7.

2 Study Notes- Nervous System

The nervous system makes movement faster (reflex action) reaction of the nervous system.
= How does the nervous system respond to these reactions

1. Identify structures of the nervous system and describe their functions.

2. Describe reactions such as stimulus-response and reflex action using flow diagrams
and compare them.
3. Explain how the nervous system coordinates the body.
The nervous system is a communication system between the brain and the rest of
the body.

1. Nervous System
Part of the Structures Function
Nervous
System
Central -Consist of billions of nerve -The spinal cord acts like a
Nervous endings and cells highway which allows the body
System (CNS) -Made up of spinal cord and to send messages to the brain.
brain. (brain acts as the control centre
of our body)
-Controls and manages thought,
movement, and emotion, it
combines information from the
entire body and coordinates
activity across the body.
-Receives sensory information
from the body, integrates it, and
responds with motor output.
Peripheral -Made up of all the nerves Somatic is voluntary.
Nervous that go to the different parts Autonomic is involuntary
System (PNS) of the body. (automatic reactions e.g.,
-Can be classified into two heartbeat, digestive system,
nervous systems: autonomic reflex reactions, and breathing)
NS (internal environment),
and somatic NS (external
environment)

Nervous System: a communication system between the brain and the rest of the body. It
communicates with the endocrine system to maintain the body’s balance.

Homeostasis:
Homeostasis is the regulation and maintenance of the body’s stable internal environment in an
organism. This health balance ensures that the body’s cells function optimally and within range.

- Homeostasis connects us to the external and internal environments through sensors

(e.g., pressure sensors, sight, sound), which can help our body accordingly adjust to
external changes.
- Several parameters of the internal environment must be kept stable (e.g., body
temperature, blood glucose levels, gas content, water content).
- E.G., when body temperature exceeds the healthy temperature range, your body will
start to sweat to aid with cooling off.  Process of Homeostasis (responds to the
reactions of the body )  NEGATIVE FEEDBACK (reduces the effect of a stimulus)

2. Nerve Cells

Part of Nerve Cell Structure Function

cell body -made up of trillions of neurons. -The cell body (soma) provides
-Contains the nucleus, which is essential proteins to the axon,
the control centre of the cell. where they are used for renewal
-One of the 3 major parts of and repair.
the neuron

dendrites -The dendrites branch out from -Receive stimulations and

the cell body. information from muscles, glands,
or organs.

axon -An axon typically develops side -Sends nerve impulses in only one
branches called axon collaterals. direction- away from the cell body.
-The axon terminals pass the
message on to the next neuron

motor neuron -nerve endings connect to -Carry messages from the CNS
muscle fibres effectors (muscles and glands).
-effectors -Effectors translate the messages
into actions.

connector neuron -can be divided into two parts: -Transmit messages from the PNS
(aka interneuron, local interneuron, and relay and motor neurons to the CNS
relay neuron, interneuron. (brain).
association neuron) Local Interneuron: Short axons. -Forms key intersections and
Relay Interneuron: Long axons. connections in the brain and helps
-Group of neurons found in the regulate the neurotransmitter.
CNS. -Interneurons connect afferent
neurons (sensory neurons), which
receive signals from the PNS (e.g.,
touch, temperature, pain), and
efferent neurons (motor neurons),
which transmit signals from the
 brain to muscles.

sensory neuron -nerve endings sensitive to stimuli

-nerve endings specialised e.g. heat, pressure, light
receptors. -Conducts sensory information to
the CNS from sense organs (e.g.,
eyes, ears, tongue).
-They convert external sensory
stimuli like touch, pain, and heat as
well as visual and auditory inputs
into an internal electrical impulse.

Structure of a Neuron:

-save booklet page dendrites for revision

3. Define other nerve cell key terms:

Key Terms Meaning

neurons Neurons are major units of the brain and nervous system and are
responsible for receiving sensory information from the external
environment. A neuron has 3 main parts: dendrites, an axon, and a cell
 body.

nerve Nerves are cable-like structures within the body, carrying messages
between the brain and the rest of the body. They conduct nerve
impulses that travel through the nerves rapidly, allowing the body to
respond to stimuli and coordinate its movements.

nerve Impulse A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that travels from a nerve cell to an
effector (a muscle or gland) in response to a stimulus. This signal is then
relayed along the axon of the nerve cell, sending a message to an
effector to respond with motor output.

neurotransmitter Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. Their function is to

transmit signals from nerve cells to target cells. These signals help
regulate bodily functions (e.g., heart rate, breathing, and digestion)

synapse A synapse is a small gap at the end of a neuron that allows a signal to
pass from one neuron to the next.

receptor An organ or cell that detects external stimuli (e.g., light, heat) and
transmits a signal to a sensory nerve.

effectors Effectors respond with motor output to messages sent from the
receptor. Effectors include muscles and glands.

