ICSE - (Class-VIII)

Chapter-9 : Metals and Non-metals

"Metals make ringing sound

when struck, this property of
metals makes them suitable
9.1 Introduction
for drum making."
There are a number of different kinds of materials around us. They are
made up of one or more kind of elements.
There are 118 chemical elements known at present. On the basis of their
properties, all these elements can be broadly divided into two main groups:
THE
metals and non-metals.
A majority of the known elements are metals. All metals are solid except SPOT 
mercury, which is a liquid metal. There are 22 non metals, out of which LIGHT
10 nonmetals are solids, one nonmetal (bromine) is a liquid and remaining Elements are pure substances. Our
11 nonmetals are gases. body consists of many elements and
calcium is the element which is
Metals present in the maximum amount in
The elements which are hard, lustrous, ductile, malleable and good our body.
conductor of heat and electricity are called metals.
Example : Gold, silver, copper, aluminium and zinc.
Mercury is a liquid metal whereas bromine is a liquid non-metal.
Non-metals
The elements which are usually brittle and are non-malleable,non-ductile
and bad conductor of heat and electricity are called non-metals.
Example : Sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen etc.
Occurrence
Generally, metals and non-metals occurs in nature in free as well as in Aluminium
combined state (in the form of compounds). Cast iron
Brass
Examples,
(
i
) Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, copper etc. are found in
combined state.
(ii
) Silver and copper occur in free as well as in combined state. Steel
Bronze Metal Sludge Copper
(iii) Gold and platinum occur in free state only. Fig.1 Some metals.
(iv) Non-metals like argon and neon are found in free state whereas oxygen
and nitrogen are found in the form of molecules.

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 9.1
THE
SPOT  Why copper and silver metals occur in nature in free as well as in the
combined state while potassium, calcium etc. are found in combined state?
LIGHT Explanation
Copper and silver metals are less reactive (or noble metals) so they do not
Aluminum is the most abundant
react or react very slowly that is why they are found in free state in nature
metal whereas oxygen is the most
abundant element on earth.
but potassium, calcium etc. are highly reactive so they react rapidly to
form compounds.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 9.1

1. Find out metals from following.
(a) Gold (b) Mercury (c) Arsenic
(d) Selenium (e) Bismuth (f) Krypton

9.2 Physical properties of metals and non-metals

The important physical properties of metals and non-metals are given
below :
(1) Physical state
Most of the metals are solid under normal condition of temperature and
pressure. For example, iron, copper, magnesium and aluminium.
Exception
Mercury (Hg) which exist in liquid state at room temperature.
Non metals can exist in all the three physical states i.e., solid, liquid, and
gases.
For example : Carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and iodine are solid non-metals.
Bromine is liquid and oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, fluorine are gaseous non-
metals.
(2) Hardness
Fig. 2 A man carrying chunks Most of the metals are hard except sodium and potassium which are
of elemental sulphur in basket. soft metals. The hardness of metals varies from metal to metal. For example,
iron, aluminium, magnesium, copper etc. differ in their hardness.
Sodium and potassium are so soft metals that we can cut them with a knife.
(3) Malleability
The property of metal in which they can be beaten with a hammer to form
thin sheets without breaking is called malleability.
Let us discuss malleability with following activity.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.1

Aim
To study the effect of hammer beating on different materials.
Method
(
i) First of all we will take an iron nail about 4 cm long and place it over
some flat piece of iron or hard stone.
(ii
) By holding the nail from the side of head, hammer it from the pointed
side for 20 times.
(iii) Repeat the activity with aluminium, copper, charcoal and sulphur.
Observation
Copper, aluminium or iron got flattened due to hammering but charcoal
and sulphur broke into smaller pieces and formed powder but did not get
flattened.
Fig. 3 Conversion of non metals into Conclusion
pieces on hammering, shows their Metals are malleable but non metals are brittle.
brittle nature.
Metals are generally malleable except sodium, potassium and calcium.
Gold and silver are the most malleable metals, aluminium and
copper are also highly malleable metals. All of these metals can be beaten
with a hammer to form very thin sheets called foils.
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Non-metals do not show this property due to brittleness, they are broken
into small pieces. For example, sulphur, coal and phosphorus are brittle
THE
non-metals.
SPOT 
(4) Ductility LIGHT
Ductility is also an important property of metals. The ability of metals to Silver foils used for decorating sweets
be drawn (stretched) into thin wires is called ductility. Generally, wires are made by gently hammering
are made up of iron, copper and aluminium. small pieces of silver because silver
is highly malleable metal. Aluminium
Gold and Silver are the most ductile metals. foils used for packaging food
Exception articles are obtained by passing hot
aluminium metal through very heavy
Sodium, potassium and calcium are not ductile while tin and lead are less steel roller.
ductile.
Example : 1 g of gold can be drawn (stretched) into a very fine thin
wire of about 2 kilometer.
Copper and aluminium are also very ductile, and therefore, these can be
drawn into thin wires which are used in electrical wiring.
Non-metals are not ductile i.e., they can not be drawn into thin wire (due
to brittleness). They are easily snapped on stretching.
Example : Sulphur, phosphorus and coal when stretched, all of these
are broken into small pieces and do not form thin wire.
(5) Conductivity
The property of metal by which heat and electric current flows through
them is called conductivity. Metals are good conductor of heat and
electricity, because their atoms contain free electrons which conduct
electric current and heat. For example silver, copper and aluminium.
Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. Copper metal is the
next best conductor of electricity. Since silver metal is expensive, so
copper and aluminium are commonly used for making electric wire.
Non metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity, due to lack of free
electrons in their atoms.
Fig. 4 Thin aluminium foils are used
Exception for wrapping chocolates.
Graphite is a non-metal but a good conductor of heat & electricity due to
the presence of one free electron in each carbon atom. It is used to
make electrodes of batteries and dry cells.
Diamond is good conductor of heat but bad conductor of electricity.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.2

Aim

To show that metal is a good conductor of heat.

Method
(
i
) Take a small aluminium wire and clamp it on a stand as shown in
figure below.
(ii
) Then fix a pin to the free end of the wire with the help of wax.
(iii) Now, heat the aluminium wire with a candle or burner near its
clamped end.
Observation
After some time the other end also becomes hot, wax melt and the pin Fig. 5 Copper can be easily drawn
falls down. into wires.

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Conclusion
This shows that metals are good conductor of heat. This experiment
also shows that metals have high melting point (on over heating, the Al
wire does not melt).
THE
SPOT  We can repeat this activity with copper or iron metal also but results are
same.
LIGHT
Stand
All metals possess a shiny appearance Metal wire
on their surface which is known as Clamp
lustre. Non-metals do not have lustre Free end
of wire Wax
except, iodine and graphite.
Pin

Burner

Fig.6 Metal is a good conductor of heat.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.3

Aim
To show that metals are good conductors of electricity.
Method
(
i
) Take a dry cell, a bulb fitted in a holder, connecting wire which consists
Battery
Bulb of copper wire, crocodile clips and a switch.
(
ii
) Set up all apparatus & electric circuit as shown in figure 7.

