TARGET: TEXAS GUIDE FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

FADING

FADING

CHARACTERISTICS OVERVIEW CHART

Verbal Skills Grade Levels Cognitive Level Areas Addressed
Nonverbal PK Classic (Pre)Academic/Cognitive/Academic
Mixed Elementary High Functioning Adaptive Behavior/Daily Living
Verbal Middle/High Behavior
Communication/Speech
Social/Emotional

BRIEF INTRODUCTION
Children and youth with autism (AU) are often taught new skills through the use of prompts.
However, it is important to systematically withdraw or fade these prompts so that the individual
can perform skills independently (Alberto & Troutman, 2006).

DESCRIPTION
Fading, an applied behavior analysis strategy (ABA), is most often paired with prompts, another
ABA strategy. Fading refers to decreasing the level of assistance needed to complete a task or
activity. When teaching a skill, the overall goal is for the student to eventually engage in the skill
independently. For example, when a skill is taught using a hand-over-hand prompt, it should be
withdrawn as soon as possible so the student can perform the task without prompts. Thus, as
an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less
intrusive prompt (i.e., from hand-over-hand to touching a hand). This ensures that the individual
does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or
skill.

For example, fading the physical prompt of guiding a child’s hands may follow this sequence: (a)
supporting wrists, (b) touching hands lightly, (c) touching forearm or elbow, and (d) withdrawing
physical contact altogether. Fading ensures that the child does not become overly dependent on
a particular prompt when learning a new skill (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

One of the first decisions that should be made when teaching a new behavior is how to fade the
prompt or prompts. A plan should be in place to fade the prompts in an orderly fashion.

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The following is an example of fading a visual prompt when teaching a student to write the
letter A.
ILLUSTRATION 1: FADING VISUAL PROMPT

The sequence on page four shows one method of fading a gestural prompt. The target is to
teach a student to recognize a picture of a fire truck. The arrow represents a gesture toward the
object.

STEPS
The steps of fading include:

1. Identify the behavior to be taught and level of prompts needed for the student to
complete the task.
2. Identify the process that will be used to fade the prompt or prompts.
3. Identify criteria that will indicate that the prompt or prompts can be faded (i.e., 80%
accuracy over three days).
4. Put process into effect.
5. Take data.
6. Fade prompts as planned.

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BRIEF EXAMPLE
Mr. Taon wanted to teach 6-year-old Warna with classic autism to get ready to leave the
classroom when the bell rang. He decided to use prompts and to fade them as Warna became
independent. At first, Mr. Taon pointed to a visual of a bell and a door when the bell rang while
gently prompting Warna to get up and move toward the door. This prompt involved Mr. Taon
placing a hand under each of Warna’s elbows. He would keep one hand on her elbow to guide
her to the door while holding the visual.

Over the course of three weeks, he faded his prompt to (a) a light touch on one elbow while
handing her the visual, (b) a light touch on her hand and a point to the visual, (c) a point toward
a visual, and (d) finally he removed himself from Warna’s desk area.

SUMMARY
Fading is the procedure of transferring stimuli as prompts to the natural stimulus. The goal is for
students to produce correct responses and minimize errors when only the natural stimulus is pro
vided.

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ILLUSTRATION 2: FADING GESTURAL PROMPT

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RESEARCH TABLE
Number
Ages Sample
of Area(s) Addressed Outcome
(year) Size
Studies
Aggressive behavior, problem behavior, liquid and
food refusal behavior, self-management, sight-word
21 2-15 74 reading skills, word identification, discrimination +
learning, conversational exchanges engagement,
disruptive behavior, sleep problems, promoting school
attendance

STUDIES CITED IN RESEARCH TABLE

1. Banda, D. R., McAfee, J. K., & Hart, S. L. (2012). Decreasing self-injurious behavior and
fading self-restraint in a student with autism and Tourette syndrome. Behavioral
Interventions.
This clinical case study was conducted with a student diagnosed with autism and
Tourette syndrome who displayed severe self-injurious behavior (SIB). Behavioral
assessments and observations suggested that the student demonstrated less SIB during
a self-restraint, where he wrapped his hands tightly in a large blanket. The study used an
ABAB design with fading to reduce the size of the blanket to keep rates of SIB low. In
addition, they also used a fixed interval reinforcement schedule and extinction during the
intervention/restraint phases. Results indicated that the student maintained near-zero
rates of SIB for 6 months after use of the blanket was eliminated.