4. Brain
Part of the Structure/s Function/s
Brain

Cerebrum -The largest part of the brain -controls voluntary actions

-Highly folded surface -responsible for cognitive functions
(e.g., memory and thinking).

Cerebellum -Located at the back of the brain -Coordinates muscular movement

-Highly folded surface - It receives information from the
sensory systems, such as the eyes and
ears.
-Maintains body balance and
coordination

Medulla -Part of the brainstem -responsible for automatic body

-Smooth surface functions such as breathing, heart
rate, and blood pressure.
-involved in relaying sensory and
motor information from the body to
the brain.
-Controls vital body parts
Respond to Stimuli:
A stimulus is any detectable change in the internal or external environment that prompts a
response. External stimuli include light, sound, and touch. Internal stimuli include pain or
hunger. When a stimulus is detected, it starts a chain of events in the nervous system.
Sensory neurons are activated through receptors (e.g., eyes). Sensory neurons take in the
stimuli and deliver them to the brain, which sends them to the motor neurons (effectors) and
responds to the stimuli with motor output.
For example, when you feel hungry and have food in front of you, the eyes (receptors) see the
food (stimulus), and sensory neurons from the PNS are sent to the CNS. The brain processes
the received information and voluntarily (arm muscles) responds through motor output, with
the arm (effector/motor neuron) picking up the food to eat it.
The above diagram displays the process of the hypothalamus. The body’s internal
environment detects the temperature exceeding, which sends the sensory information (from
sensory neurons) to the CNS, which then interprets and sends the information to motor
neurons and effectors, and responds with motor output.
Stimulus-Response Flow Diagram:
Stimuli -> Sensory Neurons -> Receptors -> Nervous/Endocrine System -> Motor Neurons -
> Effectors -> Response/Output

Reflex Actions and Arcs: Rapid Responses

-Arm muscles are under voluntary control, which is a part of the somatic nervous system.
-The primary function of a reflex action is to protect the body from injury. The pathway
taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
-When you touch a hot stove, you automatically pull your hand away (involuntary and fast).
This is a reflex action, that the body produces in response to certain stimuli. Additionally,
reflexes help perform homeostasis, maintaining a balanced internal environment. A reflex
response is carried out by the reflex arc.
Reflex Reaction Pathway:
Receptors → Sensory Neuron → Interneuron → Motor Neuron → Effector
(The cerebrum is not involved in the reflex, but nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain
through another nervous pathway.)
Example:

Receptors in the skin are stimulated by the pain of the knife, this stimulus generates nerve
impulses which are then transferred along the sensory neurons to the spinal cord. This
impulse is then transferred along the interneuron and the motor neuron to the effector (arm
muscle), which then causes the arm to retract from the knife. A message is then sent to the
brain shortly after, which registers and causes a sense of pain.
(NI)SSIME – (NERVE IMPULSES) – SENSORY NEURON – SPINAL CORD –
INTERNEURON – MOTOR NEURON – EFFECTOR (pathway of nerve impulses)

Comparison of Reflex Action and Stimulus-Response:

Reflex Action:
A reflex action is a rapid and involuntary action that does not involve the
brain during the reflex arc, but rather the spinal cord. A reflex action’s
primary function is to protect the body from harm or injury. The process of
a reflex action is that the receptors detect the potential harm and send
nerve impulses along the sensory neurons to the spinal cord, which then
transmits the impulses along the interneurons and motor neurons to the
effectors, which ends in contracting the body from the source of injury.
Shortly after, a message from these sensory impulses is relayed to the brain,
which registers and interprets the information and causes a sense of pain
from the source of pain.
Stimulus-Response:
A stimulus-response is a controlled and voluntary response that involves
the brain (particularly the cerebrum as it controls voluntary responses).
The process is: the receptors detect the change within the internal/external
environment and send electrical impulses along the spinal cord to the
brain, which receives and interprets the sensory information and responds
with voluntary and appropriate/reasonable motor output via the effectors.
A stimulus-response action takes longer compared to a reflex action as it is
more complex, involving multiple regions of the nervous system and brain
in processing the stimulus and generating an appropriate response.
Homeostasis:
When the body is exposed