Switch
Observation
Clips The bulb glows at once when switch is on.
A B
Insert sample Conclusion
to be tested
The above activity shows that metals are good conductor of electricity.
Fig.7 Metals are good conductor of
electricity. (6) Sonorous
The property in which metals produce a ringing sound when hit with an
object is called sonorous. Metals are sonorous but non-metals are non
sonorous i.e., when struck with a hammer they do not produce sound.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.4

THE
SPOT  Aim
LIGHT To show that metals are sonorous.
Gallium and caseium have melting Method
points just at few degrees above the Take a one-rupee coin and a piece of chalk and drop them one by one
standard room temperature of 25C. on hard cemented floor. Notice the kind of sound produced by them on
So, if you come across these metals
hitting the floor.
on a hot day they would also be
liquids! Observation
We will observe that in case of one-rupee coin a ringing sound is produced.
However in case of chalk the ringing sound is not produced.
Conclusion
So we can say that metals are sonorous.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 9.1

1. (a), (b)and (e)

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9.3 Comparative study of physical properties of metals and
non-metals
Non-metals on the other hand possess physical properties opposite to those
of metals table 5.1.
D is tinc tio n betwe en Meta ls and No n-m etals THE
Ph ysic al Pro pe rties Meta ls
Metals a re so lids at o rdin ary
No n-me ta ls
Non -metals exist in all the three
SPOT 
Sta te temperature. Excep tion. Mercury is
a liquid
states, that is, so lid, liquid and gas. LIGHT
Generally metals are insoluble in
Lustre They p ossess lustre o r sh in e.
They p ossess no lustre. liquid solvents. But non-metals
Excep tions : Iodine a nd grap hite . dissolve in many liquid solvents e.g.,
sulphur dissolves in carbon
Malleability a nd Metals are generally mallea ble and Non -metal a re neither m alle able
Ductility ductile. nor ductile.
disulphide and iodine in chloroform
or carbon disulphide.
Non -metal possess varying
hardness.
Metals a re generally hard. Alkali
Hardness Diamond is an exception . It is the
metals are excep tions Na & K.
hardest substance known to occur
in n ature.
They have high den sities. Na & K They ge nera lly p ossess low
Den sity
have low density densities.

Non -metals are p oo r co nductors of

THE
Conductivity
Metals are go od conductors of heat heat and electricity. The only
and electricity. e xceptio n is grap hite wh ich is a SPOT 
good conductor o f electricity.
LIGHT
Since sodium & potassium metals are
Melting and boiling They usua lly have h igh me ltin g and
Their meltin g and boiling p oin ts are highly reactive, they react vigorously
po in ts boiling p oints.
usually low. The o nly exceptio ns with the oxygen (or air). They catch
a re boron, carbon and silicon. fire and start burning when kept open
in the air. So, they are stored in
kerosene to prevent their reaction with
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 9.2 the oxygen, moisture and CO2 of air.

1. Name two metals which are stored in kerosene.

2. Name a non metal which is good conductor of electricity.
3. Name hardest natural substance.
9.4 Chemical properties of metals
The important chemical properties of metals are discussed below.
(1) Reaction with oxygen
All the metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides which are basic in
nature and some of them react with water to form alkaline solution, which
turns red litmus paper blue.
For example : Sodium metal react with oxygen of air to form basic oxide
called sodium oxide.
4Na + O2  2Na2O
Sodium oxide
(Basic)
It reacts with water to give an alkali called sodium hydroxide. It turns red
litmus paper blue.
Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
Sodium hydroxide
Similarly, potassium also react with O2 of air and form basic oxide called
potassium oxide. Fig. 8 Reaction of sodium with water
and air is vigorous in nature.
4K + O22K2O
K2O + H2O  2KOH

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Even rusting of iron in moist air and burning of magnesium ribbon also
results in the formation of their oxides.
Basic nature of metal oxides can be illustrated by following activity.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.5

Aim
To show the nature of rust (iron oxide)
Method
THE
SPOT  (
i
) Take a spoonful of rust and dissolve it in a very little amount of water
and shake it well.
LIGHT (
ii
) Test the solution with red and blue litmus papers.
Gold, platinum and silver do not react
with oxygen (air). Observation
The red litmus paper becomes blue but blue litmus do not get affected.
Reaction involved
Iron+ Oxygen  Iron oxide (Rust)

Rust
suspension

THE
SPOT  Red litmus
LIGHT paper
Some of the non-metal oxides are
neutral in nature like H2O and CO.

Rust

Fig. 9 Nature of rust.

Conclusion
This activity shows that rust is basic in nature.
Reaction of copper with oxygen
THE
SPOT  When copper metal reacts with oxygen of air (at about 300°C) cupric
oxide or copper (II) oxide is formed which gets deposited on the surface of
LIGHT the copper metal.
300 C
Remember ! Metals form basic oxides 2Cu + O2 
 2CuO
whereas non-metals form acidic
oxides. At 1000°C Cu change into cuprous oxide or copper (I) oxide.
1000 C
4Cu + O2  2Cu2O
When a copper metal is exposed to moist air for long time, it acquires a
dull green coating (malachite green) which is a mixture of copper hydroxide
[Cu(OH)2] and copper carbonate (CuCO3).
The equation of this reaction is as follows :

2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2 

 Cu(OH)2 + CuCO3
slow

 
moisture Basic copper carbonate

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 9.2
What do you understand by term corrosion ? How can we prevent it ?
Explanation
The process of oxidation of metals under the influence of atmospheric
conditions is known as corrosion.
or
Any chemical or electrochemical reaction on the surface of a metal is known
as corrosion.
Prevention of corrosion
Corrosion can be prevented by following methods
(
i) Paint (ii) Oiling and greasing
(iii) Galvanization (iv) Tinning.
(v) Electro plating (vi) Anodizing
(vii) Alloying (viii)Sacrificialprotection.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 9.2

1. Na and K
Fig.10 Galvanised iron is
2. Carbon in the form of graphite used for making this home.
3. Diamond
(2) Reaction with water
The reaction of a metal with water depends on the chemical reactivity of
metal. Some metals react with cold water, some react with hot water.
Some react only with steam whereas others do not react.
(i) Sodium react with water vigorously along with evolution of H2 gas and
heat. THE
(ii) Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water but reacts rapidly with SPOT 
boiling water. With boiling water, Mg(OH)2 is formed but with steam
MgO is formed.
LIGHT
Due to high reactivity of Na and K
This shows that magnesium is less reactive than sodium.
with oxygen, they are kept in
(iii) Zinc reacts rapidly only with steam. This reaction shows zinc is less kerosene. If they are kept in air they
reactive than magnesium. will react with oxygen to form their
(iv) When steam is passed over red hot iron, iron oxide is formed and H2(g) respective oxides.
is evolved. (i.e. iron is less reactive metal)

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.6

Aim
To show the reaction of sodium with water.
Material required
A small piece of sodium stored in kerosene, cotton, beaker, filter paper,
tongs, water.
Method
THE
(
i) Take 250 mL beaker and fill half of it with water.
(ii
) Now take sodium piece stored in kerosene with the help of tongs and
SPOT 
dry it using filter paper and wrap it in a small piece of cotton. LIGHT
(iii) Now put the sodium wrapped in cotton into the beaker. Less reactive metals such as lead,
copper, silver, gold etc do not displace
Observation hydrogen from water.
It is noticed that sodium metal reacts vigorously with oxygen and water
and burst into flames. A lot of heat is generated in the reaction and solution
formed in beaker turns red litmus blue.
Conclusion
It shows that sodium is very reactive towards water.
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(3) Reactions with acids
Highly reactive metals react with acids and produce hydrogen gas that
burns with a 'pop' sound. Only less reactive metals such as copper, silver,
gold etc. do not liberate hydrogen gas from dilute hydrochloric (HCl) and
dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Example
(i) Sodium is highly reactive metal which react violently with dilute HCl
acid to form sodium chloride and hydrogen gas.
THE 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(s) + H2(g)
SPOT  Similarly,
LIGHT 2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium and manganese are two Sodium sulphate
metals which react with very dilute ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.7
HNO3 to evolve hydrogen gas.
Aim
To study the reactivity of metals towards different acids at room temperature
& on warming.
Method
(
i
) Take samples of metals, non metals listed in following table in separate
test tubes and label them as A, B, C, D.
(ii
) With the help of a dropper add 5 drops of dil HCl to each test tube &
observe the reaction carefully.
(iii) If no reaction occurs in the cold solution, warm the test tube gently.
(iv) Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth of each test tube.
(v) Repeat the same activity using dilute sulphuric acid instead of the dilute
hydrochloric acid. Record observations.
Observation
Reaction of metals and non-metals with acids
Re actio n with D ilute Reactio n with Dilute
Tes t
Metal / No n H ydro chlo ric Acid S u lp huric Acid
tu be
Meta l Ro o m Warm Ro o m Wa rm
Label
Tem pe ra ture Te mp erature
A Magnesium React vigorously Mo re Vigorously More
(ribbo n) vigo ro usly vigo rously
B Alumin ium React vigorously Mo re Vigorously More
(foil) vigo ro usly vigo rously
C Iro n (filin gs) React slowly Increases slowly Rate
in creases
D Cop per No reaction No No reaction No
(p eeled reaction reaction
THE
SPOT  flexible wire)
Conclusion
LIGHT
(
i
) When metals reacts with acids, there is difference in reactivity.
Reactivity order of some metals with
dilute acid is Magnesium is more reactive than aluminium & aluminium is more
Na > Mg > Al >Zn> Fe > Cu. reactive than iron. Copper do not react with dilute H2SO4 & HCl even
on heating. Copper reacts with concenterated sulphuric acid. The
reactivity order is Mg > Al > Fe > Cu
(
ii
) On heating, rate of reaction increases.
(iii) When acid react with metal, hydrogen gas is evolved.
(iv) Non metals generally do not react with acids.
(4) Reaction with bases
Some metals react with alkalis such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to produce
hydrogen gas.

