Systems in

Mechanical
Engineering 202041
Mr. K. B. Bansode
 Course Objectives:

1. To identify the sources of energy and their conversions

2. To explain the basic concept of engineering thermodynamics and
its application
3. To understanding the specifications of vehicles
4. To get acquainted with vehicle systems
5. To introduce manufacturing processes applying proper method to
produce components
6. To be able to select and compare domestic appliances

2
 Course Outcomes

On completion of the course, learner will be able to

CO1: Describe and compare the conversion of energy from renewable and non-renewable
energy sources
CO2: Explain basic laws of thermodynamics, heat transfer and their applications
CO3: List down the types of road vehicles and their specifications
CO4: Illustrate various basic parts and transmission system of a road vehicle
CO5: Discuss several manufacturing processes and identify the suitable process
CO6: Explain various types of mechanism and its application

3
 Unit II Introduction to Thermal
Engineering
Laws of thermodynamics, heat engine, heat pump, refrigerator (simple
numerical)
Modes of heat transfer Conduction, convection , Radiation, Fourier’s law,
Newton’s law of cooling , Stefan Boltzmans law (simple Numerical)
Two stroke and Four stroke engines (Petrol, Diesel and CNG engines). Steam
generators.

4
 Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.
 The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat)
and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to
convert heat into power.
 One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of
energy principle. It simply states that during an interaction, energy can
change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains
constant.

 A rock falling off a cliff, for example,

picks up speed as a result of its
potential energy being converted to
kinetic energy

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 Classical Statistical
Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
(Macroscopic (Microscopic
approach) approach)

Thermodynamics

6
 Classical Thermodynamics & Statistical
Thermodynamics

 Macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not

require a knowledge of the behaviour of individual particles is
called Classical Thermodynamics(Macroscopic approach). It
provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems. Eg. Pressure, Temperature...Etc

 The matter is composed of molecules and the analysis is carried out

by considering the position, velocity and energy of each molecules,
is called Statistical Thermodynamics(Microscopic approach).
The effect of molecular motion is considered

7
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics

 The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body,
various energy conversions occur in trillions of body cells, and the
body heat generated is constantly rejected to the environment. The
human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this metabolic heat
rejection. We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our
clothing to the environmental conditions
 Some other applications are
 The heating and air-conditioning systems,
 The refrigerator
 The humidifier
 The pressure cooker
 The water heater
 Automotive engines, rockets,jet engines
 Power plants, solar collectors
8
Some application areas of thermodynamics

9
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

10
 SYSTEMS

 A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen

for study.

 The mass or region outside the system is called the Surroundings. The
real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the Boundary. The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared
by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the
boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass
nor occupy any volume in space.

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Types of systems

Open

System

Closed Isolated

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Open System(Control Volume)

 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume
 Eg. compressor, turbine, nozzle

13
Closed System

 Fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary

 Energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the
volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed

14
Isolated system

 There is no interaction between system and the surroundings. It is

of fixed mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and energy
transfer across the system boundary
 Eg. Universe

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State of a System

 Condition of physical existence of a system at any instant

 State of a thermodynamic system is described by specifying its
thermodynamic co-ordinates or thermodynamic properties
 At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values

16
Properties of a System

 Any characteristic of a
system is called a
property. Some familiar
properties are Pressure P,
Temperature T, Volume V,
and Mass m.

 Quantities which identify

the state of a system.
Property must have a
definite value when the
system is at a particular
state.

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INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE

PROPERTY
 Intensive properties are those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density

 Extensive properties are those

whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system. Total
mass, total volume, and total
momentum are some examples of
extensive properties

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 Equilibrium

 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium

implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system
in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
 A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium , if it satisfies the
following requirements of equilibrium

 Mechanical equilibrium
 Thermal equilibrium
 Chemical equilibrium
 Phase equilibrium

20
• There is no • Temperature is
unbalanced force same throughout
acting on the the entire
system system

MECHANICAL THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM

PHASE CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM

• Mass of each • Chemical

phase reaches an Composition
equilibrium level does not change
with time, that
is, no chemical
reactions occur
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PROCESS

