CHAPTER 4

Mechanical Micro-Process In A Fluid

Introduction
Particle dynamics
The drag forces
Introduction to solid beds
Flow of fluid through a granular beds
Fixed and fluidized bed

Experiment 4: Analysis and Performance parameters of Fluidized beds

Department of Industrial Chemistry

College of Natural Science

Bahir Dar University
 Mechanical Micro-Processes In A Fluid
 Introduction
 Mechanics of particle motion through fluids
 Single Particle in a Fluid
 This section deals with the motion of single solid particles in fluids.

 The objective here is to develop an understanding of the forces

resisting the motion of any such particle and provide methods for the

estimation of the steady velocity of the particle relative to the fluid.

 Introduction
 Mechanics of particle motion through fluids
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 For a rigid particle moving through a fluid, there are 3 forces acting on
the particle:

1. External force: gravitational

2. Buoyant force: acts parallel with the external
Fb
force but in the opposite direction
3. Drag force: appears whenever there is relative
motion between the particle and the fluid
(opposite direction to the particle motion).
.
Drag: the force in the direction of flow exerted by
the fluid on the solid.
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 The drag force (FD) resisting very slow steady relative motion (creeping motion) between a
rigid sphere of particle diameter x, relative velocity of the particle (U) and a fluid of infinite
extent of viscosity µ is governed by stokes’ law 1851 as follow:
 The Stokes’ law (the drag force on a rigid spherical particle in a fluid) is:-

 The Reynolds number for an object moving in a fluid, called the particle Reynolds number
and often denoted Rep, characterizes the nature of the surrounding flow and its fall velocity.
 Where the viscosity is naturally high, such as polymer solutions and polymer melts, flow is
normally laminar. The Reynolds number is very small and Stokes' law can be used to
measure the viscosity of the fluid. Spheres are allowed to fall through the fluid and they reach
the terminal velocity quickly, from which the viscosity can be determined.
 Single particle Reynolds number (Rep) is defined as:
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Drag coefficient
 In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as: CD, Cₓ or
Cw) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag or
resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water.
 It is used in the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates
the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag.
 The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area.

 Drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number. The drag curve applies

only under restricted conditions:-
 The particle must be a solid sphere
 The particle must be far from other particles and the vessel wall so
that the flow pattern around the particle is not distorted.
 It must be moving at its terminal velocity with respect to the fluid.
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Four regions are identified: the Stokes’ law region; the Newton’s
law region in which the drag coefficient is independent of
Reynolds number; an intermediate region between the Stokes and
Newton regions; and the boundary layer separation region.

 The Drag coefficient over the entire range becomes:

Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 A particle falling from rest in a fluid will initially experience a high
acceleration.

 As the particle accelerates the drag force increases, causing the

acceleration to be reduced.

 Eventually a force balance (the forces of buoyancy, drag and gravity )is
achieved when the acceleration is zero and a terminal relative velocity is
reached. This is known as the single particle terminal velocity.
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
Example:-1
A particle of 2 mm in diameter and density of 2500 kg/m3 is
settling in a stagnant fluid in the Stokes’ flow regime.
a) Calculate the viscosity of the fluid if the fluid density is 1000
kg/m3 and the particle falls at a terminal velocity of 4 mm/s.
b) What is the drag force on the particle at these conditions?
c) What is the particle drag coefficient at these conditions?
d) What is the particle acceleration at these conditions?
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics

 Shape affects drag coefficient far more in the intermediate and

Newton’s law regions than in the Stokes’ law region.
 This is because:
 It is interesting to note that in the Stokes’ law region
particles fall with their longest surface nearly
parallel to the direction of motion.
 whereas, in the Newton’s law region particles
present with their maximum area to the oncoming
fluid.
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics

Drag coefficients in fluids with Reynolds number approximately 104

 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 For a given particle; if UT is unknown and X is given then the drag
coefficient can be calculated using:

 For a given particle; if X is unknown and UT is given then the drag

coefficient can be calculated using:
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics