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.8

Aim
To show that metals produces H2(g).
Method
(
i
) Take a clean test tube and prepare a fresh solution of sodium hydroxide
by dissolving 3–4 pellets of it in 5 ml of water.
(ii
) Then, drop a piece of aluminium foil into the test tube.
(iii) Now, bring a burning match stick near the mouth of the test tube.
Observation
Pop sound is produced which indicates the presence of hydrogen gas.
Fig.11 Iron is used about nine times
Conclusion more than all the other metals put
This activity shows that hydrogen gas is evolved, when metals react with together.
alkali (soluble bases).
The equation of this reaction is given below –
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O  2NaAlO2 + 3H2
Aluminium Sodium Sodium meta Hydrogen gas
hydroxide aluminate
(5) Displacement reaction
It has been found that a metal which is more reactive in the metal activity
series, displaces another metal less reactive in the metal reactivity series,
from its salt solution. Such a chemical reaction is called displacement
reaction. THE
Definition SPOT 
When a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its
aqueous salt solution, the reaction which takes place is called chemical
LIGHT
displacement. Gold and platinum are unreactive
and known as native (free) metals.
Reactivity series of metals
The vertical arrangement of metals in order of decreasing reactivities is
called reactivity series or activity series of metals.
Reactivity series of metals

Potassium K Most reactive metal

Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Sodium Na
Reactivity Decreases

Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Reactivity Increases

Metal more Zinc Zn

reactive than Iron Fe
hydrogen Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu Fig.12 Light and strong metals such
Metal less Mercury Hg as aluminium and titanium are used
in the International Space Stations.
reactive than Silver Ag
Platinum Pt
hydrogen Gold Au Least reactive metal
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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.9

Aim
To show displacement reaction.
Method
Take five beakers labelled A, B, C, D and E, containing freshly prepared
solutions of copper sulphate, iron sulphate and zinc sulphate as shown in
figure.
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Fig.13 Sunshine, thanks to hydrogen !

Copper Copper Iron Iron Zinc
sulphate sulphate sulphate sulphate sulphate
solution solution solution solution solution
Fig.14 Experiment to show chemical activity of metals

(
i
) In the beaker A, drop a small piece of clean iron or an iron nail.
(
ii
) In the beaker B, drop a small piece of clean zinc metal.
(iii) In the beaker C, drop a piece of clean zinc metal.
(iv) In the beaker D, drop a piece of clean copper metal.
(v) In the beaker E, drop a piece of clean iron metal.
Iron Zinc Zinc Copper Iron

Copper Copper Iron No No

is is is reaction reaction
deposited deposited deposited
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Fig.15
THE
SPOT  Wait for 10 minutes and record your observations.
Observation
LIGHT
Iron is the constituent of haemoglobin
Beaker A
and magnesium is a constituent of The blue colour of copper sulphate solution changes to light green colour
chlorophyll.
and reddish deposit of copper is formed on the surface of iron. The
chemical reaction can be represented as :
CuSO4 (aq) + Fe(s)  FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Copper sulphate Iron Iron sulphate Copper
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which a more
reactive metal (iron) displaces less reactive metal (copper) from its salt
solution (copper sulphate).
The green colour of the solution is due to the formation of ferrous sulphate
(Iron sulphate).

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Beaker B
The blue colour of copper sulphate solution changes to colourless and a
reddish deposit of copper is formed on the surface of zinc. The chemical
reaction can be represented as :
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s)  ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Copper sulphate Zinc Zinc sulphate Copper
solution
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which more
reactive metal (zinc) displaces a less reactive metal (copper) from its salt
solution (copper sulphate). Fig.16 Silica gel used as a desiccant,
is made up of silicon and oxygen.
The solution becomes colourless because zinc sulphate solution forms a
colourless solution.
Beaker C
The light green colour of iron sulphate solution changes to colourless solution
and a grey deposit of iron is formed on the surface of zinc. The chemical
reaction can be represented as :
FeSO4 (aq) + Zn(s)  ZnSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
Iron sulphate Zinc Zinc sulphate Iron
solution
The above reaction is a chemical displacement reaction in which a more
active metal (zinc) displaces less active metal (iron) from its salt solution
(iron sulphate solution). The solution becomes colourless because zinc
sulphate solution forms a colourless solution. Fig.17 Different metals and non
metals are used for fireworks.
Beaker D

No change in colour of iron sulphate takes place. No deposit is formed

on the piece of copper. It is because copper is less reactive than iron in
iron sulphate, and hence, no chemical displacement takes place.

From the above observation it implies that no chemical reaction takes place.

Beaker E

THE

No change in colour of zinc sulphate takes place and no deposit is formed
on the piece of iron. SPOT
From this, it implies that no chemical reaction takes place. It is because
LIGHT
Nitinol is an amazing material that
iron is less active than zinc in zinc sulphate, and hence, no chemical remembers its shape, it is an alloy of
displacement takes place. nickel and titanium. Magic metal can
be given a particular shape and then
Conclusion twisted out of shape on heating it
snaps back into its first shape. The
Furthermore, from the above reactions, it is clear that zinc is the most metal resists corrosion and can be
used for surgical implants in medical
reactive metal, followed by iron and copper. It is because it can displace patients.
both iron and copper from their respective salt solutions.

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9.5 Chemical properties of non-metals
(1) Reaction of non-metals with oxygen
Non metals like S , C, P ,N and those like Cl2, Br2, I2 react with air only
under specific conditions of temperature and form the oxides in which
the non metallic element shows variable valency.
THE
SPOT  For example 2C + O2  2CO provided the C is burnt in lesser
supply of O2 .
LIGHT C + O2  CO2 provided the C is burnt in sufficient supply of O2 .
Non-metallic atom have 4, 5, 6 or 7 Similarly the reaction between N and O2 or S and O2 can be repre-
electrons in there valence shells. sented as,
[Exception: Hydrogen and helium
have one and two electron in their
S + O2  SO2
valence shells respectively.] N2 + O2  2NO
2N2 + O2  2N2O
4P + 5O2  2P2O5 and so on.
Nature of oxides
Non metals react with oxygen to form acidic or neutral oxides.
Acidic oxides
The oxides of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are acidic, which dissolve
in water to form acid and they turn blue litmus paper red.
For Example : Carbon reacts with oxygen of air to form carbon dioxide
THE gas which dissolves in water to form an acid which is called carbonic acid.
SPOT  C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
CO2(g) + H2O()  H2CO3(aq)
LIGHT Carbonic acid
Metal oxides are ionic in nature,
Now we will discuss how non metals react with oxygen.
whereas non-metallic oxides are
covalent. For example Na2O, K2O ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 9.10
are ionic and CO2 , NO2 are covalent.
Aim
To show the nature of non-metal oxide.
Method
(
i) Take a small amount of sulphur, powdered in a deflagrating spoon
and heat it on a burner flame, till it catches fire.
(ii
) Then introduce the spoon into a gas jar.
(iii) After burning add some water to the gas jar and shake it well.
Observation
Test the solution with both (blue and red) litmus papers. The blue litmus
THE paper becomes red and red litmus does not get affected.
SPOT  S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
2SO2 + O2  2SO3
LIGHT SO3(g) + H2O()  H2SO4(aq)
Iodine is a dark violet non metallic
H2SO4(aq) + Blue litmus  Red
compound. Iodine is required as a
trace element in living organisms as
a constituent of thyroid gland. Iodine
dissolved in ethanol as tincture of
iodine is used in medicine as mild Improvised
antiseptic. deflagrating
spoon

