore the formalUpon
had stabilized. experiments,
arrival,
all the luminaires
the subjects randomlywere switched
chose a on
seat for
and at least
signed 30
an min to
informed ensure they
consent had
form. stabilized.
A general Upon arrival,
information
The procedure for Exp.1 and Exp.2 is shown in Figure 1 above. Before the formal experiments,
the subjects randomly
questionnaire was issued chose a seat demographic
to collect and signed an informed consent form.information.
A general information
all the luminaires were switched on for at least 30and minlighting
to ensureknowledge
they had stabilized. UponDuring arrival, that
questionnaire
time,thethesubjects was
experimenter issued readto collect demographic
the ainstructions and an and
answeredlighting any knowledge
questions information. During that
randomly chose seat and signed informed consent form.raised
A generalby the subjects.
information
time,questionnaire
the subjects
The experimenter then read the
consecutively
was issued
instructions
to collectperformed
demographic
andthe answered tasksany
sixlighting
and
questions
inknowledge
Session raised
1. The firstby
information.
the
task subjects.
was
During tothat
observe
The
time,
a plate subjects
ofthe then consecutively
experimenter fruit
multicoloured read the performed
andinstructions
vegetablesand the six tasks
answeredan
(including in Session
anyapple,
questions 1. The first
raised byathe
an orange, task was
subjects.
lemon, to observea
an onion,
agreen
plate date,
ofThe
multicoloured
asubjects
cucumber, fruit and
then consecutively vegetables
and some cherry performed (including an
the six tasks
tomatoes; apple,
Figure an
in Session
5), andorange,
1. The
make a lemon,
firsta task an onion,
was to observe
subjective a green
preference
date,
rating. a cucumber,
a plate
Noteofthat and
multicoloured some
the fruit and cherry
fruitvegetablestomatoes;
and vegetables adopted Figure
(including 5),
in Exp.1 and
an apple, make
and Exp.2 a subjective
an orange,
were nota lemon, preference
the same due rating.
an onion, a the
to
Note that
green the
date, fruit and
a cucumber,vegetables
and some adopted
cherry in Exp.1
tomatoes; and Exp.2
Figure were
5), andnot
timescale of the experiments affecting the long-term preservation of the items. In Exp.2, therefore, the makethe asame due
subjective to the timescale
preference
of therating. Note that the fruit and
experiments thevegetables adopted in Exp.1ofand theExp.2 were In not the same due tothethe fruit
fruit and vegetablesaffecting
were selected long-term
to be as preservation
similar to those items.
use in Exp.1 Exp.2, therefore,
as possible. A 7-point
and timescale
vegetables of the experiments
were selected affecting the long-term preservation of the items. In Exp.2, therefore, the
categorical judgement methodtowas be as similar to
employed to those
quantify usethe in Exp.1 as possible.
subjective preference A 7-point categorical
of the illuminated
fruit
judgement and vegetables
method was were selected
employed to
to(−3, be
quantify as similar
the to those use in Exp.1 as possible. A 7-point
objects. Specifically,
categorical judgement the seven
method scores
was employed −2, −1, 0, 1,subjective
to quantify 2, 3)the preferencetoofstrongly
corresponded
subjective preference
the illuminated
dislike,
of the
objects.
moderately
illuminated
Specifically,
dislike, slightly the seven scores
dislike, neutral, (−3, −2,
slightly −1, 0, 1, 2, 3) corresponded to strongly dislike, moderately dislike,
objects. Specifically, the seven scoreslike,
(−3,moderately
−2, −1, 0, 1, like,
2, 3) and strongly like,
corresponded respectively.
to strongly This method
dislike, moderately
slightly
alsodislike,
was dislike, adopted neutral,
for theslightly like, moderately
preference evaluation like,
ofand strongly
thelike,
skin tone like, respectively.
of the back of theThishand method
of each was also
subject,
slightly dislike, neutral, slightly like, moderately and strongly like, respectively. This method
adopted
as shown for
was also the
in adoptedpreference evaluation of the skin tone of the back of the hand
Figure 5.for the preference evaluation of the skin tone of the back of the hand of each subject, of each subject, as shown
in Figure
as shown5. in Figure 5.

Figure
Figure 5. Colour
5. Colour preferencejudgements
preference judgements of
of fruit
fruit and
andvegetables
vegetables(left) and
(left)
(left) skin
and
and tonetone
skin
skin (right).
tone (right).
(right).