 Any change that a system

undergoes from one
equilibrium state to
another is called a
process
 Transformation from one
state to another

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23
 In reversible process, two states  Irreversible process is usually
can be shown by a continuous represented by a dotted line
line joining the end states
 Reversible process is an ideal  In a real process, the
process intermediate state points
cannot be located

24
 Friction

Heat transfer
across a finite Chemical
temperature reactions
difference

Mixing of two Factors for Viscosity

fluids Irreversibility

Inelastic
Unrestrained
expansion deformation
of solids

Electric
resistance

25
 PATH

 The series of states through which a system passes during a process is

called the path of the process

 To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final
states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions
with the surroundings
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 Path and Point Functions

 Path Functions
 If the value of the thermodynamic variable depends upon the path
followed in going from one state to another
 Path functions are not properties of the system
 Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol ‘δ’
 Eg. Work(W), Heat(Q)

 ; Not (W2 – W1) ; Not dW

 ; Not (Q2 – Q1) ; Not dQ

27
 POINT FUNCTIONS

 Properties does not depend on the path followed in reaching the state,
but only on the equilibrium state itself

 Point functions are properties of the system

 Point functions have exact differentials designated by the symbol ‘d’

 Eg. Pressure, Volume, Temperature, Density, Enthalpy, Entropy

28
CYCLE

 When a system in a given initial state experiences a series of processes

and returns to the initial state, the system undergoes a cycle. At the end
of the cycle the properties of the system have the same values they had
at the beginning.

 Thermodynamic path in a cycle is in closed loop form

 Cyclic integral of any property in a cycle is zero

 ∮dp =0 ; ‘p’ is any thermodynamic property

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 Temperature and The Zeroth
Law of Thermodynamics

 Degree of hotness or coldness of a

body or environment

 The equality of temperature is the

only requirement for thermal
equilibrium

 Driving potential causing the flow of

energy as heat

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31
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

 The zeroth law was first formulated and labelled by R. H. Fowler in1931
 If two systems (say A and B) are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system (say C) separately (that is A and C are in thermal equilibrium; B
and C are in thermal equilibrium) then they are in thermal equilibrium
themselves (that is A and B will be in thermal equilibrium)

 All temperature measurements are based on this LAW

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33
Temperature Scales

 Temperature scales enable us to use a

common basis for temperature
measurements

 Celsius scale (A. Celsius, 1702–

1744); 00C - 1000C

 Fahrenheit scale (G. Fahrenheit,

1686–1736) ; 320F – 2120F;
T(0F) = 1.8 T(0C) + 32

 Kelvin scale (Lord Kelvin,1824–

1907); 273.15K - 373.15K ;
T(K) = T(0C) + 273.15

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Pressure

 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

 1Pa = 1N/m2 ; 1 bar = 105 N/m2 ; 1atm = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2
 Pgage = Pabs – Patm ; Pgage - gauge pressure, Pabs - absolute pressure
 Pvac = Patm – Pabs ; Patm - atmospheric pressure, Pvac - vacuum pressure

35
36
37
Boyle’s Law

 Formulated by Robert Boyle in 1662

 It states that absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas
varies inversely as its volume, when the temperature remains
constant

 V α 1/P, T = constant
 PV = constant, T = constant
 P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = PV = constant, T = constant

38
Charle’s Law

 Formulated by A.C Charles in 1787

 It states that, the volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies
directly as its absolute temperature, if the pressure remains constant
 V α T, P = constant
 V/T = constant, P = constant
 V1/T1 = V2/T2 = V3/T3 = V/T = constant, P = constant

39
Gay Lussac’s Law

 Formulated by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac(1778–1850)

 It states that, the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas
varies directly as its absolute temperature, if the volume remains
constant
 P α T, V = constant
 P/T = constant, V = constant
 P1/T1 = P2/T2 = P3/T3 = P/T = constant, V = constant

40
41
 Characteristic Gas Equation
 Combining the 3 gas laws obtain a relationship between Pressure,
Volume & Temperature
 A perfect or ideal gas is the gas which strictly obeys all the gas laws
under all conditions of pressure and temperature. Also, a theoretical
gas composed of a set of randomly moving non- interacting point
particles