Fig.18 Burning of sulphur powder

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Conclusion
This shows that aqueous solution of SO2 is acidic in nature.
Table : 5.2 Metals and non-metals in acids and bases.
Na me o f the ba s es Meta ls Na me o f the a cids No n-meta ls
Calcium hydroxide Calcium Sulphuric acid Sulphur
THE
Sodium hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide
Sodium
Magnesium
H ydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Chlorine
Nitrogen
SPOT 
`
Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium Acetic acid Carbon LIGHT
Iron hydroxide Iron Formic acid Carbon Non-metals do not react with water.
However, chlorine dissolves in water
(2) Reaction with non metals to form chlorine water that contains
Non-metals do react with non metals and form covalent compounds as hydrochloric acid.
Cl2 + H2O  2HCl + [O]
CO2, H2O etc.
The non metals react with oxygen in the air and give various oxides, but
often a high temperature is required. For example,
C + O2  CO2 (at high temperature)
The reaction of N2 and O2 during lightening is well known. It results in the
formation of NO2, NO, N2O. etc in the air and after combining with rain
water it changes to nitric acid.
The oxides of non metals are all acidic oxides as, when reacted with water,
they form acids. For example
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
2 NO2 + H2O  2HNO3
(3) Reaction of non-metals with water
Generally, non-metals do not react with water though they may be very
reactive in air. Such non-metals are stored in water.
For example, phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. It catches fire if
exposed to air. To prevent the contact of phosphorus with atmospheric
oxygen, it is stored in water. Non-metals do not react with water or steam
to evolve hydrogen gas. It is due to the reason that, non-metals cannot give
electrons to hydrogen ions of water.
THE
(4) Reaction of non-metals with dilute acids
It is because non-metal themselves are acceptor fo electrons and therefore,
SPOT 
+
they do not give electrons to reduce the hydrogen (H ) ions of an acid to LIGHT
form hydrogen gas. Oxygen [O] is most abundant
element in living beings. Oxygen is
S + 6HNO3  H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O of vital importance for all living
(5) Reaction of non-metals with salt solution beings to carry out aerobic
respiration.
A more reactive non-metal displaces a less reactive non-metal from its salt
solution.
2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g)2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 9.3

1. Name two metals other than silver and gold which are not attacked even
by steam.
2. Name two metals which react with very dilute HNO3 to produce hydrogen gas.
3. Which metal is considered as a stratetic metal?
4. Name a metal which is highly reactive.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
D is tin c tio n b e tw e e n Me ta ls a n d N o n -m e ta ls
C h e m ic a l P ro p e rtie s Me ta ls N o n -m e ta ls
Action with Me ta ls ge ne ra lly re a ct N on-m e ta ls do not disp la ce
m ine ra l a cids with dilute m ine ra l a cids hydroge n on re a ction with dilute
to libe ra te H 2 ga s. m ine ra ls a cids.
N a ture of oxide s The y form ba sic oxide s. N on-m e ta ls form a cidic or
For e xa m p le , N a 2 O , ne utra l oxide s. For e xa m p le ,
MgO , e tc. S O 2 , CO 2 , P 2 O 5 , e tc. a re a cidic
THE
SPOT  whe re a s CO , N 2 O , e tc. a re
ne utra l.
LIGHT Com bina tion with Me ta ls ge ne ra lly do not N on-m e ta ls com bine with
Aluminium is the most abundant hydroge n com bine with hydroge n. hydroge n to form sta ble
metal in the earth's crust. The second hydride s.
most abundant metal is iron and third Ele ctroche m ica l Me ta ls a re e le ctrop ositive N on-m e ta ls a re e le ctrone ga tive
one is calcium. be ha viour in cha ra cte r. The y form in cha ra cte r. The y form a nions
ca tions in solution a nd a re in solution a nd a re libe ra te d a t
de p osite d on the ca thode the a node whe n the ir sa lt
whe n e le ctricity is p a sse d solutions a re subje cte d to
through the ir solution. e le ctrolysis. H ydroge n is a n
e xce p tion. It usua lly form s
p ositive ions a nd is libe ra te d a t
ca thode .
O xidising or Me ta ls be ha ve a s re ducing N on-m e ta ls ge ne ra lly be ha ve a s
re ducing a ge nts. This is be ca use of oxidising a ge nts since the y ha ve
be ha viour the ir te nde ncy to lose the te nde ncy to ga in e le ctrons.
e le ctrons. 1 / 2 Cl2 + e –  Cl–
+ –
Na  Na + e
THE
SPOT  9.6 Occurrence of metals
The earth's crust is the major source of metals. They are present in nature
LIGHT in the free state as well as in combined state.
Copper and silver are also found in Oxygen & silicon are the main elements present in earth's crust. Both are non-
the combined state as their suphide metals. Seawater also contains some soluble salts such as NaCl, MgCl2, etc.
or oxide ores.
Native and combined states of metals
Metals occur in the crust of earth in two states : native state and combined
state.
(1) Native state
A metal is said to occur in native or free state when a metal is found in
nature in the elementary or metallic state. The metals at the bottom of the
activity series are least reactive. They are often found in free state.
For example : Gold, silver, copper and platinum are found in free state
because they are very unreactive metals. So, they have no tendency to react
THE
SPOT  with oxygen and are not attacked by moisture, CO2 of air or any other
non-metal.
LIGHT (2) Combined state
All ores are minerals but all minerals The metals at the top of series are not expected in free state due to their
are not ores.
reactive nature. They exist in combination with other elements as oxides,
carbonates, halides, sulphates, sulphides etc.
For example : Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium etc.
are very reactive metals. All of these are lying at the top of activity series.
These are never found in the free state.
The metals in the middle of the activity series such as zinc, iron, lead etc.
are moderately reactive. They are found in the earth crust mainly as oxides,
sulphide or carbonates.
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On the basis of reactivity, metals are divided into the following three
categories-
K
Ca Highly reactive metals
Na (Top of the activity series)
Mg Never found in the free state.
Al
Metals above hydrogen
Zn
THE
Fe Moderately reactive metals
Ni (Middle of the activity series)
SPOT 
Sn Found in combined state.
LIGHT
Most of the ores exist as oxides.
Pb
Cu Less reactive metals
(Just below hydrogen)
Ag Found in the free state as well as combined state.
Metals below hydrogen
Pt Least reactive metals
(Bottom of the activity series).
Au
Found in the free state.
Occurrences of metals in the activity series
Minerals and ores
The elementary state of the compounds in the form of which the metals
occur in nature are called minerals.
THE

At some places, minerals contain a very high percentage of particular metal.
Usually, the metals are isolated or extracted from these minerals in which SPOT
they are present in sufficient amounts and the cost of extraction is also quite
cheap.
LIGHT
The scientific principles and the
The minerals from where metals can be conveniently and profitably
physical and chemical processes that
extracted are called ores. are applied to obtain pure metals
For example : Copper occurs in nature in the form of several mineral like from their ores are known as
copper pyrites, copper glance (Cu2S) and cuprite (Cu2O). But copper can metallurgy.

be conveniently extracted from copper pyrites (CuFeS2). Therefore, ore

of copper is copper pyrites. Some common ores are listed below.
Nature of ore Me tal Comp os ition
Aluminium Bauxite Al2 O 3 .2H 2 O
Oxide Ore s Copper Cuprite Cu2 O
Iron Magnetite Fe 3 O 4
Copper pyrites CuFeS2
THE

