Task 1 – 1000 words

Mathematics and Statistics for IT

Explain how a graph of quadratic function (f(x) = ax2 + bx + c) varies when the a,b,c changes
from -1 to +1 Explain Product Rule, Quotient Rule and Power Rule

When the coefficients a, b, and c in the quadratic function f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c vary from -1 to +1, the
graph of the function undergoes different transformations.

For Coefficient "a"

When a > 0, the graph opens upward, forming a U-shaped curve called a concave-up parabola. As
the value of “a” increases, the graph becomes narrower.

When a < 0, the graph opens downward, forming an inverted U-shaped curve called a concave-
down parabola. Increasing the absolute value of a makes the graph wider.

For Coefficient "b"

The coefficient b determines the slope of the quadratic function. When b > 0, the graph shifts to the
left, and when b < 0, it shifts to the right. The magnitude of b affects the rate of the shift.
If b = 0, the graph remains centered on the y-axis.

For Coefficient "c"

The coefficient c influences the vertical position of the graph. When c > 0, the graph shifts upward,
and when c < 0, it shifts downward. The magnitude of c determines the magnitude of the shift.

Rules

Product Rule:

The product rule is a differentiation rule used in calculus to find the derivative of the product of two
functions. Suppose we have two functions u(x) and v(x). The product rule states that the derivative
of their product, denoted as (u(x) * v(x))', is given by (u(x) * v(x))' = u'(x) * v(x) + u(x) * v'(x).
To differentiate the product of two functions, we have to differentiate the first function and multiply
it by the second function, then add it to the product of the first function and the derivative of the
second function.

Quotient Rule:

The quotient rule is another differentiation rule used in calculus to find the derivative of the quotient
of two functions. considering two functions u(x) and v(x). The quotient rule states that the
derivative of their quotient, denoted as (u(x) / v(x))', is given by (u(x) / v(x))' = (u'(x) * v(x) - u(x) *
v'(x)) / v(x)2.
In order to differentiate the quotient of two functions, we need to subtract the product of the
derivative of the numerator and the denominator from the product of the numerator and the
derivative of the denominator, and then divide the result by the square of the denominator.
Power Rule:

The power rule is a basic differentiation rule used to find the derivative of a function raised to a
constant power. If we have a function f(x) = x^n, where n is a constant, then the power rule states
that the derivative of f(x) with respect to x, denoted as f'(x), is given by f'(x) = n * x (n-1). In order to
differentiate a function raised to a constant power, we multiply the constant by the original function
raised to the power decreased by one.

State the domain and range of the following relation: {(2,4), (-1,8), (4,-2), (5,6), (2,-2)}. State
whether the relation is a function

Domain:
The domain of a relation is the set of all x-coordinates from the ordered pairs in the relation. To find
the domain, we need to identify all unique x-values. In the given relation, the x-coordinates are 2, -
1, 4, and 5. Since there are no repeated x-values, the domain is {2, -1, 4, 5}.

Range:
The range of a relation is the set of all y-coordinates from the ordered pairs in the relation. To find
the range, we need to identify all unique y-values. In the given relation, the y-coordinates are 4, 8, -
2, and 6. Again, since there are no repeated y-values, the range is {4, 8, -2, 6}.

Determining if the relation is a function:

To determine if the relation is a function, we need to check if each x-coordinate is associated with
exactly one y-coordinate. If there are no repeated x-coordinates in the relation, then it is a function.
However, if any x-coordinate has multiple y-coordinates, then the relation is not a function. In the
given relation, we can see that the x-coordinate 2 appears twice in the ordered pairs: (2,4) and (2,-
2). This means that the x-coordinate 2 is associated with both the y-coordinate 4 and the y-
coordinate -2. Since one x-coordinate has multiple corresponding y-coordinates, the relation is not a
function.

Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form

Log6 (√6) = ½
Log3 (9) = 2

To convert logarithmic equations to exponential form, we use the definition of logarithms. The
logarithm of a number to a given base is the exponent to which the base must be raised to obtain the
number.