In
In theInthird
the the third
thirdtask, task,
task, subjects
subjects were
subjects were
asked
were asked to assess
to assess
asked to the
theatmosphere
the atmosphere
assess of the of
atmosphere thethe
lighting
lighting
of environment
environment
lighting according
environment
according to four perceptual attributes: Uncomfortable/Comfortable, Cool/Warm, Negative/Active, and
to four perceptual
according perceptualUncomfortable/Comfortable,
to four attributes: Cool/Warm, Negative/Active,
attributes: Uncomfortable/Comfortable, and Tense/Relaxed.
Cool/Warm, Negative/Active, and
Tense/Relaxed.
Figure 6 shows Figure
the 6 shows the
questionnaire questionnaire
used to used
record to record
these these measurements,
measurements, in in
which which
a a score
score of +3
Tense/Relaxed. Figure 6 shows the questionnaire used to record these measurements, in which a score
of +3 corresponded to the highest degree of comfort, warmth, activeness, and relaxation, respectively.
corresponded to thetohighest
of +3 corresponded degree
the highest of comfort,
degree warmth,
of comfort, activeness,
warmth, and relaxation,
activeness, respectively.
and relaxation, respectively.

Figure 6. Questionnaire used for recording the subjective rating of the atmosphere of the lighting
environment.
Figure
Figure 6. Questionnaire
6. Questionnaire used
used for for recording
recording the subjective
the subjective ratingrating
of the of the atmosphere
atmosphere of the
of the lighting
lighting environment.
environment.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

The subjective evaluation of the lighting was followed by the Anfimov test, which was designed
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 7 of 17
to measure attention and mental workability [49–52]. As can be seen in Figure 7, the test comprises
1200 uppercase letters printed as a justified paragraph (without hyphenation) on a 210 × 297 mm (A4)
The subjective evaluation of the lighting was followed by the Anfimov test, which was designed
sheet of paper. The paragraph consists of 8 letters (A, B, C, E, H, K, N, X) such that each letter
to measure attention and mental workability [49–52]. As can be seen in Figure 7, the test comprises
randomly appears 150 times (organized into 30 lines with 40 letters in each line). The text was
1200 uppercase letters printed as a justified paragraph (without hyphenation) on a 210 × 297 mm (A4)
presented
sheetin of 14 pt Times
paper. New Roman
The paragraph font
consists of and (A,
8 letters contained
B, C, E, H,20 pairs
K, N, of the
X) such thattwo
each given letters EK (in
letter randomly
sequence) whose
appears 150 positions were randomized
times (organized and40counterbalanced.
into 30 lines with letters in each line).Note
The that all the
text was Anfimov
presented in tests
conducted
14 pt in thisNew
Times study had font
Roman different text paragraphs
and contained 20 pairs ofwith different
the two arrangements
given letters of letters.
EK (in sequence) whoseDuring
positions were randomized and counterbalanced. Note that all the Anfimov
the test, the subjects were instructed to read the letters one by one (beginning at the upper tests conducted in this
left) and
study had different text paragraphs with different arrangements of letters. During
to underline the letter K in the preset pair EK, all within 2 min. In addition, they needed to mark thethe test, the subjects
were instructed to read the letters one by one (beginning at the upper left) and to underline the letter
last letter they read when the time was up. Each subject had to complete three Anfimov tests in
K in the preset pair EK, all within 2 min. In addition, they needed to mark the last letter they read
Session 1, each using a different coloured piece of paper—white, yellowish-white, and green,
when the time was up. Each subject had to complete three Anfimov tests in Session 1, each using a
respectively.
differentThe orderpiece
coloured of theofthree Anfimovyellowish-white,
paper—white, tests was randomized
and green,and a break of
respectively. 1 min
The orderwas allowed
of the
between each
three test. tests was randomized and a break of 1 min was allowed between each test.
Anfimov

FigureFigure 7. (Left):
7. (Left): paragraph
paragraph of Anfimov
of Anfimov test;(right):
test; (right): questionnaires
questionnaires used forfor
used Anfimov test and
Anfimov testreading
and reading
comfort assessment.
comfort assessment.
After the Anfimov test, the reading comfort assessment was performed, during which the subjects
After
had tothereadAnfimov test, the used
the questionnaires reading
in thecomfort
Anfimovassessment was
test (Figure 7) andperformed, during which
conduct the assessment of the
subjects had to read the questionnaires used in the Anfimov test (Figure
reading comfort. These questionnaires contained sentences in Chinese and English (including the 7) and conduct the
assessment of reading
uppercases letters incomfort.
the AnfimovThese questionnaires
test), as well as Arabic contained
numerals. sentences
The 7-pointin Chinesemethod
judgement and English
was again
(including adopted with letters
the uppercases a score ofin+3the
relating to the most
Anfimov test),comfortable
as well asreading
Arabic experience.
numerals. The 7-point
At the end of Session 1, the subjective level of sleepiness
judgement method was again adopted with a score of +3 relating to the most was measured by the KSS test, a classical
comfortable reading
approach which corresponds well with the electroencephalography (EEG) test [53]. The KSS test
experience.
contains nine points, varying from extremely alert (number 1) to very sleepy (number 9). This nine-point
Atscale
the indicates
end of Session 1, the subjective level of sleepiness was measured by the KSS test, a classical
which level best reflects the subject’s psychophysical state experienced in the previous
approach which
10 min corresponds
[54]. Table 2 gives anwell withofthe
overview the electroencephalography (EEG)descriptions,
corresponding scales, the original test [53]. The
and theKSS test
contains nine points,
translated Chinesevarying fromasextremely
descriptions, used in this alert
study.(number 1) to 30
Approximately very
minsleepy (number
were required 9). This nine-
to complete
point scale
Sessionindicates
1. which level best reflects the subject’s psychophysical state experienced in the
previous 10Asmin described in Section
[54]. Table 2.1, an
2 gives a 2-h period of of
overview self-study (Session 2) wasscales,
the corresponding performed after completion
the original descriptions,
of Session 1, during which all the subjects focused on reviewing textbooks
and the translated Chinese descriptions, as used in this study. Approximately 30 min were and doing exercises for their
required
college final examinations. In the final session, Session 3, the six tests used in Session 1 were repeated
to complete Session 1.
to investigate the impact of the visual fatigue caused in Session 2.

