Kuhn’s Model of Paradigm Shift

Thomas Kuhn's model of paradigm shifts, as articulated in *The Structure of Scientific

Revolutions*, presents a non-linear and dynamic view of scientific progress that contrasts
sharply with traditional cumulative accounts. According to Kuhn, scientific development is
characterized by alternating periods of 'normal' and 'revolutionary' science.

Normal Science
Normal science operates within the boundaries of an existing paradigm—a framework of
shared theoretical beliefs, values, instruments, techniques, and metaphysical assumptions that
Kuhn also calls a 'disciplinary matrix'. During this phase, scientists engage in puzzle-solving
activities, tackling problems that the paradigm defines and expects to be solvable using
familiar methods. This phase is conservative by nature; it is marked by a strong commitment
to the existing paradigm and a reluctance to question its core tenets. Anomalies—
observations or problems that do not fit within the paradigm's expectations—are typically
ignored or explained away.

Crisis and Anomalies

Over time, persistent and significant anomalies may accumulate, challenging the adequacy of
the existing paradigm. These anomalies cannot be resolved within the current framework and
begin to undermine scientists' confidence in the paradigm. This accumulation of unresolved
anomalies can lead to a crisis. A crisis in normal science is a critical period where the
inadequacies of the paradigm become evident, and the scientific community recognizes the
need for a new framework.

Revolutionary Science
In response to a crisis, the scientific community enters a phase of revolutionary science.
During this period, scientists explore alternative theories and frameworks that can better
explain the anomalies and solve the outstanding puzzles. This process is not straightforward
or purely rational. It involves intense debate, competition among different ideas, and
sometimes the influence of non-scientific factors, such as the personalities or nationalities of
prominent scientists.

Paradigm Shift
A paradigm shift occurs when the scientific community adopts a new paradigm that better
addresses the anomalies and offers more effective solutions to existing problems. This shift is
not just an improvement within the existing framework but a fundamental transformation of
the framework itself. The new paradigm redefines the field's basic concepts, methods, and
standards of evidence.
Kuhn-loss and Progress
Kuhn introduces the concept of 'Kuhn-loss,' which refers to the loss of some explanatory or
problem-solving capabilities that were present in the old paradigm but are not accounted for
in the new one. Despite this, Kuhn argues that scientific revolutions lead to overall progress
because the new paradigm solves more significant and numerous puzzles than its predecessor.
This progress, however, is not towards an ultimate truth but is rather akin to an evolutionary
process. Science evolves by responding to new challenges and environments, leading to
greater diversity and specialization.

Conclusion
Kuhn's model of paradigm shifts provides a complex, dynamic, and socio-culturally
influenced view of scientific progress. It emphasizes the discontinuous and revolutionary
nature of major scientific developments, challenging the notion of science as a steady,
cumulative process. This perspective highlights the importance of crises and revolutions in
advancing scientific knowledge and reshaping our understanding of the world.

Defining Paradigm
In his 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn, an American
historian and philosopher of science, defined a paradigm as a set of universally recognized
scientific achievements that provide a community of researchers with model problems and
solutions for a period of time.
The entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and methods shared by the members of
a given community.

The Steps of the Kuhn Cycle

Understanding the Kuhn Cycle and incorporating it into your approach to helping to
solve the sustainability problem is so critical there are glossary entries for the
prestep of Pre-science and the five main steps:
0. Pre-science - The field has no workable paradigm to successfully guide its work.
Also called the pre-paradigm stage, Pre-science is the pre-step to the main Kuhn
Cycle. In Prescience there is not yet a model of understanding (the field's paradigm)
mature enough to solve the field's main problems. The model may be close. It may
be promising and thus be attracting plenty of followers. But it's not yet a real
science that works. Because it doesn't quite work it's a pre-science.
1. Normal Science - The normal step, where the field has a scientifically based model
of understanding (a paradigm) that works.

Normal Science means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific
achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community
acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice.

2. Model Drift - The model of understanding starts to drift, due to accumulation of

anomalies, phenomenon the model cannot explain.

Model Drift is the second step of the Kuhn Cycle. The cycle starts in Normal Science
where a field has a model of understanding (its paradigm) that works. The model
allows a field's members to solve problems of interest. When issues, problems, or
phenomenon appear the model cannot handle, the model begins to drift away from
Normal Science. As soon as more than a small amount of drift occurs, the field's
paradigm is said to be in Model Drift. Model drift is caused by what Thomas Kuhn
called anomalies. An anomaly is an unexpected discovery one's paradigm cannot
explain, which includes discovery of problems the paradigm cannot solve.

3. Model Crisis - The Model Drift becomes so excessive the model is broken. It can no
longer serve as a reliable guide to problem solving. Attempts to patch the model up
to make it work fail. The field is in anguish.

Model Crisis is the third step of the Kuhn Cycle. In this step a field's model of
understanding has drifted so far, the field is thrown into crisis, because they can no
longer make rational decisions. Their foundation for solving their central problems
has been shattered by discovery of too many anomalies their central theory cannot
explain. At this point in the cycle the field's energies are best spent constructing a
new model that works.

4. Model Revolution - This begins when serious candidates for a new model emerge.
It's a revolution because the new model is so radically different from the old one.

Model revolution is the fourth step of the Kuhn Cycle. In this step a field's model of
understanding is undergoing revolutionary change. The old model failed, which
 caused the Model Crisis step. The Model Revolution step begins when one or more
competing new models emerge from the crisis.

Thomas Kuhn argued that the heart of why a new paradigm is accepted depends on
two requirements:

First, the new candidate must seem to resolve some outstanding and generally
recognized problem that can be met in no other way. Second, the new paradigm
must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving
activity that has accrued to science through its predecessors.

5. Paradigm Change - A single new paradigm emerges and the field changes from the
old to the new paradigm. When this step ends the new paradigm becomes the new
Normal Science and the Kuhn Cycle is complete.

Also called a paradigm shift, Paradigm change is the fifth and final step in the Kuhn
Cycle. Earlier steps have created the new model of understanding (the new
paradigm). In the Paradigm Change step the new paradigm is taught to newcomers
to the field, as well as to those already in it. When the new paradigm becomes the
generally accepted guide to one's work, the step is complete. The field is now back
to the Normal Science step and a Kuhn Cycle is complete.