Logarithmic equation: Log6 (√6) = ½

Exponential form: 6(1/2) = √6

In this equation, the base is 6, the exponent is 1/2, therefore the result is √6.

Logarithmic equation: Log3 (9) = 2

Exponential form: 32 = 9

In this equation, the base is 3, the exponent is 2, therefore the result is 9.

By converting logarithmic equations to exponential form, we express the relationship between the
logarithm, base, and exponent in a different way that helps us solve equations or find the values of
variables.

Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form. 52 =25 & 10-4 =1/10,000

To convert exponential equations to logarithmic form, we use the definition of logarithms, which
states that the logarithm of a number to a given base is the exponent to which the base must be
raised to obtain the number.

Exponential equation: 52 = 25
Logarithmic form: log base 5 (25) = 2

In this equation, the base is 5, the exponent is 2, and the result is 25. Therefore, the logarithm base 5
of 25 is equal to 2.

Exponential equation: 10-4= 1/10,000

Logarithmic form: log base 10 (1/10,000) = -4

In this equation, the base is 10, the exponent is -4, and the result is 1/10,000. Thus, the logarithm
base 10 of 1/10,000 is equal to -4.

(a)Find the inverse of f(x) = x2. Then find the min and max given that -1<=x<1

To find the inverse of the function f(x) = x2, we need to switch the roles of x and y and solve for y.

Let y = f(x) = x2.

To find the inverse, we interchange x and y:

x = y2.

Now, solve for y:

y = √x.

Therefore, the inverse function is f(-1)(x) = √x.

To find the minimum and maximum values of the inverse function f (-1)(x) = √x, within the given
domain -1 <= x < 1, we evaluate the function at the endpoints of the domain.

When x = -1:

f(-1)(-1) = √(-1) = undefined since the square root of a negative number is not defined in the real
number system.

When x = 1:

f(-1)(1) = √1 = 1.

Therefore, within the given domain -1 <= x < 1, the minimum value of the inverse function is
undefined, and the maximum value is 1.
(b) Calculate the area of a polygon if apothem = 5 and perimeter is 6

To calculate the area of a polygon given the apothem and perimeter, we need to know the number of
sides of the polygon. The formula for calculating the area of a regular polygon is:

Area = (1/2) * apothem * perimeter

(c) Given the slope m and "y intercept" b define the equation of this straight line

The equation of a straight line can be defined using the slope-intercept form, which is given by:

y = mx + b

Where:

"m" represents the slope of the line.

"b" represents the y-intercept, which is the point where the line intersects the y-axis.

To define the equation of a straight line given the slope "m" and y-intercept "b," we simply
substitute the values of "m" and "b" into the slope-intercept form.

So, the equation of the straight line is:

y = mx + b

(d) Explain the types of statistics 'measures of central tendency' and 'measures of dispersion
and probability

Measures of Central Tendency:

Measures of central tendency are statistical measures that describe the typical or central value of a
dataset. They provide a single value that represents the center or average of a distribution. The three
commonly used measures of central tendency are:

Mean: The mean, also known as the average, is calculated by summing up all the values in the
dataset and dividing the sum by the total number of values. It is sensitive to extreme values and is
affected by outliers.

Median: The median is the middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or
descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle
values. The median is less affected by extreme values and is a good representation of the central
value in skewed distributions.

Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset can have no mode
(when all values are distinct), one mode (unimodal), or multiple modes (bimodal, trimodal, etc.).
The mode is useful for categorical and discrete data.

Measures of Dispersion and Probability:

Measures of dispersion quantify the spread or variability of data points in a dataset. They provide
information about how spread out the values are from the central tendency measures. The common
measures of dispersion include:
Range: The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in a dataset. It
provides a simple measure of spread but is sensitive to extreme values.

Variance: Variance measures the average squared deviation of each data point from the mean. It
provides a measure of the spread of data, taking into account all values in the dataset. A higher
variance indicates greater dispersion.

Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It measures the
average deviation of data points from the mean. It is a widely used measure of dispersion and
provides a more interpretable value than variance.