 Small particles in gases and all common particles in liquids

quickly accelerate to their terminal velocity.
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
Example:-2
A particle of equivalent sphere volume diameter 0.2 mm, density 2500
kg/m3 and sphericity 0.6 falls freely under gravity in a fluid of density 1.0
kg/m3 and viscosity 2x10-5 Pas. Estimate the terminal velocity reached by
the particle.
Solution:-
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
These values are plotted on the standard drag curves for particles of different sphericity
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
Example:-3
A spherical particle of density 1500 kg/m3 has a terminal velocity of 1 cm/s
in a fluid of density 800 kg/m3 and viscosity 0.001 Pas. Estimate the
diameter of the particle.
 Solution:-
When UT is known and x unknown, we first calculate the dimensionless
group:
Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 Single Particle in a Fluid - Basics
 PARTICLE SETTLING
 In free settling:-
 A particle is at a sufficient distance from the walls of the container and
from other particles so that the fall is not affected.
 Interference is less than 1% if the ratio of the particle diameter to the
container diameter is less than 1:200 or if the particle concentration is
less than 0.2 vol % in the solution.
In Hindered settling:-
 This occurred when the particles are crowded so that they settle at a lower
rate, since viscosity and upward flow of liquid are increased which
increases the drag forces.
 The velocity gradients of each particles are affected by the presence of
nearby particles.
An exponent changes
 The settling velocity can be obtained from: from 4.6 in stokes range to
about 2.5 in Newton's law
Void fraction range.
Multiple Particle In a Fluid ???
Reading Assignment
 Introduction Packed/Solid Beds

 Introduction to solid beds

 Fixed and fluidized bed and Flow of fluid through a
granular bed

The objective here is to determine the pressure drop across the bed and
the minimum fluidization velocity during fluidization process.
 Introduction Solid Beds
 Introduction
 A typical packed/solid bed is a cylindrical column that is
filled with a suitable packing material.
 The liquid is distributed as uniformly as possible at the top of
the column and flows downward, wetting the packing material.
 A gas is admitted at the bottom, and flows upward, contacting
the liquid in a countercurrent fashion.
 The resistance to the flow of a fluid through the voids in a bed of
solids is the resultant of the total drag of all the particles in the
bed.
…Cont.

Tortuous channel
 …Cont.
Void fraction for fluid and solids

VO
 FLUIDIZATION
 When a liquid or a gas is passed at very low velocity up through a bed of solid particles,
the particles do not move, and the pressure drop is given by the Ergun equation.
 If the fluid velocity is steadily increased, the pressure drop and the drag on individual
particles increase, and eventually the particle start to move and become suspended in the
fluid.
 The terms fluidization and fluidized beds are used for the condition of fully suspended
particles, the suspension behaves like a dense phase.
 Fluidization is a process whereby a granular material is converted from a static
solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state.
 This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular
material.
 The most common reason for fluidizing a bed is to obtain vigorous agitation of the
solids in contact with the fluid, leading to an enhanced transport mechanism
(diffusion, convection, and mass/energy transfer).
 Questions we wish to ask about fluidized beds:
 At what fluid velocity does the bed become fluidized?
 What is the pressure drop across the bed?
 How much does the bed expand on fluidization?
 Cont’d
Advantage of fluidization
 Liquid like behavior – easy to control and automate
 Rapid mixing, uniform temperature and concentrations.
 Slow to respond to rapid temperature changes.
 Useful for large and small operations.
 Heat and mass transfer rates are high, requiring smaller surfaces.

Disadvantage of fluidization
 Bubbling beds of fine particles are difficult to predict
 Rapid mixing of solids causes non-uniform residence times for
continuous flow reactors.
 Particle break-up.
 Pipe and wall vessels erode due to particle collision.
 Cont’d
Uses of fluidization
1. Chemical reactors
2. Heat exchange
3. Drying
4. Coating
5. Solidification / granulation
6. Growth of particles
7. Adsorption / desorption
Etc.
 Types of fluidization
 Two types of fluidization
(1) Particulate fluidization:- bed remains homogeneous, intimate contact between gas &
solid
(2) bubbling fluidization:- bubbles with only a small % of gas passes in the spaces
between particles, little contact between bubbles & particles
 Cont’d
Zones in fluidized bed
 Freeboard. Region between the bed
surface and the gas outlet.
 Splash zone. Region just above the bed
surface in which coarse particles fall
back down.

 Disengagement zone. Region above the

splash zone in which the upward flux
and suspension concentration of fine
particles decreases with increasing
height.