2. Knox, M., Rue, H. C., Wildenger, L., Lamb, K., & Luiselli, J. K. (2012). Intervention for
food selectivity in a specialized school setting: Teacher implemented prompting,
reinforcement, and demand fading for an adolescent student with autism. Education and
Treatment of Children, 35(3), 407-418.
This study evaluated teacher implemented procedures at a specialized school. The
participant was an adolescent girl who had autism, chronic food selectivity, and
disruptive mealtime behavior. Before intervention, she ate a restrictive diet comprised
primarily of "crunchy" foods. During intervention, teachers applied paced-prompting,
differential positive reinforcement, and demand fading to gradually increase the quantity
of novel foods the girl consumed. Her improved consumption maintained seven-months
post-intervention. The study discusses elements of the intervention plan and a focus on
natural-setting feeding research.

3. Penrod, B., Gardella, L., & Fernand, J. (2012). An evaluation of a progressive high-
probability instructional sequence combined with low-probability demand fading in the
treatment of food selectivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(3), 527-537.
The present study extended previous research on the high-probability instructional
sequence by combining this procedure with low-probability demand fading with two boys
with autism (9 and 10-years-old) who had a history of food selectivity and engaged in
active food refusal behaviors when presented with novel foods. Response requirements
were faded gradually from responses the child would tolerate (e.g., touching the food) to

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the final requirement of chewing and swallowing the food. The antecedent-based
intervention was implemented in the absence of escape extinction and was effective in
increasing food consumption for both participants.

4. Pollard, J. S., Betz, A. M., & Higbee, T. S. (2012). Script fading to promote unscripted
bids for joint attention in children with autism. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 45(2),
387.
This study used a script-fading procedure to teach three children with autism to initiate
bids for joint attention. The study examined the effects of (a) scripts, (b) varied adult
scripted responses, and (c) multiple-exemplar script training on promoting unscripted
language during bids for joint attention. All three participants learned to initiate bids for
joint attention, and the response generalized to untrained stimuli, conversation partners,
and the classroom environment.

5. Thomas, B.R., Lafasakis, M., Sturmey, P. (2010). The effects of prompting, fading, and
differential reinforcement on vocal mands in non-verbal preschool children with autism
spectrum disorders. Behavioral Interventions, 25, 157-168.
This study reported the successful use of a behavioral intervention package involving
prompting, fading of prompts, and differential reinforcement to teach requesting
behaviors to three 3-year old children with ASD. In a multiple-baseline-across-
participants design, the authors found that requests were learned following the
introduction of teaching and generalized to situations outside the teaching environment.

6. Birkan, B., McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J. (2007). Effects of superimposition and
background fading on the sight-word reading of a boy with autism. Research in Autism
Spectrum Disorders, 1, 117-125.
The study assessed the effects of stimulus super-imposition and background fading on
the sight-word reading skills of a 6-year-old boy with autism. Results showed that after
all steps had been faded, the student correctly read almost all of the 15 target words and
these skills maintained on a 44-day follow-up probe. In addition, generalization of skills
was demonstrated.

7. Hetzroni, O. E., & Shalem, U. (2005). From logos to orthographic symbols: A multilevel
fading computer program for teaching nonverbal children with autism. Focus on Autism
and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 201-212.
The study investigated the use of a computer-based intervention for teaching
orthographic symbols to children with AU. Six children with autism aged 10 to 13 were
taught to identify words from commercial logos depicting food items through a structured
seven-step fading procedure. Results indicated that after exposure to the fading
procedure, all children were able to identify the orthographic symbols and maintain the
knowledge over time. Most of the children were able to transfer their knowledge and
generalize to daily activities within the classroom.

8. Luiselli, J. K., Ricciardi, J. N., & Gilligan, J. (2005). Liquid fading to establish milk
consumption by a child with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 20, 155-163.
In this study, a 4-year-old girl with autism and food selectivity was taught to drink milk
through a liquid fading procedure. The feeding protocol consisted of gradually increasing
the concentration of milk in a beverage she consumed 100% of the time. Results
showed that milk consumption was achieved rapidly without interruption to the fading
sequence.

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9. Pelios, L. V., MacDuff, G. S., & Axelrod, S. (2003). The effects of a treatment package in
establishing independent academic work skills in children with autism. Education &
Treatment of Children, 26, 1-21.
The study evaluated the effectiveness of a treatment package in producing independent
work by three children with autism aged 5 to 9 with minimal supervision by an adult. The
package included (a) delayed reinforcement for on-task and on-schedule responding, (b)
fading of instructional prompts and of the instructor’s presence, (c) unpredictable
supervision, and (d) response cost for off-task responding. Results indicated increased
levels of on-task and on-schedule responding during treatment for all three children with
a supervising adult only occasionally present. Two children required minimal adult
supervision in maintenance. Behaviors of all three children were also generalized.