 PV/T = constant
 P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 = P3V3/T3 = PV/T = constant
 PV = mRT (Characteristic gas equation )
; m-mass, R-characteristic gas constant
For air R = 287 J/KgK
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 Universal Gas Constant

 Product of molecular weight and characteristic gas constant of any

gas is constant
 Ru = R x M
 Ru = 8314 J/Kg mol K

Substance Atomic mass Molecular mass

Hydrogen 1 2
Oxygen 16 32
Carbon 12 -
Steam or water - 18

43
 Real Gas And Real Gas Equations

 Real gas behaves more like an ideal gas when it is under high
temperature and low pressure
 The deviation from ideal-gas behavior at certain ranges of temperature
and pressure can accurately be accounted for by the introduction of a
correction factor called the compressibility factor, Z
 Z = PV/mRT

 Mathematical equations of state for analyzing the real gas behavior are
 Van der-Waals Equation
 Berthelot Equation
 Dieterici Equation
 Redlich-Kwong Equation
 Beattie-Bridgeman Equation
 Martin-Hou Equation
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 Van der-Waals Equation

 Improving the ideal-gas equation of state by including two of the

effects not considered in the ideal-gas model; the intermolecular
attraction forces and the volume occupied by the molecules
themselves

 (P + a/v2)(v-b) = RT ; v-specific volume, a- mutual attraction of

molecules, a/v2- accounts for cohesion forces, b- accounts for the
volume of molecules

 Real gas conform more closely with the van der Waals equation of
state than the ideal gas equation of state, particularly at higher
pressures

45
 HEAT

 Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between

two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference
 The transfer of heat into a system is frequently referred to as heat
addition and the transfer of heat out of a system as heat rejection
 Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: Conduction, Convection,
and Radiation
 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process

46
 WORK

 Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its

surroundings

 Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect external to the
system could be reduced to the rise of a weight

 Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a

distance. A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing
the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
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 2
 For a closed system, Work, δW or W1-2= ∫1 PdV, area under the
curve 1-2

 Unit , N-m or Joules(J)

48
Sign Conventions

 Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive;

heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative

49
 Similarities Between Heat and Work

 Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the

boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena

 Systems possess energy, but not heat or work

 Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties,

heat or work has no meaning at a state

 Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states)

 Heat is low grade energy and work is high grade energy

50
SPECIFIC HEATS

 The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree
 The specific heat at constant volume, Cv can be viewed as the energy
required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
one degree as the volume is maintained constant
 The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp can be viewed as the energy
required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
one degree as the pressure is maintained constant

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 Heat Capacity, C = Q/dT

 Specific heat capacity, c = Q/(mdT), J/Kg K

 cp = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]

 cv = Q/ [m(T2-T1)]

 cp/ cv = γ ; γ- ratio of specific heats

 For air, cp= 1.005 KJ/Kg K, cv= 0.718 KJ/Kg K, γ= 1.4

 The specific heat at constant pressure Cp is always greater than Cv

because at constant pressure the system is allowed to expand and the
energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system

52
 Material J/kgC cal/gC

Water 4186 1
Ice 2090 0.50
Steam 2010 0.48
Silver 234 0.056
Aluminum 900 0.215
Copper 387 0.0924
Gold 129 0.0308
Iron 448 0.107
Lead 128 0.0305
Brass 380 0.092
Glass 837 0.200
Wood 1700 0.41
Ethyl Alcohol 2400 0.58
Beryllium 1830 0.436
53
 Work

First Law of
Thermodynamics

Internal
Heat
Energy

54
 The First Law of Thermodynamics

 The first law of thermodynamics, also known

as the conservation of energy principle,
provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various forms of
energy and energy interactions

 First law states that, When a closed system

executes a complete cycle the sum of heat
interactions is equal to the sum of work
interactions

 ∑Q = ∑W ; Qnet = Wnet ; ∮δQ = ∮δW

55
Net heat transfer = Net work transfer

∑Q = ∑W ; Q1 – Q2 = W2 – W1

56
First Law Applied to a Process

57
 Since A and B are arbitrarily chosen, the conclusion is, as far as a
process is concerned (A or B) the difference (δQ – δW) remains a
constant as long as the initial and the final states are the same.
The difference depends only on the end points of the process. Note
that Q and W themselves depend on the path followed. But their
difference does not.