Copper
Copper glance Cu2 S
SPOT
S ulp hide ore s Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
Lead Galena PbS
LIGHT
Mercury Cinnabar H gS It is not uncommon to apply the name
of a mineral to the ore. For example,
Calcium Limestone CaCO 3 the ore from which iron is extracted
Carbonate Ore s
Zinc Calamine ZnCO 3 may be called haematite; or bauxite
Sodium Rock salt NaCl could be referred to as the ore form
which aluminium is extracted.
Magnesium Carnallite KCl MgCl2 .6H 2 O
Halide Ore s
Calcium Fluorsp ar CaF2
Silver H orn silver AgCl
Calcium Gypsum CaSO 4 .2H 2 O
Magnesium Epsom Salt MgSO 4 .7H 2 O
S ulp hate o re s
Barium Barytes BaSO 4
Lead Anglesite PbSO 4

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
9.7 Extraction of metals : metallurgy
The process through which a pure metal is extracted from its ores is known
as extraction of metals. The series of various processes involved in the
extraction of metals from their ores, followed by refining of the metal is
THE
SPOT  known as metallurgy.
Various steps involved in the extraction of metals or metallurgical process:
LIGHT 1. Crushing and grinding of the ore.
Metallurgy is one of the oldest
sciences and even the people of 2. Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
ancient times knew about it. Its history
can be traced back to 6000 BC. The
3. Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.
Chineses and Egyptians used gold 4. Refining or purification of the impure metal.
in its pure state to make ornaments.
American Indians used pure copper (1) Crushing and grinding of the ore
to make weapons. As long as 4000
years ago, the Egyptians knew how Most of the ores in nature occur as big rocks. They are broken into small
to separate iron from its ore. pieces with the help of crushers. These pieces are then reduced to fine
powder with the help of a ball mill or a stamp mill. This process is known
as pulverization of the ore.

Large pieces of ore

Crushed ore
THE
SPOT 
LIGHT Crushed ore Finely divided powder
Enrichment is also known as ore-
dressing or benefication. (A) Crusher (B) Stamp mill

Fig.19 Grinding of ore.

(2) Enrichment of ore or concentration of ore
The ores mined from the earth's crust contain a number of impurities, such
as soil, sand etc. called gangue or matrix. The process of removal of
impurities (gangue) from the ore is called enrichment of ore or
concentration of ore. Enrichment of an ore is carried out by the following
methods :
(a) Levigation or gravity separation or hydraulic washing
THE This method is based upon the difference in the densities of the ore particles
SPOT  and impurities (gangue). Example : Haemetite ore of iron.
LIGHT Powdered ore

Levigation is usually appilcable to

oxide ores. Gangue

Setting of
the ore

Water

Concentrated ore
Fig.20 Gravity separation.

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(b) Froth floatation
This method is based on the difference in the wetting properties of the ore
and gangue particles with water and oil. It is used for enrichment of sulphide
ores. Example : ZnS, HgS.
Froth or scum
Air
containing ore
particles

THE
SPOT 
Ore + water
+ oil
LIGHT
Froth floatation is commonly used for
Gangue sulphide ores.

Fig.21 Froth floatation.

(c) Liquation
This method is based on difference in melting point of ore and gangue
particles. Example : ore of tin and zinc.
(d) Magnetic separation
This method is based on difference in the magnetic properties of the ore
and gangue. Example : Magnetite (Fe3O4) ore of iron.

Powdered ore Crude Metal

Heat

Pure metal
Magnetic roller

Fig.23 Liquation.

Non-magnetic Magnetic ore

impurities Leather belt

Fig.22 Magnetic separation.

(e) Chemical separation
When none of the physical property makes the difference, then we use
chemical properties as the basis for enrichment. e.g. Bayer's process for
alumina enrichment.
(3) Extraction of metal from the enriched ore
THE
The method used for extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore
depends upon the nature of metal.
SPOT 
Based on the reactivity, the metals have been grouped into the following
LIGHT
three categories : Magnetic separation is used for
concentration of iron ores.
(
i
) Metals of low reactivity. (Low in the activity series)
(ii
) Metals of medium reactivily. (In the middle of the activity series.)
(iii) Metals of high reactivity. (At the top of the activity series.)
(I) Extraction of metals low in the activity series (Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au)
As these metals are very less reactive, they are either found in native state
or in the form of sulphide ores e.g. Cinnabar (HgS)
These sulphide ores can be converted to oxide ores on heating in the
presence of excess of air Roasting.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
2HgS(s) + 3O2(g) 
Heat
 2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Mercuric sulphide Mercuric Sulphur dioxide
(Cinnabar) oxide
(II) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series
(Fe, Zn, Pb etc.)
THE
SPOT  These metals are found in the form of their oxides, sulphides and
carbonates. For easy extraction, sulphide and carbonate ores are first
LIGHT converted in the oxide.
The reaction in which one of the (a) Conversion into metal oxide
reactant (Cu2S) carries the reduction (i) Calcination : Calcination is the process in which the concentrated
of the product (Cu2O) is known as ore is heated strongly below its melting point in the absence or limited
auto reduction or self-reduction. supply of air. Calcination removes the volatile impurities from the ore and
make the ore porous and dry. Calcination is used for carbonate (ZnCO3),
hydroxide (Al(OH)3) or hydrated oxide (Al2O3  2H2O) ores.
Example :
ZnCO3(s)  Heat
(Absence of air )
 ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
zinc carbonate Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide
(Calamine - ore of Zn)
Al2O3  2H2O Al2O3 + 2H2O
(ii) Roasting : Roasting is the process in which the concentrated ore is
heated strongly below its melting point in the presence of excess of air.
This removes the volatile impurities and moisture from the ore. Roasting is
THE

used for sulphide ores such as ZnS, HgS, etc.
SPOT 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)  Heat
Presence of excess of air
 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
LIGHT Zinc sulphide Zinc oxide Sulphur dioxide
It is easy to extract a metal from its (Zinc blende-ore of Zn)
oxide, as compared to its sulphide 2Cu2S(s) + 3O2(g)

Heat
 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
or carbonate.
Copper glance Oxygen Cuprous oxide Sulphur dioxide
(b) Reduction of the metal oxide to metal
(i) Reduction by heat alone (Self-Reduction)
The oxide can be reduced to metal by self heating.
2HgO 
Heat
 2Hg() + O2(g)
Mercuric oxide Mercury Oxygen
Similarly, when copper glance (Cu2S) an ore of copper, is subjected to
roasting, it directly gives copper.
2Cu2O(s) +Cu2S(s) Heat
 6Cu(s) + 2SO2(g)
Copper oxide Copper glance Copper Sulphur dioxide
For reduction suitable reducing agents are used, like carbon, carbon
monoxide, aluminium, sodium or calcium.
THE
SPOT  (ii) Reduction by heating with carbon (coke)
When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, zinc metal is produced.
LIGHT ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)
Reduction by carbon is also known Carbon Zinc metal Carbon monoxide
as smelting.
(Reducing agent)
Similarly, iron and lead are also obtained from their oxides by heating
with carbon.
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 
Heat
 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
PbO(s) + C(s) 
Heat
 Pb(s) + CO(g)

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(iii) Reduction with CO
Iron is obtained from ferric oxide by heating with CO.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 
Heat
 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
(iv) Reduction by aluminium
Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to metals, sometimes
displacement reactions can also be used. The highly reactive metals
such as sodium, calcium, aluminium etc., are used as reducing agents
because they can displace metals of lower reactivity from their compounds.
Certain metal oxides are reduced by aluminium to metals. This method is
known as aluminothermy or thermite process.
For example : Chromium, manganese, vanadium metals are obtained by
the reduction of their oxides with Al powder. The following reaction takes
place.
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) 
Heat
 3Mn() + 2Al2O3(s) + Heat
Fig.24 The thermite reaction gives
Cr2O3(s) + 2Al(s)  2Cr()
Heat
+ Al2O3(s) + Heat off so much heat that the iron formed
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic, so, a large amount of is molten.

heat is evolved and metals are produced in the molten state.