Table 2. Overview of the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS).

Scales Descriptions in English Descriptions in Chinese

1 Extremely alert 极度清醒
2 Very alert 非常清醒
3 Alert 清醒
4 Rather alert 一般清醒
 Table 2. Overview of the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS).

Scales Descriptions in English Descriptions in Chinese

1 Extremely alert 极度清醒
2 2020, 10, 7436
Appl. Sci. Very alert 非常清醒 8 of 17
3 Alert 清醒
4 Rather alert 一般清醒
Table 2. Overview of the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS).
5 Neither alert nor sleepy 没有困意
6 Scales Some signs of in
Descriptions sleepiness
English 有一些困意倾向
Descriptions in Chinese
7 1 Sleepy, no effort to stay
Extremely alert awake 有困意,但不需要很大努力保持清醒
极度清醒
8 2 Sleepy, some effort to
Very alert stay awake 有困意,但需要一定的努力保持清醒
非常清醒
Very
3 sleepy, great effort to keep awake, fighting
Alert 清醒
9 4 Rather 有困意,且需要极大的努力保持清醒
一般清醒
sleepalert
5 Neither alert nor sleepy 没有困意
6 Some signs of sleepiness 有一些困意倾向
As described
7
in Section 2.1, a 2-h period of self-study 有困意,但不需要很大努力保持清醒
Sleepy, no effort to stay awake
(Session 2) was performed after completion
of Session 1, during
8 which all the subjects focused
Sleepy, some effort to stay awake on reviewing textbooks and doing exercises for
有困意,但需要一定的努力保持清醒
their college final examinations.
Very sleepy,In theeffort
great finaltosession,
keep Session 3, the six tests used in Session 1 were
9 有困意,且需要极大的努力保持清醒
awake, fighting
repeated to investigate the impact sleep fatigue caused in Session 2.
of the visual

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results of Colour Preference and Lighting Environment Perception

Perception
The overall results of the colour
colour preference
preference (fruit
(fruit and
and vegetable;
vegetable; skin tone) and
and atmosphere
atmosphere
perception (Uncomfortable/Comfortable, Cool/Warm,
perception (Uncomfortable/Comfortable, Cool/Warm, Negative/Active, and Tense/Relaxed)
Tense/Relaxed) experiments are
shown in Figure 8. The rating trends for the four scenarios (i.e., two sessions in two experiments) are
consistent and the scores for the scenarios in Exp.2 are significantly higher
higher than
than the
the scores
scores in
in Exp.1.
Exp.1.
According to a Mann–Whitney U test, there is no significant difference between the results for the
experienced (Group A) and the inexperienced subjects (Group B) in Exp.2, in terms of the six aspects
(p values > 0.05, with
> 0.05, with a range
range from
from 0.12 to 0.89), which implies that any practice effect for these visual
attributes is very small. Thus,
Thus, in
in this
this section,
section, the
the results
results of
of Group
Group AA and
and Group
Group B in Exp.2 were
combined for analysis.

Figure 8. Results of colour preference rating and lighting environment evaluation with the error bars
representing 95%
representing 95% confidence
confidence intervals
intervals (F&V—Fruit
(F&V—Fruitand
andVegetables).
Vegetables).

The statistical significance (α =

significance (α 0.05) of the
= 0.05) the observed
observed effects
effects of the lighting environment, test trial
(i.e., first trial in Session 1 and the second trial in Session
Session 3),
3), gender, as well as the interaction
interaction effects,
effects,
was analysed by multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) tests using SPSS software.
(MANOVA) tests using SPSS software. The results
are listed in Table
Table 33 and
and show
show that
that the
the lighting
lighting environment
environment has
has aa significant
significant effect (α == 0.05) on all
effect (α
aspects except the preference rating of the fruit and vegetables, whereas no significant effects of test
trial and gender were found. Specifically, the insignificant impact of test trial in Table 3 indicates that
the visual fatigue caused by the two-hour self-study period in Session 2 did not remarkably influence
the visual judgments. It is noteworthy that the p values for gender in terms of fruit and vegetables
preference, skin preference, Uncomfortable/Comfortable, and Negative/Active are close to the threshold of
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 9 of 17

significant level (α = 0.05), which suggests the need for further investigation on gender difference in
future work.