 This implies that the difference between the heat and work
interactions during a process is a property of the system

 This property is called the total energy of the system. It is

designated as E and is equal to some of all the energies at a given
state

 δQ – δW = dE ; E- total energy of a system

58
Forms of Energy

 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,

kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their
sum constitutes the total energy E of a system
 Total energy, E = Macroscopic Energy + Microscopic Energy
 Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of
the total energy. It deals only with the change of the total energy

59
 The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic
and potential energies
 The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and
they are independent of outside reference frames. The sum of all the
microscopic forms of energy is called the Internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U

 Energy change = Energy at final state - Energy at initial state

60
Hence,δQ – δW = dU/∆U

61
 Nuclear
energy

Vibrational
kinetic Translational
energy energy

Internal
energy(U)
Rotational
latent energy kinetic
energy

Chemical
Spin energy
energy

62
 δQ – δW = dU or Q1-2 = W1-2 + dU

 For a constant volume process from 1 to 2, W1-2= 0

 Q1-2 = dU ; Q1-2 = mcv(T2-T1)
 So, dU = mcv(T2-T1)

 Change of internal energy is directly proportional to change of

temperature. For an ideal gas the internal energy is a function of the
temperature only

 Internal energy is a point function. Increase of internal energy of the

gas is considered as positive and decrease of internal energy of the
gas is considered as negative

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64
 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer

 Energy can be transferred to or

from a system in three forms:
heat, work and mass flow

 Heat Transfer, (Q) Heat transfer

to a system (heat gain) increases
the energy of the molecules and
thus the internal energy of the
system, and heat transfer from a
system (heat loss) decreases it
since the energy transferred out
as heat comes from the energy of
the molecules of the system

65
 Work Transfer, (W) An energy interaction that is not caused by a
temperature difference between a system and its surroundings is work.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electrical wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions. Work
transfer to a system (i.e., work done on a system) increases the energy
of the system, and work transfer from a system (i.e., work done by the
system) decreases it since the energy transferred out as work comes
from the energy contained in the system.

 Mass Flow, (m) Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an
additional mechanism of energy transfer. When mass enters a system,
the energy of the system increases because mass carries energy with it
(in fact, mass is energy). Likewise, when some mass leaves the
system, the energy contained within the system decreases because the
leaving mass takes out some energy with it.

66
Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind (PMM-1)

 Violates first law of thermodynamics

 Produce work without consuming an equivalent amount of heat

energy

 Device continuously emitting heat without consuming any work

67
 ENTHALPY
 Measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system
 Sum of the internal energy and pressure volume product
 H = U + PV
 Enthalpy is also a property of the system

 dH = dU + PdV + VdP ; δQ = dU + PdV

 Also, dH = δQ + VdP
 For a constant pressure process, dP = 0
 dH = δQ = Q1-2 = mcp(T2-T1)

 The enthalpy of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature

68
 Ratio of Specific Heats

 cp/ cv = γ

 H = U + PV ; PV = mRT
 H = U + mRT

 dH = dU + mRdT
 dH/dT = dU/dT + mR
 m cp = m cv + mR

 cp – cv = R

 cp = γR/(γ-1) ; cv = R/(γ-1)

69
 Refrigerators

Heat engines Heat pumps

Second Law of
Thermodynamics
 Introduction to the Second Law of
Thermodynamics

 A process cannot occur

unless it satisfies both the
first and the second laws of
thermodynamics

 The second law also asserts

that energy has quality as
well as quantity

71
72
 Thermal Reservoirs

 In the development of the second law

of thermodynamics, it is very
convenient to have a hypothetical body
with a relatively large thermal energy
capacity(mass x specific heat) that can
supply or absorb finite amounts of heat
without undergoing any change in
temperature. Such a body is called a
thermal energy reservoir, or just a
reservoir. Eg. Atmosphere,
furnace…etc