In fact the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium, is used to weld
railway tracks or cracked machine parts. This reaction is known as thermite
reaction. The mixture of iron oxide and aluminium powder is called
thermite.
Fe2O3(s)+ 2Al(s) 
Heat
 2Fe() + Al2O3(s) + Heat

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 9.3

1. Lead and copper.
2. Magnesium and manganese.
3. Titanium
4. Potassium
(III) Extraction of metals high up in the activity series
(K, Ca, Na, Mg and Al) Fig.25 Thermite process for joining
The highly reactive metals such as K, Na, Mg have strong affinity for oxygen, railway tracks.

so they can not be reduced with the help of carbon. Hence these metals
are obtained by electrolysis of their molten or fused oxides or chlorides,
this method is called electrolytic reduction.
On electrolysis, metal ions, being positive, are liberated at the cathode
(negative electrode) where they gain electrons and convert in the metal
atoms.
Examples THE
(i) Sodium metal is obtained by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride. SPOT 
NaCl(s) 
Heat to
melt
Na+() + Cl–() LIGHT
Al is an expensive metal and so, it is
At Cathode : Na+() + e–  Na(s) (Reduction) not used to reduce metals which are
Sodium ion electron Sodium metal less expensive than aluminium.

At Anode : Cl–()  Cl(g) + e– (Oxidation)

Chloride ion Chlorine atom
Cl(g) + Cl(g)  Cl2(g)
Chlorine atoms Chlorine gas
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Thus, sodium metal is obtained at cathode whereas chlorine gas is
obtained at the anode.
(
ii
) Aluminium oxide is reduced to aluminium by the electrolysis of molten
aluminium oxide.
Al2O3 
Heat
to melt
 2Al3+ + 3O2–

At Cathode : Al3+() + 3e–  Al(s) (Reduction)

Aluminium ion Aluminium metal

THE At Anode : O2–()  O(g) + 2e– (Oxidation)

SPOT  Oxide ions Oxygen atom
LIGHT O(g) + O(g)  O2(g)
Oxidation  loss of e—.
Reduction  gain of e —.
Oxygen atoms Oxygen gas
(4) Refining of impure metals
The metals produced by various reduction processes described above are
not very pure. They contain impurities, which must be removed to obtain
pure metals.
(a) Electrolytic refining
The most widely used method for refining of impure metals is electrolytic
refining.
Process
(i) In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip
of pure metal is made the cathode.
(ii) Asolution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte. On passing the electric
current through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves
into the electrolyte.
(iii) An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte gets deposited
on the cathode. The soluble impurities go into the solution, leaving the
insoluble impurities which settle down at the bottom of the anode.

At Anode : M(s)  Mn+(aq) + ne–

Metal atom Metal ion
(from anode)

THE At cathode : Mn+(aq) + ne–  M(s)

SPOT  Metal ion Metal atom
LIGHT (from solution)
Copper as extracted from its ores is Anode mud / anode sludge
usually about 98% pure. This is not The soluble impurities present in the impure metal pass into solution whereas
good enough for electrical wiring, so
copper has to be refined. The same insoluble impurities fall below the anode as anode mud.
is true of aluminium, where 99% purity Example : Electrolytic refining of copper.
is insufficient. Copper and aluminium Key
of higher purity (say 99.99%) can be – – + –e
e
obtained by electrolysis. – +
Cathode Anode
Acidified
Tank
copper
sulphate
Impurities solution
(anode mud)
Fig.26 Electrolytic refining of copper. The electrolyte is a solution of acidified
copper sulphate. The anode is impure copper, whereas the cathode is a strip of
pure copper. On passing electric current, pure copper is deposited on the cathode.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
BUILDING CONCEPTS 9.3
Explain why carbon can reduce copper oxide to copper but not sodium
oxide to sodium ?
Explanation
Carbon is a strong reducing agent. Hence, it can reduce copper oxide
to copper as follows.
CuO(s) + C(s)  Cu(s) + CO(g)
Sodium is much more reactive than copper. It has greater affinity for oxygen
than for carbon. Moreover, at high temperature, sodium formed, if any,
THE
combines with carbon to form sodium carbide.

(b) Liquation method

SPOT 
LIGHT
This method is used when the melting temperature of the metal is lower than The method of purification used
that of the impurity and the impurities are not miscible with the metal. depends upon the
(i) nature of the metal.
Metals like Bi, Sn, Pb, Hg etc., are purified by this method.
(ii) nature of the impurities present
The sloping floor of a reverberatory furnace is used to melt crude metal, in the metal and
(iii) purpose for which the metal is to
when the pure metal flows down, the impurities are left behind. be used.

Metal

Sloping hearth

Impurities left behind

Pure molten metal

Fig.27 The Liquation method THE

(c) Distillation SPOT 
When metals have low boiling points e.g., mercury, zinc, cadmium etc.,
LIGHT
Metals constitute the mineral wealth
most of the impurities can be separated by distillation. Their vapours, on of a country.
condensation in a suitable condenser give the pure metal. The major metals in the earth's crust
in the decreasing order of their abun-
(d) Poling dance are aluminium, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium and magnesium.
Oxide impurity of impure metals can be purified by this method. Poles of
green wood are used to stir the molten crude metal sample. The hydro-
carbon organic matter in the poles acts as a reducing agent and reduces
the oxide impurities. This method is used for refining copper.

(e) Oxidation or cupellation

Impurities that can be oxidised to volatile products can be removed by

oxidation. For example, the impurity of lead from silver is removed when
lead is oxidized and led away by a current of air. Shining silver is left be-
hind. Molten pig iron is also purified by this technique in a Bessemer
converter. The impurities in the form of volatile oxides, escape out.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(f) Zone refining method
When metals are required in a ultra pure state, the zone refining method
isused.
The principle-employed states that the impurities, which lower the melting
point of a metal remain preferentially dissolved in the liquid phase and
purer metal will emerge in the solid phase.
In actual practice, a cylinder of impure metal is kept in a tubular furnace
THE
SPOT  and the heater is made to move in one direction at a very slow speed.
The solid material crystallizes as the heater moves along the tube, and the
LIGHT advancing zone contains liquid with higher impurity content.
Electrolytic refining is used to refine The process is repeated a number of times till the desired level of purity is
copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold obtained.
etc.
Recrystallized
metal Molten zone

Heater

Fig.28 The Zone refining method

THE
SPOT  (g) Van Arkel method
In the Van Arkel method, impure metal is first converted into one of its
LIGHT unstable compounds. Heating the unstable compound of the metal at
Tin and chromium do not corrode. Tin higher temperatures, decomposes it to give pure metal.
is non-poisonous and is used to coat For example, pure titanium can be obtained from impure titanium by
tiffin boxes by electroplating. converting it into tetraiodide, and then decomposing this tetraiodide to
Chromium plating prevents rusting
and gives a shiny appearance to iron
pure Ti.
and steel articles. Ti +
250 C
2I2 
 TiI4
250 C
  Ti + 2I2
1400  C

Process of metallurgy
Ore
(1) Crushing and grinding

Powdered ore

THE (2) Concentration of ore (3) Extraction of metal (4) Refining

SPOT 
LIGHT Physical
method
Chemical
method Metals Metals Metals
Rusting is the term used only in case of high of medium of low
of iron. If the rusted surface of iron is Leaching reactivity reactivity reactivity
rubbed with a sand paper, the rust
will appear again in a few days. This Electrolysis of Sulphide
Magnetic
shows that the rust is formed by a separation
Froth molten ore Carbonate Sulphate ores
floatation
chemical reaction and not by a Hydraulic
ore ore
physical process. Liquation washing Pure Roasting
method metal Calcination Roasting