Table 3. Results of MANOVAs for each of the fixed factors on colour preference and
atmosphere perception.

Partial Eta
Visual Attributes Fixed Factors F p-Value
Squared, η2
Lighting environment 0.480 0.489 0.003
Fruit and vegetables
Test trial 1.542 0.217 0.010
preference
Gender 3.531 0.062 0.023
Lighting environment 13.165 <0.001 0.081
Skin preference Test trial 0.173 0.678 0.001
Gender 3.379 0.068 0.022
Lighting environment 11.325 0.001 0.070
Uncomfortable/Comfortable Test trial 0.794 0.374 0.005
Gender 3.135 0.079 0.020
Lighting environment 19.036 <0.001 0.113
Cool/Warm Test trial 2.525 0.114 0.017
Gender 0.003 0.954 0.000
Lighting environment 5.879 0.017 0.038
Negative/Active Test trial 0.633 0.427 0.004
Gender 3.324 0.070 0.022
Lighting environment 4.027 0.047 0.026
Tense/Relaxed Test trial 1.483 0.225 0.010
Gender 0.501 0.480 0.003

None of the other two-way or three-way interactions among the three fixed factors, lighting
environment, test trial, and gender, were significant (p values were between 0.14 and 0.97 with a mean of
0.73). After the Bonferroni correction (α = 0.05/6 = 0.0083) to account for the multiple significance tests,
lighting environment remained significant for skin preference, Uncomfortable/Comfortable, and Cool/Warm.
The partial eta-squared values (η2 ) revealed the effect size of each factor (Table 3). For most of the
visual attributes, lighting environment had a major effect on the subjects’ evaluations, since the η2
values were larger than those for the test trial and gender (with an exception for preference of fruit and
vegetables).
As shown in Figure 8, the preference ratings of fruit and vegetables are different to those of
skin tone. Such a result is consistent with the findings of Tang et al. [55], which aimed to evaluate
the differences in appreciation for fruit and vegetables, packaging materials, and skin tone of the
hand. These results might be attributed to the difference of colour saturation enhancement between
multicoloured objects (fruit and vegetables) and single colour object (skin tone). In addition, the fact
that each subject rated their own skin tone but the same group of fruit and vegetables, within one
experiment, may be significant.
As stated earlier, the lighting environment of Exp.2 is perceived to be more comfortable, active,
relaxed, and warmer. Note that in Exp.2, the light sources were of higher illuminance (Exp.1: ~150 lux;
Exp.2: ~300 lux) and lower CCT (Exp.1: ~6600 K; Exp.2: ~5100 K). In related work by Hsieh et al. [56],
similar results were obtained where visual perceptions for indoor lighting with a CCT of 5000 K
and relatively high illuminance levels were considered to be more comfortable, energetic, relaxed,
and warmer than those with a CCT of 6500 K and relatively low illuminance levels. Obviously, current
knowledge could not cover the large variations of practical lighting conditions. Thus, we believe
further research focusing on the interactive effect of illuminance and CCT should be encouraged, which
would enhance the understanding of human visual perceptions regarding different lighting cases.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

encouraged, which would enhance the understanding of human visual perceptions regarding
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 10 of 17
different lighting cases.