 A reservoir that supplies energy in the

form of heat is called a source, and
one that absorbs energy in the form of
heat is called a sink
73
 Heat Engines

 They receive heat from a high-

temperature source
 They convert part of this heat to work
 They reject the remaining waste heat
to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
 They operate on a cycle.
 Heat engines and other cyclic devices
usually involve a fluid to and from
which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is
called the working fluid
 Eg. Internal combustion engine, gas
turbine

74
 Thermal Efficiency

 The fraction of the heat input that

is converted to net work output is
a measure of the performance of
a heat engine and is called the
thermal efficiency(ηth)

75
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

1.Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that
operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produce
a net amount of work

 That is, a heat engine must exchange

heat with a low-temperature sink as
well as a high-temperature source to
keep operating. The Kelvin–Planck
statement can also be expressed as
no heat engine can have a thermal
efficiency of 100 percent

76
Violation of Kelvin - Planck statement

77
 Refrigerators

 The transfer of heat from a low-

temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators

 The objective of a refrigerator is

to maintain the refrigerated space
at a low temperature by
removing heat from it

 Refrigerators, like heat engines,

are cyclic devices. The working
fluid used in the refrigeration
cycle is called a refrigerant
78
 Heat Pumps

 Another device that transfers heat

from a low-temperature medium to
a high-temperature one is the heat
pump

 The objective of a heat pump,

however, is to maintain a heated
space at a high temperature. This is
accomplished by absorbing heat
from a low-temperature source,
such as well water or cold outside
air in winter, and supplying this
heat to the high-temperature
medium such as a house

79
2.Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature body

 Both the Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements of the

second law are negative statements, and a negative statement
cannot be proved. Like any other physical law, the second law of
thermodynamics is based on experimental observations

80
Violation of Clausius statement

81
Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius
Statements

Violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement leads to the violation of

the Clausius statement

82
Violation of the Clausius statement leads to the violation of the
Kelvin–Planck statement

83
Perpetual-Motion Machine of The Second Kind
(PMM2)

 Device that violates the second law of thermodynamics

84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
SOURCES OF HEAT
94
Heat Transfer

Heat always flows from Heat flows from

30Cº child into air
high temperature
objects to low 37Cº
temperature objects.
Heat flow stops when
temperatures equal. -2Cº
Various ways by which
heat may flow. Heat flows from
child and air into
the ice cream

95
Modes of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

96
 Modes of Heat Transfer

 Conduction: Flow of heat energy by direct contact

& through free electrons e.g. heat flow through solids

 Convection: Transfer of heat energy by fluid flowing

over a surface e.g. heat transfer from engine surface
to surrounding atmospheric air

 Radiation: Flow of heat energy without any

intervening medium e.g. energy of sun reaching the
earth
97
 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
Rate of heat transfer by conduction (through a solid)
in a given direction is proportional to the area normal
to the direction of heat flow and the temp gradient
in that direction. Mathematically ;
T dT
Q A Watt OR Q   kA Watt ( J / s )
x dx
where Q = heat flow rate, Watt (J/s)
A = area normal to heat flow direction,m2
k = conductivity of material (property), W/mK
dT/dx = temp gradient in x direction
ΔT = temp difference across Δx
Δx = thickness of material in heat flow direction
98
Conduction
dT
Q   kA
dx
(T1  T2 )
Q  kA
( x1  x 2 )
(T1  T2 )
Q  kA
( x 2  x1 )
T
Q  kA
x

Heat Flux q=Q/A, W/m2 99

Assumptions of Fourier’s Law
1. Unidirectional heat flow
(only one direction)

2. Steady state heat flow

3. Constant temp gradient

4. Constant conductivity, k

5. Both faces isothermal

100
 Thermal Conductivities

Metals Substance Thermal

have Conductivity:
high k (W/mK)
thermal Copper 390
conductivity
Aluminum 240
Brass 110