Measures of probability are used to describe the likelihood of an event or outcome occurring.
Probability is expressed as a value between 0 and 1, where 0 represents impossibility and 1
represents certainty. Probability is fundamental in statistical analysis and plays a crucial role in
areas such as hypothesis testing, sampling, and decision-making.

a) Solve the following inequality x 2 + x – 2 > 0

To solve the inequality x2 + x – 2 > 0, we can use a method called factoring or by using the
quadratic formula.

Factoring method:

The inequality x2 + x – 2 > 0 can be factored as (x – 1)(x + 2) > 0.

Now, we can find the critical points by setting each factor equal to zero and solving for x:

x – 1 = 0 ==> x = 1
x + 2 = 0 ==> x = -2

We have two critical points, x = 1 and x = -2.

Next, we create a sign chart with the critical points and test intervals:
Intervals: (-∞, -2), (-2, 1), (1, +∞)

We select test points from each interval to determine the sign of the inequality.

For x < -2, we can use x = -3 as a test point:

(-3 – 1)(-3 + 2) > 0
(-4)(-1) > 0
4>0

For -2 < x < 1, we can use x = 0 as a test point:

(0 – 1)(0 + 2) > 0
(-1)(2) > 0
-2 > 0

For x > 1, we can use x = 2 as a test point:

(2 – 1)(2 + 2) > 0
(1)(4) > 0
4>0

Analyzing the signs, we see that the inequality (x – 1)(x + 2) > 0 is true for x < -2 and x > 1.

Therefore, the solution to the inequality x2 + x – 2 > 0 is (-∞, -2) U (1, +∞).

Quadratic formula method:

Alternatively, we can solve the inequality using the quadratic formula.

The quadratic formula is given by:
x = (-b ± √(b2 – 4ac)) / (2a)

For the quadratic equation x2 + x – 2 = 0, the coefficients are:

a = 1, b = 1, c = -2

Using the quadratic formula, we can find the solutions for x:

x = (-1 ± √(12 – 4(1)(-2))) / (2(1))

x = (-1 ± √(1 + 8)) / 2
x = (-1 ± √9) / 2
x = (-1 ± 3) / 2

This gives us two solutions:

x = (-1 + 3) / 2 = 1
x = (-1 – 3) / 2 = -2

By analyzing the signs or using the test points as mentioned in the factoring method, we conclude
that the solution to the inequality x2 + x – 2 > 0 is (-∞, -2) U (1, +∞).

b) Solve the following and find x, y and z X – y + z = 10 3x + y + 2z = 34 -5x + 2y – z = -14

To solve the system of equations:

X – y + z = 10
3x + y + 2z = 34
-5x + 2y – z = -14

We can use a method called Gaussian elimination or any other suitable method.

system of equations step by step:

Step 1: Add the second equation to twice the first equation.

2 * (X – y + z) + (3x + y + 2z) = 2 * 10 + 34
2X – 2y + 2z + 3x + y + 2z = 20 + 34
5x + 5z = 54
x + z = 10.8

Step 2: Add the second equation to five times the third equation.
5 * (3x + y + 2z) + (-5x + 2y – z) = 5 * 34 + (-14)
15x + 5y + 10z – 5x + 2y – z = 170 – 14
10x + 7y + 9z = 156

Step 3: Multiply the first equation by 10 and subtract it from the previous equation.

10(x + z) - (10x + 7y + 9z) = 10.8 – 156

10x + 10z – 10x – 7y – 9z = -145.2
y – z = 145.2

Step 4: Substitute the value of y – z from Step 3 into the first equation.

X - (y – z) + z = 10
X + y = 10

Step 5: Substitute the value of X + y from Step 4 into the second equation.