Metal

Oxide of metal
Carbon / aluminium
Reduction to
metal

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 9.4
True/False
1. All minerals are suitable for the extraction of metals.
2. Distillation method is used for the purification of low boiling volatile metals.
Fill in the blanks
3. ___________method is used for purification of molten cast iron or copper.
One word
4. Name the method of concentration of ore in which suitable chemical dissolves
THE
the desired metallic component of the ore to form a soluble product.
9.8 Alloys SPOT 
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or non-metal. LIGHT
It can be prepared by first melting the metal and then dissolving the other When two metals are mixed in molten
elements (metal or non-metal) in proper proportions. The physical properties form.Theatomsof thesmaller element
of an alloy are different from the constituent metals (from which it is made). gets incorporated in between the
voids of larger sized element and
Alloy has the following characteristics properties
freely lock together to make strong
(i) Alloys are stronger than the metals from which they are made. crystals when they cool.
(ii) They are harder than constituent metals.
(iii) They are more resistant to corrosion.
(iv) They have lower melting points than the constituent metals.
(v) They have lower electrical conductivity than pure metals.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 9.4

Why are metals converted to alloys?
THE

Explanation
(i) To increase the hardness, tensile strength and make it corrosion resistant. SPOT
(ii) To increase the resistance. LIGHT
(iii) To decrease the melting point for use in specific places. The first alloy formed was bronze. It
(iv) To modify the appearance, colour and chemical activity of the metals. is an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze
is a popular metal for making bells
(v) To increase the casting ability. and musical instruments such as
Some of the common alloys are cymbals, and saxophones. Bronze is
also used for making sculptures.
Aluminium Alloys
Al — Allo y P ro pe rty/ Re as o n U ses
fo r allo ying

Dura lumin Ligh t, stron g, re sista nt Aircra ft, too ls, p re ssure
(Al,Mg,M n,C u) to co rr osion cooke r
Magna lium Ligh t, hard, to ugh, Aircra fts, scie ntific
(Al, Mg) corro sio n re sistan t in strum e nts
Copper alloys
THE
C u — Allo y P ro pe rty / Re a s o n fo r
a llo ying
Use s
SPOT 
Lustro us, e asily cast, Allo y is Ele ctrica l fittin gs. LIGHT
Bra ss Mallea ble , Meda ls, ha rdwa re Nichrome is an alloy of Ni, Cr and
ductile, h arder th an C u Fe. It has high melting point. It is used
Br onze H a rd, brittle , ta ke s up p olish Sta tues, meda ls, co in s to heat coils.
H ard, brittle , sono ro us Allo y is
Be ll m eta l Be lls, gon gs
m o re son orous tha n C u or Sn

G un me ta l H ard, brittle , ea sily ca st Ba rre ls, can non

Ge rm an
Hard, s ilve ry, ta kes up po lish Deco rative articles
silve r

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Steel alloys
S te el — Allo y Pro p erty / Re a so n fo r u se s
a llo yin g
Lustrous, resistant to
Stain less steel corrosion , high tensile stren gth Utensils, cutlery,
THE (Fe, C, Ni, Cr) auto mobile parts

Allo y: Acquire s brillian t silvery
SPOT shine on allo ying with Ni, Cr

LIGHT Nickel Stee l H ard, co rro sion resista nt, Ca bles, a ircraft
Solder : (Fe,C,Ni) ela stic, light, ha rd, to ugh , parts and
It is an alloy of lead (50%) and tin corrosion resistant prop eller sh afts
(50%). It is used for soldering (or
Very h ard, co rrosion resistan t H igh speed
welding) electrical wires together as
Tun gsten steel alloy: acquires h ardness
it melts at a low temperature. ma chine p a rts
on allo ying with tun gsten (W)

Percent composition of some common alloys

Alloys Cu Zn Sn Pb Ni
Brass 60 -80 % 40 -20 %
Bronze 8 0% 2% 18 %
Gun meta l 9 0% 10 %
Ge rman silver 5 0% 3 0% 2 0%
Bell metal 8 0% 20 %

Amalgams
Amalgams are special alloys that combine mercury and other metals in the
periodic table.
The amalgam of Hg, Ag and Zn is used in dental fillings.
A solution of sodium metal in liquid mercury metal is called sodium amal-
gam. Zn amalgam is used in voltaic cells.
Alloying of gold
Pure gold is used in those parts of the world where jewellery is purchased
as much for investment as it is for adornment, but it tends to be vulnerable
to scratching. Elsewhere, it is usually mixed, or alloyed, with other metals.
Not only do they harden it, but influence the colour; white shades are
achieved by alloying gold with silver, nickel or palladium; red alloys contain
mainly copper.
A harder alloy is made by adding nickel or a tiny percentage of titanium.
The proportion of gold in jewellery is measured on the carat (or karat)
scale. The word carat comes from the carob seed, which was originally
used to balance scales in Oriental bazaars. Pure gold is designated 24
carat, which compares with the "fineness" by which bar gold is defined.
P ure g old a llo ys
Fig.29 Brass, a solid solution of Ca ra tage Finen ess % Go ld
copper and zinc, is used to make
musical instruments and many other 24 1000 100
objects.
22 91 6 .7 9 1 .6 7
18 75 0 75
14 58 3 .3 5 8 .3
10 41 6 .7 4 1 .6 7
9 37 5 3 7 .5

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The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy
The iron pillar near the Qutub-Minar in Delhi was made around 400 BC by
the iron workers of India. They had developed a process which prevented
the wrought iron pillar from rusting even after thousands of years. This is
l i kel y because of f ormat i on of a t hi n f i l mof magnet i c oxi de (Fe3O4) on the
surface as a result of finishing treatment given to the pillar, painting it with
a mixture of different salts then heating and quenching (rapid cooling). The
iron pillar is 8 metres high and 6000 kg (6 tones) in weight.
This tells us that ancient Indians had good knowledge of metals and their
alloys.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 9.4

1. False
2. True
3. Oxidation
4. Chemical separation
9.9 Uses of metals and non-metals
(A) Metals
(1) Iron: As compared to other metals iron is widely used. Iron is used
because it is malleable, ductile, hard and strong. The hardness and strength
of iron are generally improved by the presence of small quantities of Fig. 30 Ashoka pillar near Qutub-Minar
carbon (less than 1.5%) which turn the iron into steel. in Delhi.

Iron or more precisely steel, is used for making objects as small as pins and
nails to huge structures like bridges. Iron is also used for making engine
parts, iron sheets and reinforced concrete (used in the construction industry).
(2) Tin: White metal, hammered out in to thin sheets.
Example: Tin foil
Used to
Metal coatings to prevent chemical action and corrosion.
Preserve food
Panel lighting
Soldering
(3) Zinc: Bluish white metal, forms alloys like brass, bronze.
Used to
Galvanizing
Anti-corrosion materials
Medicinal fields
Alloys
Fig.31 Lustrous appearance of
(4) Lead: Soft bluish-gray color heavy metal which melts at a low tem- metals makes them perfect for
perature. Hammered into any shape making jewellery.
Used to
Making water-pipes, utensils
Alloys
Batteries
Pigments
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(5) Aluminium: By virtue of its lightweight quality, aluminium is used in
making overhead cables to carry power in high-voltage electric lines. It is
used in making alloys such as duralumin, magnalium and alnico. Being
light and strong, aluminium alloys are used to make bodies and engine
parts of aircrafts and automobiles.
It is used for making cooking utensils. Aluminium foil is used to wrap food.
Aluminium powder is used in paints.
(6) Chromium: Chromium is used in the manufacture of stainless steel,
which is an alloy of iron, carbon, chromium and nickel.It is used in electro-
plating. The shining parts of bicycles are chrome-plate. Nichrome, an al-
Fig.32 Gold and silver are used for loy of chromium, iron and nickel is used in making 'heating elements' of
making jewellery. electric heaters.
(7) Copper: A very good conductor of electricity, it is widely used in elec-
trical wires and cables. It is used for making components of electrical
switches. Copper coils are used in electrical motors and transformers. Be-
ing a good conductor of heat, it is used to make bottoms of stainless steel
vessels. Copper is alloyed with tin to make the alloy bronze and with zinc to
make the alloy brass.
(8) Gold and silver : The main uses of gold and silver are as follows: For
making jewellery and decorative articles: Gold and silver are two of the
THE
SPOT  most malleable and ductile metals known. This coupled with their shiny
lustre and inert nature, makes them suitable for making jewellery and
LIGHT decorative articles (Fig.33).
We all enjoy fireworks at Diwali. The
brilliant white light seen when In dentistry: Gold and silver are used as filling in dentistry. They are dissolved
fireworks are set off is due to in the mercury to form an amalgam.
powdered magnesium.
Gold and silver are known to be good conductors of electricity. But they
are not commonly used for making electrical wires. Can you tell why ?