10. Ringdahl, J. E., Kitsukawa, K., Andelman, M. S., Call, N., Winborn, L., Barretto, A., &
Reed, G. K. (2002). Differential reinforcement with and without instructional fading.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 291-294.
An 8-year-old girl was evaluated using a differential-reinforcement-based treatment
package designed to reduce problem behavior during instructional situations. Results
indicated that differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with instructional fading
resulted in less problem behavior than without instructional fading.

11. Barry, L. M., & Singer, G.H.S. (2001). A family in crisis: Replacing the aggressive
behavior of a child with autism toward an infant sibling. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 3, 28-38.
The study evaluated the use of clinician-implemented skill training of replacement
behavior and clinician fading with self-management of replacement behavior as a means
of managing the aggressive behavior of a 10-year-old child with AU toward his sibling.
The results showed a decrease in the occurrence of aggressive behavior, an increase in
the percentage of intervals in which replacement behaviors occurred, and an increase in
the duration of sibling interactions.

12. Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to
engage in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 81-84.
This study investigated the effects of a script-fading procedure using embedded text to
teach two 8-year-old children with autism to engage in conversation statements about
the stimuli. The results indicated that the use of scripts along with stimuli containing
embedded text was effective in teaching children with autism to engage in conversation
statements about the stimuli. Further, both participants’ scripted statements generalized
to novel stimuli and the participation of a novel peer in the snack or video game
sessions.

13. Schreck, K. A. (2001). Behavioral treatments for sleep problems in autism: Empirically
supported or just universally accepted? Behavioral Interventions, 16, 265-278.
The study investigated the effectiveness of ABA for treating sleep problems in children
with autism by conducting a computer search of all relevant literature. Six articles were
found, collectively comprising 27 children with autism aged 2-12. The articles revealed
four basic themes of behavioral techniques for treating sleep disorders among children
with autism: bedtime routines, extinction, stimulus fading, and faded bedtimes. Results
showed that of the ABA methods, only extinction provided sufficient evidence for a
possibly efficacious intervention for sleep problems in children with autism.

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14. Luiselli, J. K. (2000). Case demonstration of a fading procedure to promote school

attendance of a child with Asperger’s disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,
2, 47-52.
This study provided a nonexperimental case demonstration of an intervention plan
developed to promote the school attendance of a 5-year-old girl with Asperger
Syndrome. The intervention began with the girl’s mother being present continuously in
the classroom. The mother was then scheduled to be out of the classroom for
progressively longer durations of time introduced along a “fading” sequence. Positive
outcomes were documented and maintained during a post-intervention period.

15. Freeman, K. A., & Piazza, C. C. (1998). Combining stimulus fading, reinforcement, and
extinction to treat food refusal. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 691-694.
The study combined fading, reinforcement, and escape extinction using guided
compliance to increase food consumption while maintaining low rates of disruptive
behavior at mealtime for a 6-year-old girl with autism. Results indicated that intake
increased and compliance with prompting procedures remained relatively stable despite
the requirement that food consumption increase.

16. Hagopian, L., Farrell, D. A., & Amari, A. (1996). Treating total liquid refusal with
backward chaining and fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 573-575.
The study reported on a 12-year-old boy with autism, mental retardation, and a history of
severe gastrointestinal problems who presented with total liquid and food refusal.
Backward chaining was used to shape drinking from a cup, and a fading procedure was
used to increase the quantity of water he was required to drink. The study illustrated how
a chain of responses that is totally absent can be shaped by first targeting a simple
preexisting response in the chain.

17. Piazza, C. C., Moes, D. R., & Fisher, W. W. (1996). Differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior and demand fading in the treatment of escape-maintained
destructive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 569-572.
The study showed how the escape-maintained destructive behavior of an 11-year-old
boy with autism was reduced during instructional sequences with differential
reinforcement of compliance, escape extinction without physical guidance, and demand
fading. The procedure decreased destructive behaviors to near-zero levels and greatly
increased compliance.

18. MacArthur, J., Ballard, K. D., & Artinian, M. (1985). Teaching independent eating to a
developmentally handicapped child showing chronic food refusal and disruption at
mealtimes. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 12, 203-210.
The study describes an intervention to establish independent eating behaviors in a 3-
year-old boy with autistic-like behaviors. The first phase of the intervention, using
backward chaining with prompting and fading of prompts, reduced screaming, food
refusal, and related disruptive mealtime behaviors and established appropriate eating
responses. The second phase of the intervention successfully taught the mother to
implement the teaching strategies and established independent mealtime behaviors at
home. In addition, follow-up showed maintenance of independent eating.