3x + y + 2z = 34
3x + 10 – z + 2z = 34
3x + z = 24

Step 6: Solve the equations obtained in Steps 5 and 3 simultaneously.

x + z = 10.8
3x + z = 24

Subtracting the first equation from the second equation, we get:

(3x + z) - (x + z) = 24 – 10.8
2x = 13.2
x = 13.2 / 2
x = 6.6

Substituting the value of x into the equation x + z = 10.8, we get:

6.6 + z = 10.8
z = 10.8 – 6.6
z = 4.2

Substituting the values of x and z into the equation X + y = 10, we get:

X + y = 10
6.6 + y = 10
y = 10 – 6.6
y = 3.4

Therefore, the solution to the system of equations is:

x = 6.6
y = 3.4
z = 4.2
c) Solve for x: 93x-2=92x+1

To find the value of x in the equation 9(3x-2) = 9(2x+1), we can equate the exponents and solve for x.

Let's set the exponents equal to each other:

3x – 2 = 2x + 1

isolating the x terms on one side and the constant terms on the other side:

Subtract 2x from both sides:

3x – 2x – 2 = 2x – 2x + 1

Simplify:
x–2=1

Now, isolate the x term by adding 2 to both sides:

x–2+2=1+2

Simplify:
x=3

Therefore, the value of x in the equation 9(3x-2) = 9(2x+1) is x = 3.

 Task 2
Mathematics and Statistics for IT
Understand the statistics underpinning information technology

Define Mean, Median, Mode, Quartile, Range, Variance, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of
Variation and calculate them for the below dataset.

(5,5,10,12,12,16,17,17,17,16,16,15,15,15,15,16,16,16,16,16,16,16,16,16,16,16,17,17,17,20,20,20,2
5, 27, 30)

Mean: The mean is the average of a set of numbers. To calculate the mean, you add up all the
numbers and divide the sum by the total count.

Median: The median is the middle value in a sorted list of numbers. To find the median, you
arrange the numbers in ascending order and identify the middle number. If there are an even number
of values, then the median is the average of the two middle values.

Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

Quartile: Quartiles divide a dataset into four equal parts. The first quartile (Q1) represents the 25th
percentile, the second quartile (Q2) represents the median (50th percentile), and the third quartile
(Q3) represents the 75th percentile.

Range: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest values in a dataset.

Variance: Variance measures the spread or dispersion of a dataset. It quantifies how much the
values in the dataset deviate from the mean.

Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It provides a
measure of how spread out the values are in relation to the mean.

Coefficient of Variation: The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the standard deviation to
the mean. It is used to compare the variability of datasets with different means.

Calculating these measures for the given dataset:

Sorted dataset: 5, 5, 10, 12, 12, 15, 15, 15, 15, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 17,
20, 20, 20, 25, 27, 30

Mean:
Mean = (5 + 5 + 10 + 12 + 12 + 15 + 15 + 15 + 15 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 +
16 + 17 + 17 + 17 + 17 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 25 + 27 + 30) / 30
Mean = 16.4

Median:
Median = 16 (middle value)

Mode:
Mode = 16 (appears most frequently)

Quartiles:

Q1 = 15 (25th percentile)
Q2 = 16 (median, 50th percentile)
Q3 = 17 (75th percentile)

Range:

Range = largest value – smallest value = 30 – 5 = 25

Variance:

Variance = [(5 – 16.4)2 + (5 – 16.4)2 + (10 – 16.4)2 + ... + (30 – 16.4)2] / 30

Variance ≈ 24.486

Standard Deviation: root of variance

Standard Deviation = √Variance ≈ √24.486 ≈ 4.949

Coefficient of Variation:

Coefficient of Variation = (Standard Deviation / Mean) * 100

Coefficient of Variation = (4.949 / 16.4) * 100 ≈ 30.18%

What is a probability model? Define Bayes‟ rules and Conditional probability by giving
2 examples

A probability model is a mathematical representation that describes the likelihood of different

outcomes in an uncertain situation. It consists of a sample space, which is the set of all possible
outcomes, and a probability function that assigns probabilities to each outcome or event.

Bayes' Rule, is a fundamental concept that provides a way to update the probability of an event
based on new evidence or information. Mathematically, Bayes' Rule can be stated as:

P(A|B) = (P(B|A) * P(A)) / P(B)

where:
P(A|B) is the conditional probability of event A given event B,
P(B|A) is the conditional probability of event B given event A,
P(A) is the probability of event A, and
P(B) is the probability of event B.

Conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring given that another event has
already occurred. It is denoted as P(A|B), which represents the probability of event A given event B
has occurred. Conditional probability can be calculated using the formula:

P(A|B) = P(A and B) / P(B)

where:
P(A and B) is the probability that both events A and B occur together,
P(B) is the probability of event B.
Example 1:

Suppose we have a bag of colored marbles. The bag contains 5 red marbles and 7 blue marbles. We
randomly select a marble from the bag. What is the probability that the marble is red given that it is
blue?

Let A be the event "marble is red" and B be the event "marble is blue."
P(A|B) = P(A and B) / P(B)
P(A|B) = 0 / (7/12) = 0

In this case, the probability of selecting a red marble given that it is blue is 0 since there are no red
marbles in the bag.

Example 2:

Consider a medical test for a disease. Let A be the event "a person has the disease" and B be the
event "the test result is positive." Suppose the test has a false positive rate of 5% (probability of a
positive test result given that the person does not have the disease) and a true positive rate of 90%
(probability of a positive test result given that the person has the disease). If 2% of the population
has the disease, what is the probability that a person has the disease given a positive test result?

P(A|B) = (P(B|A) * P(A)) / P(B)

P(A|B) = (0.9 * 0.02) / ((0.9 * 0.02) + (0.05 * 0.98)) ≈ 0.267

In this case, the probability of a person having the disease given a positive test result is
approximately 0.267.

What is Estimation? Differentiate Point estimate and Interval estimate

Estimation is a statistical concept that involves using sample data to make inferences or predictions
about population parameters. It is the process of estimating unknown quantities or parameters based
on the information available from a sample.

Point Estimate:
A point estimate is a single value that is used to estimate an unknown population parameter. It
provides a specific numerical value as an estimate of the true parameter value. For example, if we
want to estimate the average height of a population, a point estimate could be the sample mean
height.

Interval Estimate:
An interval estimate, also known as a confidence interval, provides a range of values within which
the true population parameter is likely to fall. It takes into account the variability in the sample data
and provides a measure of uncertainty. The confidence interval is constructed around the point
estimate and provides both an upper and lower bound. The confidence level associated with the
interval represents the probability that the true parameter lies within the interval. For example, an
interval estimate could be "The average height of the population is estimated to be between 165 cm
and 175 cm with 95% confidence."
What are 2 types of hypotheses? What are the limitations of hypothesis testing? What are type
I and type II errors?

Two types of hypotheses commonly used in hypothesis testing are:

Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is a statement of no effect or no difference between groups or
variables. It represents the status quo or the default assumption. In hypothesis testing, the null
hypothesis is tested against an alternative hypothesis to determine if there is enough evidence to
reject the null hypothesis.

Alternative Hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis is a statement that contradicts the null
hypothesis. It represents the researcher's claim or the hypothesis they are trying to support. The
alternative hypothesis is tested against the null hypothesis to determine if there is sufficient
evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.

Limitations of Hypothesis Testing:

Sample Size and Representativeness: The accuracy and reliability of hypothesis testing depend on
the sample size and how well it represents the population. Small or biased samples may lead to
erroneous conclusions.

Type I and Type II Errors: Hypothesis testing involves the possibility of making errors. Type I
errors occur when the null hypothesis is rejected even though it is true. Type II errors occur when
the null hypothesis is not rejected even though it is false. These errors are inherent in hypothesis
testing and can impact the validity of the results.

Assumptions and Simplifications: Hypothesis testing often relies on assumptions and

simplifications about the data or the statistical model being used. Violations of these assumptions
can affect the accuracy and validity of the results.

Statistical Significance vs. Practical Significance: Hypothesis testing provides information about
statistical significance, but it may not always address the practical significance or real-world
implications of the findings. Statistical significance does not necessarily imply practical importance.

Type I and Type II Errors:

Type I Error: A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected, even though it is true. In
other words, the test incorrectly concludes that there is a significant effect or difference when, in
reality, there is no effect or difference. The probability of committing a Type I error is denoted by α
(alpha) and is typically set as the significance level in hypothesis testing.