Iron 75
101
 Thermal Conductivities
Substance Thermal
Conductivity:
Insulators have
low conductivity. k (W/mK)
Air is a good Glass 0.84
insulator, except
that large air Water 0.60
spaces allow
heat flow by Wood 0.10
convection
Air 0.023
102
 Variation of Thermal Conductivity
1. It is the property of material; defined as ability
of material to conduct heat through it.
2. Thermal conductivity in decreasing order :
Metals » Non-metallic Solids » Liquids » Gases
3. Higher conductivity in metals due to free
electrons in their outer orbits
4. k depends on grain structure. When k is different
in different directions (kx , ky , kz ), material is
known as anisotropic. When k is constant in all
directions, it is called Isotropic.
5. k is strongly dependent on temp; k=ko(1+αT) 103
 Isotropic & Anisotropic Materials
• Some materials exhibit same conductivity in all
directions. These are called ISOTROPIC materials
(kx = ky = kz = k)
• While some materials have different conductivity
in different directions(kx , ky , kz ), such materials
are known as anisotropic.

• Wood exhibits directional conductivity; different

along grains

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105
HEAT CONVECTION

106
 Heat Convection
When a fluid flows over a solid body or surface and
temp of the fluid and solid surface are different, heat
transfer between the solid surface and fluid takes
place due to motion of fluid relative to the surface.

If the fluid motion is artificially induced, then heat

transfer is said to be by FORCED convection.

If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects

resulting from density difference caused due to temp
difference in the fluid, heat transfer is said to be by
FREE or NATURAL convection 107
 Newton’s Law of Cooling
Rate of heat transfer by convection from a surface to
a fluid or vice versa , flowing along it is equal to the
product of temp difference between surface and the
free stream of the fluid, the area of the surface
normal to the direction of heat flow and a quantity
h called convective heat transfer coefficient.

Mathematically;
Q = hA(Ts - T∞); Watt
h is not a property of fluid or surface, but it depends
on properties of the fluid and vital dimensions of the
surface 108
Convection Ts > T∞
T∞

Fluid

A h
Ts
Q = hA(Ts - T∞); Watt
Q

109
HEAT RADIATION

110
 Heat Radiation
All bodies continuously emit energy if their temp is
above zero absolute (0K) and energy thus emitted
is called thermal radiation.
Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and
do not require any medium for propagation.

Thermal radiation is a surface phenomenon.

Theories of Thermal Radiation
1. Wave/Maxwell’s Classical Theory : Propagation by
electromagnetic waves
2. Quantum/ Planck’s Theory: Propagation by quanta
possessing certain amount of energy 111
 Stefan Boltzmann’s Law of Radiation
Thermal radiation emitted by a black body is
proportional to the Fourth Power of its absolute temp.

Mathematically;
q ∞ T4 W/m2;
Q = σAT4 W; where σ is Stefan Boltzmann’s
constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 )

Q =A1Є1σ (T14 –T24)

112
Numerical Problem
Q1: Air at 20°C blows over a 50cm x 75cm hot plate
at 250°C. The film heat transfer coefficient is
25 W/m2K. 300 W is lost from the plate surface by
radiation. Calculate heat transfer rate and other side
plate temp. Thermal conductivity of the plate
material is 43 W/mK. The plate is 2cm thick.
Qr=300W
Q=? Air at 20°C Qc=?

Q=Qc+Qr
2cm
Qc=hA(T1 – Ta) h=25
Q=kA(ΔT/Δx)
T1 =250°C
=kA(T2-T1)/(Δx) 50cm
k=43
T2 = ? 75cm
Q=2456W; T2=253°C Q 113
 Electrical Analogy
Electrical Heat Energy
Energy
What flows? Electrons Heat energy through
electrons
Driving Voltage Diff, ΔV Temp Diff, ΔT
Potential
Flow Current, I Heat Transfer Rate, Q
Resistance ρ, A, L of R, Thermal
to flow conductor Resistance

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 Carnot Cycle

Sadi Carnot 1796-1832

 Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle, first
proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. The theoretical
heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat
engine. The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—
two isothermal and two adiabatic