BUILDING CONCEPTS 9.5

Why aluminium is used for making cooking utensils ?
Explanation
Cooking utensils of all shapes and sizes are made from aluminium. This
is because it is a good conductor of heat, can be made into any shape;
and is incidentally, resistant to corrosion. Copper is a good conductor
of heat. It is therefore, used for making the base of cooking utensils.
(9) Mercury : Mercury is a silvery white, liquid metal. It does not moisten
glass and it expands a lot on heating. Therefore it is used in :
(i) Thermometers (as thermometric liquid).
(ii) Barometers and other scientific apparatus.
Fig.33 Mercury as thermometric liquid (iii) Dentistry, the filling into teeth cavities in the form of alloys known
as silver amalgam and gold amalgam.
(10) Platinum : Platinum is a lustrous and a very precious metal. It is
not reactive, just as is gold, Platinum is an excellent catalyst. It is used :
(i) for making electrodes and electrolytic cells.
(ii) for making expensive ornaments and watches.

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(B) Non-metals

Just like metals, a variety of non-metals find use in our day to day life in
one form or the other. Let us discuss the uses of some non metals one by
one.

(1) Oxygen and nitrogen : Oxygen and nitrogen have an important role
in sustaining life. It was also mentioned that oxygen is important for steel
production and that nitrogen is converted into fertilizers and explosive.

(2) Carbon : Carbon forms the backbone of many important biomolecules

such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Diamond, a naturally occurring
form of carbon, is used as a gem in jewellery as it sparkles brilliantly. Fig.34 A computer microprocessor
Diamond is the hardest substance known. Because of its hardness, diamond made of silicon
is used for cutting glass and drilling hard rocks. The other crystalline form
of carbon is graphite. Graphite is soft and its layers slip over one another.
This makes graphite very useful as a lubricant particularly in machinery
operating at high temperatures. Graphite marks on paper and can easily
write on it. It is therefore used in lead pencils. Graphite is a good conductor
of electricity. Hence, it is used as an electrode.

(3) Chlorine : (i) Water is made fit for drinking (potable water) by treating THE
it with chlorine to kill harmful bacteria (this process is called sterilization). SPOT 
(ii) Chlorine is also used in the manufacture of chlorine - containing organic LIGHT
compounds. Probably the most widely used of these is the plastic The process of adding very small
polyvinylchloride (PVC). amounts of fluorine salts to drinking
water to prevent tooth decay is called
(4) Iodine : (i) Like chlorine, iodine has germicidal properties (by ability to fluoridation.
kill germs). A 2% solution of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) is used as
an antiseptic. (ii) Iodine is needed for making valuable organic compounds
of value such as medicines. (iii) Iodine is an essential element for healthy
growth. Lack of iodine in the diet results in the disease goitre.

(5) Boron : (i) Boron rods are used as control rods in nuclear reactors. (ii)
Boron filaments are used in making light composite materials for aircraft.
(iii) Boric acid an important compound of boron, is used in solution form as
a mild antiseptic. (iv) its compounds borax and boric acid are used in the
manufacture of pyrex, the heat-resistant borosilicate glass.
THE
(6) Silicon : (i) Very high quality silicon is used for making semiconductors
from which microchips are made. It is therefore the backbone of the SPOT 
electronic and computer industry. (ii) Its compound with carbon (SiC), known LIGHT
as carborundum, is used as an abrasive material. During a thunderstorm, when
lightning occurs, nitrogen and oxygen
(7) Phosphorus : (i) It is used for the manufacture of phosphatic fertilisers in the atmosphere combine to form
called superphosphates. (ii) It is used for the manufacture of orthophosphoric oxides of nitrogen, which are
acid, which is a major industrial chemical. (iii) It is used in the manufacture washed away with rain (in the form
of nitric acid) into the soil.
of matchboxes – the coating on the side of matchboxes contains about
50% red phosphorus.
(8) Sulphur : (i) It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphur
dioxide gas, sulphides and other sulphur-containing industrial chemicals.
(ii) It is used as an insecticide and fungicide in agriculture. (iii) Due to its
fungicidal properties, it is used inskin ointments. (iv) It is used for vulcanising
rubber (making rubber harder). (v) It is used in making gun powder.
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(9) Noble gases : (i) Helium is used in airships because it does not burn. It
is also used to fill balloons that travel to great heights with the instruments
giving the data on which weather forecasts are based. (ii) Neon is extensively
used in street lighting and advertising signs. (iii) Argon is the preferred
gas for the common gas-filled electric light bulbs. (iv) Xenon is used in high
intensity lamps in the cinema and for the standard fading tests of textiles.
THE (v) Another noble gas krypton is used in lasers, which produce very intense
SPOT  beams of light. krypton lasers are used in eye surgery, to prevent bleeding
on the retina. The laser is directed to the points where bleeding might
LIGHT occur. The intense light makes blood clot. Arc welding uses an electric arc
Oxygen is required for the
to melt the metals being welded. It is often carried out in a 'blanket' of
manufacture of steel and nitrogen is
necessary for the manufacture of argon to stop oxygen reacting with the metals.
fertilizers.
9.10 Conserving Metals
The need to conserve metals
There are mainly two reasons why we must conserve metals.
(1) Mineral resources are nonrenewable: Metals are obtained from
minerals, which occur in rocks. And you know that it takes millions of years
for rocks to form. Thus, mineral resources are nonrenewable and the stock
of minerals is limited. The need for metals is increasing every day and so
we are mining ores indiscriminately. A day will, therefore, come when
THE
SPOT  minerals will be scarce.
(2) If we do not conserve metals, the environment will be badly
LIGHT polluted: We throw away used metal objects, e.g., cans, bottle stoppers,
Energy is consumed in digging and
wire meshes, air conditioners, air coolers, tolls, machines, and abandon
transportation of the ore, extraction
of the metal from the ore and refining vehicles that are beyond repair. The debris causes pollution. some metals,
of the metal. Recycling uses only e.g., mercury, lead, antomony and bismuth, are poisonous too.
about 10% of this energy. Thus a lot
of energy is saved. Recycling metals
The best way of conserving metals is by recycling them. You can understand
recycling from the following examples.
(i) Suppose we have a huge stock of scrap iron. (Iron becomes scrap due
to rusting, i.e., the formation of its oxide.) This stock can be directly used
for smelting.
(i) Aluminium is obtained by the electrolytic Process and is also refined by
the same process. Bottle stoppers made of aluminium can be directly used
for electrolytic refining. This cuts the cost of electrity because the process
by which the metal is obtained from the ore is done away with.
THE
SPOT  In general, when we recycle a metal, we do not incur any cost in
concentrating the ore and producing the metal oxide (involving calcination
LIGHT or roasting.)
Metals are non-biodegradable. They
Benefits of recycling
go on accumulating. Many cities have
already run out of landfill space. The following are the benefits of recycling metals.
When metals corrode, they
1. The amount of the ore that would have been otherwise used for the
contaminate ground water through
leaching. These problems can be production of the metal is reduced.
solved by recycling the metal. 2. The cost of production of the metal is lowered.
3. Recycling prevents the pollution that would have been otherwise caused
by metal debris.

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