3.2.
3.2. Results
Results of
of Anfimov
Anfimov Test
Test
In
In earlier
earlier studies,
studies, the
the Anfimov
Anfimov test test has
has been
been commonly
commonly used used to
to measure
measure cognitive
cognitive performance
performance
under
under different
different classroom
classroom lighting
lighting conditions
conditions [57–59].
[57–59]. To
To our
our knowledge,
knowledge, however,
however, the
the impact
impact ofof aa
practice effect or the degree of proficiency on the test results has not been investigated.
practice effect or the degree of proficiency on the test results has not been investigated. Therefore, Therefore, to
investigate this issue, different groups of subjects with and without test experience
to investigate this issue, different groups of subjects with and without test experience in Exp.1 were in Exp.1 were
invited
invited toto participate
participate in in Exp.2
Exp.2 (i.e.,
(i.e., Group
Group A A and
and Group
Group B).B). Note
Note that
that results
results ofof the
the repeated
repeated tests
tests
within a defined experiment (i.e., data from Session 1 and Session 3) could not
within a defined experiment (i.e., data from Session 1 and Session 3) could not be used to validate be used to validate the
practice effect,
the practice sincesince
effect, suchsuch
repetition was was
repetition confounded
confoundedby visual fatigue
by visual caused
fatigue by the
caused bytwo-hour self-
the two-hour
study period
self-study in Session
period 2. 2.
in Session
The
The number
number of of letters
letters read
read perper minute
minute waswas used
used as
as aa measure
measure of of proofreading
proofreading speed
speed and
and the
the
proofreading
proofreading accuracy
accuracy (PA)(PA) was
was calculated
calculated as as follows
follows [52]:
[52]:
PA = (γ ÷ σ) × 100%, (1)
PA = (γ ÷ σ) × 100%, (1)
where γ and σ represent the number of times the letter K was correctly underlined by the subjects in
where
the γ and
given pairσof represent the and
letters, EK, number of times
the total the letter
number K was
of times thecorrectly underlined
letter K should have by theunderlined
been subjects in
thethe
in given pair oftext
assessed (i.e., EK,
letters, the and
text the
thattotal
had number
been readof by
times
thethe letter K
subject), should have been underlined in
respectively.
the assessed
Figure 9text (i.e., the
illustrates thetext that had been
comparison of theread by thetest
Anfimov subject),
resultsrespectively.
derived from experienced subjects
(GroupFigure 9 illustrates
A) and the comparison
inexperienced of the Anfimov
subjects (Group testInresults
B) in Exp.2. derived fromtwo
each experiment, experienced
trials (i.e.,subjects
tests in
(Group A)
Session andSession
1 and inexperienced
3) weresubjects (Group
conducted. As B)
canin be
Exp.2.
seen,Intheeach experiment,
subjects in Grouptwo A,trials (i.e.,
with tests
higher
in Session 1inand
proficiency theSession
Anfimov 3) test,
werealways
conducted. As can
performed be seen,
better the subjects speed
in proofreading in Group
andA, with higher
accuracy than
proficiency
the subjectsinofthe Anfimov
Group test,indicates
B. This always performed better in test
that the Anfimov proofreading
is heavilyspeed and accuracy
influenced by the than the
practice
subjects of Group B. This indicates that the Anfimov test is heavily influenced
effect and this must be taken into consideration when implementing the test in further studies. In by the practice effect
and this must
addition, be taken into
the difference consideration
between test resultswhen implementing
of Session the test3infor
1 and Session further studies.
the two In addition,
experiments was
the so
not difference
clear. A between test results ofisSession
possible explanation 1 and Session
that although subjects3might
for theperform
two experiments
better in thewas not soround
second clear.
A possible
of explanation
tests (i.e., Session 3),is thethatvisual
although subjects
fatigue might
caused byperform better instudy
the two-hour the second round2 of
in Session tests that
offset (i.e.,
Session 3), the visual fatigue caused by the two-hour study in Session 2 offset that improvement.
improvement.

Figure 9.
Figure Themeans
9. The meansof
ofproofreading
proofreadingspeed
speedand
andaccuracy
accuracyofofexperienced
experienced (Group
(Group A)
A) and
and inexperienced
inexperienced
subjects (Group B) in Exp.2. The error bars depict the 95% confidence intervals.
subjects (Group B) in Exp.2. The error bars depict the 95% confidence intervals.

The mean values of the subjects’ proofreading speed and accuracy from Exp.1 and Exp.2 are
The mean values of the subjects’ proofreading speed and accuracy from Exp.1 and Exp.2 are
shown in Figure 10. To remove the influence of the practice effect (proficiency), only the results of
shown in Figure 10. To remove the influence of the practice effect (proficiency), only the results of
Group B in Exp.2 and the data of Exp.1 are shown. There is little difference between the results of
Group B in Exp.2 and the data of Exp.1 are shown. There is little difference between the results of
Exp.1 and Exp.2 in most of the six comparisons (3 paper colours × 2 sessions). The difference between
Exp.1 and Exp.2 in most of the six comparisons (3 paper colours × 2 sessions). The difference between
Exp.1 and Exp.2 in terms of the proofreading accuracy using black text on yellowish-white paper
Exp.1 and Exp.2 in terms of the proofreading accuracy using black text on yellowish-white paper
(Figure 10, right) is relatively larger. However, as verified by the Mann–Whitney U test, there is actually
(Figure 10, right) is relatively larger. However, as verified by the Mann–Whitney U test, there is
no significant difference between Exp.1 (~6600 K–150 lux) and Exp.2 (~5100 K–300 lux) for all the six
actually no significant difference between Exp.1 (~6600 K–150 lux) and Exp.2 (~5100 K–300 lux) for
comparisons (p values > 0.05). That is, there is no significant effect of lighting environment on the
all the six comparisons (p values > 0.05). That is, there is no significant effect of lighting environment
Anfimov test results. Weng et al. [57] found similar results, i.e., there was no significant difference
between the results derived from the lighting conditions defined by 5000 K–300 lux and 6500 K–150
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 11 of 17
on the Anfimov test results. Weng et al. [57] found similar results, i.e., there was no significant
difference between the results derived from the lighting conditions defined by 5000 K–300 lux and
lux.
6500In addition,
K–150 theaddition,
lux. In Mann–Whitney U test indicates
the Mann–Whitney thatindicates
U test the test trial,
that thepaper
testcolour, and gender
trial, paper colour,have
and
no statistically significant influence on the results of the Anfimov test (p values > 0.05).
gender have no statistically significant influence on the results of the Anfimov test (p values > 0.05).