 Dilute-phase transport zone. Region

above the disengagement zone in which
all particles are carried upwards; particle
flux and suspension concentration are
constant with height.
 Conditions For Fluidization
Based on the Figure:
 If the superficial velocity (velocity), is gradually
increased, the pressure drop will increases,
but the particles do not move and the height
(L) remains the same.
 At a certain velocity, the pressure drop across
the bed counterbalances the forces of gravity
on the particles or the weight of the bed
 At point A = Any further increase in velocity,
causes the particles to move
 At point B = Further increase in velocity, the
particles become separate enough to move
about in the bed and true fluidization begins.

 From point B to point C = Once bed is fluidized, the pressure drop across the bed stays constant
, but the bed heights continues to increase with increasing velocity.
 From point C to B = If the velocity is gradually reduced, the pressure drop remains constant and
the bed height decreases.
 Cont’d
 To analyze the system and model it, we need to consider the response of the
particles in the bed to the applied flow rate (i.e., superficial velocity):-
 Low velocity: fluid does not impart enough drag to overcome gravity
and particles do not move.  Fixed Bed.
 High velocity: at high enough velocities, fluid drag plus buoyancy
overcome the gravitational force and the bed expands. Fluidized Bed
 ∆P for increasing µm: until onset of fluidization, ∆P increases, and then
becomes constant.
 Bed length for increasing µm: Bed length (L) is constant until onset of
fluidization and then begins to increase.
MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION VELOCITY AND THE PRESSURE DROP
 The purpose of this section is to estimate the pressure drop, which is the energy lost while
fluid is flow and the minimum fluidization velocity.
 Minimum velocity of fluidization took place at incipient (beginning) fluidization.
 During this stage, the ratio of pressure drop to the vessel height (L) is given by:

Where M = minimum bed porosity/void fraction

 Pressure drop given by Ergun Eqn.:


where
 …Cont.
Note:
 The above equation can be used with gases using average gas
density between inlet and outlet.
 For turbulent flow, the first term on the Ergun eq.
vanishes/ignored.
 For laminar flow, the second term on the Ergun eq. can be
ignored
 Therefore, to solve problems, one could just start with the
Ergun equation, and can either use one of the terms on the
Ergun eq. depending on the flow regime (laminar or
turbulent).
 …Cont.
Note!:
 Very small particles (NRep, mf <20), minimum fluidization velocity obtained from:

g p    3
V OM  M 2 D2
150 1 M s p

Only the laminar-term is significant



 Larger Particles (NRep, mf > 1000), minimum fluidization velocity obtained from:

  3 1/2
s D g    


 
 M 
V OM  
p  p

 1.75 

 

only the turbulent-term is significant

 Bed Height and porosity
Bed height is needed in order to size the vessel

LM

where S

LM = minimum bed height at onset of fluidization

m = mass of particles
S = cross-sectional area of fluidized bed
M = void fraction at minimum fluidization
p = density of particle
 Void Fraction at Min. Fluidization
M depends on the shape of the particles. For spherical particles M is usually 0.4 – 0.45.
 Example:-1
A bed of ion-exchange beads 8ft deep is to be backwashed with water to remove
dirt. The particle have a density of 1.24g/cm3 and an average size of 1.1 mm.
What is the minimum fluidization velocity using water at 20oC have a density of
980kg/m3. The beads are assumed to be spherical ( s= 1 ) and  M is taken as
0.4.


Example:-2
A bed of ion-exchange beads 8ft deep is to be backwashed with water to remove
dirt. The particle have a density of 1.24g/cm3 and an average size of 1.1 mm.
What is the minimum fluidization velocity using water at 20oC have a density of
980kg/m3 and viscosity of 1.005x103pas. The beads are assumed to be spherical
( s = 1 ) and  M is taken as 0.4.


Example:-3
Solid particles having a size of 0.12 mm, a shape factor ɸs of 0.88, and a density of 1000
kg/m3 are to be fluidized using water at 25oC having density 997 kg/m3 of and viscosity of
897.3 pas. The voidage at minimum fluidizing conditions Ԑm is 0.42.
a. If the cross section of the empty bed is 0.3 m2 and the bed contains 300kg of solid, calculate
the minimum height of the fluidized bed.
b. Calculate the pressure drop at minimum fluidizing conditions.
c. Calculate the minimum velocity for fluidization.
…Cont.