19. Schreibman, L., & Charlop, M. H. (1981). S+ versus S- fading in prompting procedures
with autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 31, 508-520.
The study investigated the relative effectiveness of two prompt-fading procedures for
teaching difficult visual discriminations to eight children with autism. Both prompt

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procedures involved within-stimulus fading where manipulation occurred on the relevant

component of the discrimination. One procedure presented fading first along the positive
stimulus (S+), while holding the negative stimulus (S-) constant. The other procedure
involved fading first along the S-, while holding the S+ constant. Results indicated that
for all but one child, the discriminations were acquired significantly faster with fewer
errors when the positive stimulus was faded first.

20. Luiselli, J. K., & Donellon, S. (1980). Use of a visual stimulus fading procedure to teach
color naming to an autistic child. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental
Psychiatry, 11, 73-76.
The study investigated the use of a visual stimulus fading procedure to teach color
naming to an 8-year-old boy with autism. The participant was taught to sight read the
name of each of five colors that were superimposed over a card of the respective color.
In a series of graduated steps, the color word was faded out until independent naming
was achieved. During posttest assessments, correct responding was maintained and
generalization of color naming was observed.

21. Rincover, A. (1978). Variables affecting stimulus fading and discriminative responding in
psychotic children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 541-553.
Two experiments were documented in this study. The first investigated stimulus variables
in prompt fading that might reduce the attentional requirements for discrimination
learning of eight children with autism aged 7 to 15 years. Two variables, distinctive vs.
nondistinctive feature fading, were assessed, and significant main effects were found for
both variables. The second experiment was conducted with the same children to assess
whether they were still responding only to the pretrained feature after fading.
Discriminative responding was maintained when the pretrained feature was made
irrelevant, showing that the children attended to multiple features of a positive stimulus,
but it was disrupted when the whole letter containing the pretrained feature was made
irrelevant, showing that children still learned a restricted portion of the positive
reinforcement.

REFERENCES
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2006). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (7th ed.). Upper S
addle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Banda, D. R., McAfee, J. K., & Hart, S. L. (2012). Decreasing self-injurious behavior and fading
self-restraint in a student with autism and Tourette syndrome. Behavioral Interventions.

Barry, L. M., & Singer, G. H. S. (2001). A family in crisis: Replacing the aggressive behavior of a
child with autism toward an infant sibling. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3,
28-38.

Birkan, B., McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J. (2007). Effects of superimposition and
background fading on the sight-word reading of a boy with autism. Research in Autism
Spectrum Disorders, 1, 117-125.

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper S
addle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Freeman, K. A., & Piazza, C. C. (1998). Combining stimulus fading, reinforcement, and
extinction to treat food refusal. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 691-694.

Hagopian, L., Farrell, D. A., & Amari, A. (1996). Treating total liquid refusal with backward
chaining and fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 573-575.

Hetzroni, O. E., & Shalem, U. (2005). From logos to orthographic symbols: A multilevel fading
computer program for teaching nonverbal children with autism. Focus on Autism and
Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 201-212.

Knox, M., Rue, H. C., Wildenger, L., Lamb, K., & Luiselli, J. K. (2012). Intervention for Food
Selectivity in a Specialized School Setting: Teacher Implemented Prompting,
Reinforcement, and Demand Fading for an Adolescent Student with Autism. Education
and Treatment of Children, 35(3), 407-418.

Luiselli, J. K. (2000). Case demonstration of a fading procedure to promote school attendance

of a child with Asperger’s disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 47-52.

Luiselli, J. K., & Donellon, S. (1980). Use of a visual stimulus fading procedure to teach color
naming to an autistic child. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 11,
73-76.

Luiselli, J. K., Ricciardi, J. N., & Gilligan, J. (2005). Liquid fading to establish milk consumption
by a child with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 20, 155-163.

MacArthur, J., Ballard, K. D., & Artinian, M. (1985). Teaching independent eating to a
developmentally handicapped child showing chronic food refusal and disruption at
mealtimes. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 12, 203-210.

Pelios, L. V., MacDuff, G. S., & Axelrod, S. (2003). The effects of a treatment package in
establishing independent academic work skills in children with autism. Education &
Treatment of Children, 26, 1-21.

Penrod, B., Gardella, L., & Fernand, J. (2012). An evaluation of a progressive high-probability
instructional sequence combined with low-probability demand fading in the treatment of
food selectivity. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(3), 527-537.