10. The means of the subjects’ proofreading speed and accuracy in Exp.1 and in Exp.2
Figure 10. Exp.2 after
after
removing the practice effect. The error bars depict the 95% confidence intervals.
removing the practice effect. The error bars depict the 95% confidence intervals.

3.3. Results of Reading Comfort Assessment

3.3. Results of Reading Comfort Assessment
According to the results of the Mann–Whitney U test, no significant difference was found between
According to the results of the Mann–Whitney U test, no significant difference was found
the reading comfort ratings of experienced subjects (Group A) and inexperienced subjects (Group B) in
between the reading comfort ratings of experienced subjects (Group A) and inexperienced subjects
Exp.2. Thus, no practice effect was found and the data in Exp.2 were combined.
(Group B) in Exp.2. Thus, no practice effect was found and the data in Exp.2 were combined.
The effects of paper colour, lighting environment, test trial, as well as gender, on reading comfort
The effects of paper colour, lighting environment, test trial, as well as gender, on reading comfort
were investigated using a MANOVA test (Table 4). The hypothesis was that paper colour, lighting
were investigated using a MANOVA test (Table 4). The hypothesis was that paper colour, lighting
environment, and their interaction effect might have a significant impact on the rating of reading
environment, and their interaction effect might have a significant impact on the rating of reading
comfort. As shown in Table 4, however, only paper colour exhibited a significant influence (p < 0.001,
comfort. As shown in Table 4, however, only paper colour exhibited a significant influence (p < 0.001,
with the largest η22 value) and the impact of lighting was insignificant.
with the largest η value) and the impact of lighting was insignificant.
Table 4. Results of MANOVAs for the subjective ratings for reading comfort.
Table 4. Results of MANOVAs for the subjective ratings for reading comfort.

Fixed Factors Mean Square F F p-Value Partial

Partial Eta Eta η2
Squared,
Fixed Factors Mean Square p-Value
Squared, η2
Paper colour 44.545 25.389 <0.001 0.101
Paperenvironment
Lighting colour 44.545
0.161 25.389 0.762<0.001
0.092 0.101
0.000
Lighting environment 0.161 0.092 0.762 0.000
Test trial 4.594 2.619 0.106 0.006
Test trial 4.594 2.619 0.106 0.006
Gender
Gender 6.635
6.635 3.782
3.782 0.052 0.052 0.008
0.008
Paper colour × Lighting
Paper colour environment
× Lighting 2.101 1.197 0.303 0.005
2.101 1.197
Paperenvironment
colour × Test trial 2.712 1.546 0.214 0.303 0.005
0.007
Paper colour××Test
Papercolour trial
Gender 2.712
2.792 1.546 0.205 0.214
1.590 0.007
0.007
Paper
Lighting colour × Gender
environment × Test trial 2.792
2.294 1.590 0.254 0.205
1.305 0.007
0.003
Lighting environment××Test
Lightingenvironment trial
Gender 2.294
0.092 1.305
0.052 0.819 0.254 0.003
0.000
Lighting environment × Gender 0.092 0.052 0.819 0.000
Test trial × Gender 0.276 0.157 0.692 0.000
Test trial × Gender 0.276 0.157 0.692 0.000

The results of the MANOVA test also show that no other effects of gender and test trial
The
(includingresults of the MANOVA
interaction effects) were testsignificant.
also show Thus,
that noit other
can beeffects of gender
concluded that and testfatigue
visual trial (including
does not
interaction
have a significant impact on reading comfort assessments. It should also be noted thatdoes
effects) were significant. Thus, it can be concluded that visual fatigue the p not have
value for
agender
significant impact on reading comfort assessments. It should also be noted that the
was only slightly higher than 0.05 (0.052), which is consist with the results in Section 3.1 above. p value for
gender was only
This finding slightly
further higherthat
suggests thanthe0.05 (0.052),
effect which is
of gender consistnot
should with
be the results in Section
underestimated and3.1 above.
deserves
This finding
further further suggests that the effect of gender should not be underestimated and deserves
investigation.
further investigation.
The post hoc test for the significant main effects (paper colour) revealed that the comfort ratings
The post
amongst hoc test
different forcolours
paper the significant main effectsdifferent
were significantly (paper colour) revealed
at the 95% that the
confidence comfort
level: ratings
p < 0.001 for
amongst different
white paper paper colours were
vs. yellowish-white paper;significantly different
p = 0.005 for whiteatpaper
the 95%
vs. confidence
green paper; level: < 0.001
p < p0.001 for
for white paper vs.
yellowish-white yellowish-white
paper vs. green paper. paper; p = 0.005 for white paper vs. green paper; p < 0.001 for
yellowish-white paper vs. green paper.
comfortable reading experience (p values < 0.05), while the white paper was rated as least
comfortable.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 12 of 17