125
126
 Process 1-2, Isothermal expansion process
 Process 2-3, Isentropic expansion process
 Process 3-4, Isothermal compression
process
 Process 4-1, Isentropic compression
process

127
 Area under curve 1-2-3 is the work done by the gas during the
expansion part of the cycle, and the area under curve 3-4-1 is the work
done on the gas during the compression part of the cycle.
 The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1) is the
difference between these two and represents the net work done during
the cycle

 V3/V2 = V4/V1 or V3/V4 = V2/V1

 Heat Supplied, QH = P1V1loge(V2/V1)
 Heat Rejected, QL = P3V3loge(V3/V4)
 Work Done, Wnet = Qin – Qout

 Thermal efficiency, η = 1- (Qout/Qin)

= 1- (QL / QH)
= 1- (TL/TH)
= 1- (Low Temperature/High temperature)

128
 QL /TL = QH /TH or Q/T- Independent of path, called entropy
 Q/T = dS
 The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1)
represents the net work done during the cycle

129
 Carnot cycle is not a practical cycle

In order to achieve isothermal process, the piston has to move

very slowly, so that the temperature remains constant during heat
exchange. But, in order to achieve adiabatic process, the piston has to
move very fast, so that there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings. Since isothermal and adiabatic processes are to take
place simultaneously, the cycle is not practically possible

130
 Otto Cycle

 The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating(Petrol)

engines. It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-
stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by
Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862

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132
 Process 1-2, Isentropic compression
 Process 2-3, Constant volume heat addition
 Process 3-4, Isentropic expansion(Power Stroke)
 Process 4-1, Constant volume heat rejection

 Compression Ratio, r = V1/V2 ; also Expansion Ratio, r = V4/V3

 Heat Supplied, Qin = mcv(T3-T2)
 Heat Rejected, Qout = mcv(T4-T1)
 Work Done, Wnet = Qin – Qout
 Thermal Efficiency, η = 1- (Qout/Qin)
= 1 – [mcv(T4-T1)/ mcv(T3-T2)]
= 1- [1/r (γ-1)]

133
 Thermal efficiency is a function of the compression ratio ‘r’ and the
ratio of specific heats ‘γ’

 Efficiency will be more for gases having higher value of ‘γ’

 Compression ratio increases cause increase in thermal efficiency

134
 Diesel Cycle

 The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for Compression Ignition(CI)

reciprocating engines. The CI engine, first proposed by Rudolph
Diesel in the 1890s

135
 Process 1-2, Isentropic compression
 Process 2-3, Constant pressure heat addition
 Process 3-4, Isentropic expansion(Power Stroke)
 Process 4-1, Constant volume heat rejection

 Compression Ratio, r = V1/V2

 Expansion Ratio, r1 = V4/V3
 Cutoff Ratio, ρ = V3/V2
 r1 = r/ρ

 Heat Supplied, Qin = mcp(T3-T2)

 Heat Rejected, Qout = mcv(T4-T1)
 Work Done, Wnet = Qin – Qout

136
 Thermal Efficiency, η = 1- (Qout/Qin)
= 1 – [mcv(T4-T1)/ mcp(T3-T2)]

137
 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycle

1. On the basis of same Compression Ratio

138
 Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 shows Otto cycle
 Cycle 1-2-5-4-1 shows Diesel cycle

 For the Otto cycle heat supply(area under 2-3 in T-S diagram) is
greater than that for the Diesel cycle(area under 2-5 in T-S diagram)

 For the Otto cycle work done(area under 3-4 in P-V diagram) is
greater than that for the Diesel cycle(area under 5-4 in P-V diagram)

 Otto cycle will have a higher thermal efficiency for the same
Compression Ratio

139
2. On the basis of maximum Pressure and Temperature

140
 Cycle 1-2-5-4-1 shows Otto cycle
 Cycle 1-2-3-5-4-1 shows Diesel cycle

 Heat supply for the Diesel cycle(area under 3-5 in T-S diagram) is
greater than that for Otto cycle(area under 2-5 in T-S diagram).
Since Otto cycle receives less heat for the same heat rejection, its
efficiency will be lower than that of diesel

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THANK YOU
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