Type II Error: A Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected, even though it is
false. In this case, the test fails to detect a significant effect or difference when one actually exists.
The probability of committing a Type II error is denoted by β (beta).

In hypothesis testing, there is a trade-off between Type I and Type II errors. By decreasing the
probability of one type of error, the probability of the other type of error may increase. Researchers
often aim to strike a balance by choosing an appropriate significance level (α) and sample size to
minimize the chances of both types of errors.
Consider an investment whose return is normally distributed with a mean of 10% and a
standard deviation of 5%

Given that the return of the investment is normally distributed with a mean of 10% and a standard
deviation of 5%, we can use this information to answer questions related to the probability of
certain returns or ranges of returns.

Probability of a Specific Return:

To calculate the probability of obtaining a specific return, we can use the properties of the normal
distribution. For example, to find the probability of getting a return of 8%, we can standardize the
value using the z-score formula and then use a standard normal distribution table or calculator. The
z-score formula is given by:
z = (x – μ) / σ

where z is the z-score, x is the specific return, μ is the mean return, and σ is the standard deviation
of the return.

Probability of a Range of Returns:

To calculate the probability of obtaining a return within a certain range, we can again use the
properties of the normal distribution. For example, to find the probability of getting a return
between 5% and 12%, we can calculate the z-scores for the lower and upper values of the range and
then use the standard normal distribution table or calculator to find the probabilities associated with
those z-scores. The difference between the two probabilities will give us the desired probability. It's
important to note that the normal distribution is a continuous distribution, so the probability of
getting an exact return value is zero. However, we can still calculate the probability of obtaining
returns within a specific range.

Additionally, the assumption of a normal distribution for investment returns may not always hold
true in practice, especially for certain types of investments or during periods of extreme market
conditions. It is essential to consider the specific characteristics of the investment and the context in
which it operates when utilizing probability estimates based on a normal distribution.

a) Determine the probability of losing money.

In the given context, where the return of the investment is assumed to be normally distributed with a
mean of 10% and a standard deviation of 5%, we can use statistical methodology to answer various
questions related to the investment.

To determine the probability of losing money, we need to consider the distribution of returns. In this
case, since the returns are assumed to follow a normal distribution, we can use the properties of the
normal distribution to calculate the probability of negative returns.

To determine the probability of losing money, we need to find the probability that the return is less
than zero (negative). In other words, we want to find P(Return < 0).
Using the properties of the normal distribution, we can standardize the value and convert it into a z-
score. The z-score formula is given by:

z = (x – μ) / σ

where z is the z-score, x is the value we want to standardize (in this case, zero), μ is the mean return
(10%), and σ is the standard deviation of the return (5%).

Plugging in the values, we have:

z = (0 – 0.10) / 0.05 = -2

Now, we can look up the corresponding probability associated with the z-score of -2 using a
standard normal distribution table or a calculator. The probability associated with a z-score of -2
represents the probability that the return is less than zero.

The probability of losing money can be interpreted as the probability of obtaining a negative return
on the investment. By using the z-score and the standard normal distribution table or calculator, we
can find the corresponding probability.

b) Find the probability of losing money when the standard deviation is equal to 10%

To find the probability of losing money when the standard deviation is equal to 10%, we can follow
a similar approach as in the previous response.

Given that the return of the investment is normally distributed with a mean of 10% and a standard
deviation of 10%, we want to determine the probability that the return is less than zero (negative).
In other words, we want to find P(Return < 0).

Using the properties of the normal distribution, we can calculate the z-score:

z = (0 – 0.10) / 0.10 = -1

Now, we can look up the corresponding probability associated with a z-score of -1 using a standard
normal distribution table or a calculator. The probability associated with a z-score of -1 represents
the probability of obtaining a negative return.

note that by increasing the standard deviation from 5% to 10%, the probability of losing money may
increase. This is because a higher standard deviation implies a greater level of volatility or
variability in the returns, which increases the likelihood of negative returns.