Figure 11 illustrates the average scores of the comfort rating and the results of a Wilcoxon Signed
RankFigure
Test, which was used
11 illustrates theto furtherscores
average verifyofthe impact
the comfortof paper
rating colour
and theon perceived
results reading comfort
of a Wilcoxon Signed
in Exp.1 and Exp.2. The results showed that the yellowish-white paper was related
Rank Test, which was used to further verify the impact of paper colour on perceived reading to the most
comfort
comfortable
in Exp.1 and reading
Exp.2. Theexperience (p values
results showed that< the
0.05), while the white
yellowish-white paper
paper was rated
was related as most
to the least
comfortable.
comfortable reading experience (p values < 0.05), while the white paper was rated as least comfortable.

Figure 11. Bar chart of the average comfort rating scores with results of Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
(only the p values lower than 0.05 were marked).

Another finding of interest is that comfort

the average comfort ratingWilcoxon
score for green paper increases
Figure 11. Bar
Figure 11. Bar chart
chart of
of the
the average
average comfort rating
rating scores
scores with
with results
results of
of Wilcoxon Signed
Signed Rank
Rank Test
Test
significantly after
(only the
(only the
2-h
the pp values
self-study
values lower
lower than
session
than0.05
0.05were
(p = 0.007) in Exp.1, which was not found in Exp.2 (in
weremarked).
marked).
Exp.2, the increment does exist but is not significant). This result could be related to the interaction
Another finding
finding of
Anotherenvironment of interest
interest is
is that
that the
the average
average comfort
comfort rating
rating score for
for green
scorepaper, green paper increases
paper should
increasesbe further
between the lighting
significantly and the visual
= perception of green which
significantly after the 2-h self-study session (p = 0.007) in Exp.1, which was not found in (in
after the 2-h self-study session (p 0.007) in Exp.1, which was not found in Exp.2 Exp.2,
Exp.2 (in
clarified bythe
future
incrementwork. does exist but is not significant). This result could be related to the interaction
Exp.2, the increment does exist but is not significant). This result could be related to the interaction between
the lighting
between theenvironment and the visual
lighting environment perception
and the of green paper,
visual perception which
of green should
paper, whichbeshould
furtherbeclarified
further
3.4. Resultsby
offuture
KSS work.
Test
clarified by future work.

Figure3.4.
12Results
3.4. gives
Results
of KSS
an Test
of KSS overview of the subjects’ alertness monitored by means of the KSS test.
Test
Similarly, thereFigure
was no
Figure 12 statistical
gives differences
an overview between
of the subjects’ the
alertness KSS ratings
monitored by means ofofexperienced subjects (Group
the KSS test. Similarly,
12 gives an overview of the subjects’ alertness monitored by means of the KSS test.
there was no statistical differences between the KSS ratings of experienced subjects (Group A, Exp.2)
A, Exp.2) and inexperienced
Similarly, there was no subjects (Group B,between
statistical differences Exp.2), theas tested
KSS by
ratings of aexperienced
Mann–Whitney U test (Session
subjects (Group
and inexperienced subjects (Group B, Exp.2), as tested by a Mann–Whitney U test (Session 1: p = 0.26;
1: p = 0.26;Session
Session
A, 3: pinexperienced
Exp.2) and = 0.89). Thus, for the
subjects KSSB,test,
(Group allasthe
Exp.2), data
tested by in Exp.2 were combined.
a Mann–Whitney
3: p = 0.89). Thus, for the KSS test, all the data in Exp.2 were combined.
U test (Session
1: p = 0.26; Session 3: p = 0.89). Thus, for the KSS test, all the data in Exp.2 were combined.

Figure 12. Average results of KSS test with error bars of 95% confidence intervals.