Piazza, C. C., Moes, D. R., & Fisher, W. W. (1996). Differential reinforcement of alternative
behavior and demand fading in the treatment of escape-maintained destructive behavior.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 569-572.

Pollard, J. S., Betz, A. M., & Higbee, T. S. (2012). Script fading to promote unscripted bids for
joint attention in children with autism. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 45(2), 387.

Rincover, A. (1978). Variables affecting stimulus fading and discriminative responding in

psychotic children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 541-553.

Ringdahl, D. E., Kitsukawa, K., Andelman, M. S., Call, N., Winborn, L., Barretto, A., & Reed, G.
K. (2002). Differential reinforcement with and without instructional fading. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 291-294.

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Sarokoff, R. A., Taylor, B. A., & Poulson, C. L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to engage
in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 81-84.

Schreck, K. A. (2001). Behavioral treatments for sleep problems in autism: Empirically

supported or just universally accepted? Behavioral Interventions, 16, 265-278.

Schreibman, L., & Charlop, M. H. (1981). S+ versus S- fading in prompting procedures with
autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 31, 508-520.

Thomas, B.R., Lafasakis, M., Sturmey, P. (2010). The effects of prompting, fading, and
differential reinforcement on vocal mands in non-verbal preschool children with autism
spectrum disorders. Behavioral Interventions, 25, 157-168.

RESOURCES AND MATERIALS

 Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
This book discusses fading procedures as well as other ABA strategies.

GENERAL RESOURCES
 Autism Internet Modules (AIM) www.autisminternetmodules.org. The Autism Internet
Modules were developed with one aim in mind: to make comprehensive, up-to-date, and
usable information on autism accessible and applicable to educators, other
professionals, and families who support individuals with autism spectrum disorders
(ASD). Written by experts from across the U.S., all online modules are free, and are
designed to promote understanding of, respect for, and equality of persons with ASD.

 Evidence-Based Practice Briefs

http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/briefs

 Indiana Resource Center for Autism (IRCA) http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/index.php?

pageId=32/. The Indiana Resource Center for Autism staff’s efforts are focused on
providing communities, organizations, agencies, and families with the knowledge and
skills to support children and adults in typical early intervention, school, community,
work, and home settings.
 IRCA Articles: http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/index.php?pageId=273

 Texas Statewide Leadership for Autism www.txautism.net. The Texas Statewide

Leadership for Autism in conjunction with the network of Texas Education Service center
with a grant from the Texas Education Agency has developed a series of free online
courses in autism. Please check the training page, http://www.txautism.net/trainings, for
updated lists of courses, course numbers, and registration information.
 Current courses include the following:

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 Asperger Syndrome 101

 Augmentative and Alternative Communication and the Autism Spectrum
 Autism for the General Education Teacher
 Autism 101: Top Ten Pieces to the Puzzle
 Classroom Organization: The Power of Structure for Individuals with ASD
 Communication: The Power of Communication for Individuals with ASD
 Futures Planning for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
 Navigating the Social Maze: Supports and Interventions for Individuals with ASD
 Solving the Behavior Puzzle: Making Connections for Individuals with ASD
 Strategies for Working with Students with Autism in the General Education Setting:
 Strategy 1: Understanding Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders.
 Strategy 2: Get to Know the Individual Student.
 Strategy 3: Create Predictability.
 Strategy 4: Develop Clear Expectations, Part 1 -- Social and Behavioral.
 Strategy 5: Develop Clear Expectations, Part 2 --Academic.
 Strategy 6: Create a Positive Learning Community.
 Strategy 7: Promote Positive Peer Interaction.
 Strategy 8: Use Instructional Strategies That Promote Successful Learning.
 Strategy 9: Use Behavioral Strategies That Promote Success Learning.
 Strategy 10: Develop a Plan to Address Challenging Behavior.
 Strategy 11: Borrow from the Special Educator's Toolbox.
 Strategy 12: Respect Each Student's Dignity and Need for Autonomy
 School-Based Applied Behavior Analysis Programs for Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorders:
 Course 1: Introduction to Autism Spectrum Disorders, Evidence-Based Practices,
and the Basics of Applied Behavior Analysis (45 minutes)
 Course 2: Reinforcement and Extinction (1.5 hours)
 Course 3: Challenging Behavior Assessment and Treatment (1 hour)
 Course 4: Communication and Social Skills Training (1 hour)
 Course 5: Instructional Strategies (4 hours)
 Course 6: Classroom and Environmental Arrangement (1.5 hours)

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