As shown in Figure
Figure 12, the
12. Average average
results alertness
of KSS test wasbars
with error always
of 95%located between
confidence “some signs of
intervals.
Figure 12. Average results of KSS test with error bars of 95% confidence intervals.
sleepiness” (number 6) and “rather alert” (number 4). Surprisingly, the average KSS ratings of Session
1 and Session 3 were almost identical, which indicates that the visual fatigue caused by the two-hour
As shown in Figure 12, the average alertness was always located between “some signs of
sleepiness” (number 6) and “rather alert” (number 4). Surprisingly, the average KSS ratings of Session
1 and Session 3 were almost identical, which indicates that the visual fatigue caused by the two-hour
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 13 of 17

As shown in Figure 12, the average alertness was always located between “some signs of sleepiness”
(number 6) and “rather alert” (number 4). Surprisingly, the average KSS ratings of Session 1 and Session
3 were almost identical, which indicates that the visual fatigue caused by the two-hour self-study
period in Session 2 did not remarkably impact the psychophysical state (sleepiness) of the subjects.
This was unexpected and might be due to the intense concentration shown by the subjects during
Session 2. As noted earlier, the subjects were busy preparing for their final exams when this experiment
was carried out. Therefore, during Session 2, all the subjects worked very hard and thus, kept alert.
In further work, it would be of interest to conduct a comparative experiment where the students are
not under any pressure (e.g., when they have a relaxing time reading). Despite this, we believe this
study has simulated a common and meaningful case for classroom lighting.
As shown in Table 5, there was no significant impact of lighting environment and gender (including
interaction effects) on the subjects’ alertness (p > 0.05). Similar results were also obtained by Linhart
and Scartezzini [60] who compared two lighting environments (average illuminance 232 vs. 352 lux,
CCT not reported) and found that there was no measurable influence of lighting on the participants’
alertness as quantified by the KSS test. Viola et al. declared, however, that self-reported alertness in
the KSS test was improved under blue-enriched white light with a higher CCT [61]. There are two
possible explanations for such inconsistency. First, the difference in CCT values between Exp.1 and
Exp.2 in our study was not large enough to affect alertness. Specifically, the average CCT values in
Exp.1 and Exp.2 were 6600 and 5100 K (∆CCT = 1500 K), respectively, while in Viola et al. [61], the test
CCTs were 4000 and 17,000 K (∆CCT = 13,000 K). Second, the interaction effect of CCT and illuminance
may also lead to the insignificant differences in KSS results. As shown in Table 1, the CCT values of
Exp.1 were higher but the illuminance level of Exp.2 was higher (approximately 300 vs. 150 lux).

Table 5. Results of the MANOVAs for KSS test.

Partial Eta
Fixed Factors Mean Square F p-Value
Squared, η2
Lighting environment 1.885 0.585 0.445 0.004
Test trial 0.363 0.113 0.737 0.001
Gender 0.205 0.064 0.801 0.000
Lighting environment × Test trial 3.244 1.007 0.317 0.007
Lighting environment × Gender 1.183 0.367 0.545 0.002
Test trial × Gender 1.107 0.344 0.559 0.002
Lighting environment × Test trial × Gender 0.038 0.012 0.913 0.000

In summary, a significant impact of classroom lighting on visual perception (i.e., skin preference,
multi-dimensional lighting atmosphere evaluation) was found, while no measured effects of lighting
were observed on the participant’s reading comfort, attention, and alertness. The impact of visual
fatigue generated by a two-hour, high-intensity, self-study period was insignificant. The influence of
proficiency in the Anfimov test was shown, suggesting that a full consideration of a practice effect
should be considered when using this or similar tests (e.g., Landolt rings [60] or the D2 test [62]).
To solve this, use of a between-subject design in the experimental protocol would be useful. In addition,
there was imperfect experimental control due to the inherent limitation of any field study [42].
Thus, as suggested by recent researchers [42,63], multiple statistical tools were used to demonstrate
convincing conclusions.

4. Conclusions
This paper describes a field study in which the impact of classroom lighting on students’ visual
perception and cognitive performance was investigated. Seventy-nine college students were tested
on aspects of colour preference, atmosphere perception, reading comfort, self-reported alertness,
and attention. A significant influence of the lighting environment on skin preference and atmosphere
perception (i.e., Uncomfortable/Comfortable, Cool/Warm, Negative/Active, and Tense/Relaxed) was found,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 7436 14 of 17

while no measured effects of indoor lighting were observed on reading comfort, alertness, and attention.
In addition, the influence of visual fatigue generated by a two-hour self-study period was found
to be insignificant. Paper colour was demonstrated to be important for reading comfort and the
practice effect on the proofreading speed and accuracy of the Anfimov test was also demonstrated.
These findings should help to further understand the impact of classroom lighting on the visual
perception and cognitive performance of college students.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Q.L., Z.L. (Zhijiang Li), M.R.P. and G.Z.; Data curation, Z.L. (Zhijiang
Li), Z.L. (Zhen Liu) and Z.H. (Zhen Hou); Formal analysis, M.R.P., Z.L. (Zhen Liu) and H.G.; Investigation, Q.L.
and Z.H. (Zheng Huang); Methodology, Q.L., Z.H. (Zheng Huang), Z.L. (Zhijiang Li) and G.Z.; Software, Z.L.
(Zhijiang Li); Validation, Z.H. (Zheng Huang) and H.G.; Writing—original draft, Q.L. and Z.L. (Zhijiang Li);
Writing—review & editing, M.R.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China, Grant
number 2018YFB10046 and National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 61505149.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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