CHAPTER 3

Torsion

Deformations in a circular shaft

Consider a circular shaft of radius R and length L
fixed at one end. If a torque T is applied to the
free end, the shaft will twist and the free end will
max
rotate by an angle  called angle of twist. Every C
R T
cross section of the shaft will rotate as a disk and 
will remain plane without distortion. For small B 
deformations we can say that the small arc L
BC   L , but also BC  R  , thus we have
R
   (3-1)
L
where  denotes the shearing strain.
The same discussion holds also for any inner cylinder of radius r detached from the above shaft.
Thus we can write
r
   (3-2)
L
From this equation we see that the shearing strain  varies linearly with the distance r from the axis
of the shaft. When r  0 ,   0 , and when r  R ,  attains its maximum value at the surface of the
shaft
R
 max   (3-3)
L
Eliminating  in equations (3-2) and (3-3) we can express the shearing strain  at any distance r
from the axis of the shaft as a function of the maximum strain, thus:
r
   max (3-4)
R
Stresses in the elastic range
It will be assumed that the deformations are small and the shearing R
 max
stress , resulting from the applied torque, does not exceed the yielding
O
strength y of the material.
In this range the Hook's law for shearing stress and strain applies
  G (3-5)
r
Substituting the value of g from equation (3-2) (    ) into equation (3-5) we obtain
L

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 28

 r
  G   (3-6)
L
From this equation we can see that the shearing stress  varies linearly with the radius r. When r =
0,  = 0 and when r = R (at the surface of the shaft) the stress is maximum
R
 max  G   (3-7)
L
 max
From equation (3-7) substituting the value of   in equation (3-6) we obtain
G R L 
 r   max r
  G    max (3-8)
 L  G R L  R
This equation gives the stress  as a fraction of max. min max
For a hollow shaft of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 the minimum R1
shearing stress min is attained at the inner radius and its value from
equation (3-8) is R2

R1
 min   max (3-9)
R2

Relation between the shearing stress and the torque in the elastic range
To determine the relation between the shearing stress  and the torque T,
dA dA
we proceed as follows:
For an infinitesimal area dA the shearing force at any distance r from the r

axis of the shaft is  dA and is tangent to a circle of radius r. The moment O

of this infinitesimal force about the axis of the shaft is r  dA . The sum of
all these infinitesimal moments must be equal to the magnitude of the
applied torque T
T   r  dA (3-10)
A

Substituting the value of  from equation (3-8) into (3-10) we obtain


 
r 
T r   max  dA  max r 2 dA (3-11)
A R  R A

r dA  J the polar moment of inertia with respect to the center of the circle O.
2
But the integral
A

 max
T J (3-12)
R
and
TR
 max  (3-13)
J
The shearing stress  at any distance r from the axis of the shaft equals:

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 29

 Tr
  (3-14)
J
For a circular shaft of radius R, the polar moment of inertia equals
 R4
J (mm4)
2
For hollow circular shaft of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2, the polar moment of inertia is

J 
2
R 4
2  R14  (mm4)

It can be demonstrated that for carefully selected ratio R1 R2 of hollow circular shaft, the
maximum shearing stress will be slightly greater than that of a solid circular shaft of same outer
radius R2, but the area of the hollow shaft will be decreased considerably giving a less heavy shaft.

Example
A solid circular shaft of diameter d = 60 mm and length L = 2 m is subjected to a torque T = 3
kN.m, determine:
a) the maximum shearing stress
b) the stress at radius r = 20 mm
c) the maximum shear strain if G  80  10 3 MPa. T = 3 kN.m
B
d) the angle of twist in degrees. kN.m
Solution:

a) J 
3.1430
4
 127.2  10 4 mm 4
2m A

 max 
3 10 30  70.8 MPa
6

127.2  10 4

b)  
3  10 20  47.2 MPa
6

127.2  10 4
 20 
or    70.8  47.2 MPa
 30 
70.8
c)  max   8.85  10  4 rad
80  10 3

d)  
8.85  10 2  10   0.059 rad
4 3

30
 180 
  0.059    3.38
o

  

Example
Determine the diameter of a solid circular shaft made of steel to support a torque T = 10 kN.m if the
maximum shearing stress shall not exceed  all  120 MPa .
Solution:
Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 30
120 
10 10  R  210 10 
6 6

 R 2 3.14 R
4 3

210 10  6
 R3   53078 mm 3

3.14120
 R  37.6 mm
 d  2R  237.6  75.2 mm say d = 76 mm

Example
A hollow circular steel shaft has an inner diameter equal to
40 mm and outer diameter equal to 60 mm, determine:
1) the largest torque that can be applied to the shaft if the
T
maximum shearing stress shall not exceed 120 MPa. B

2) the minimum shearing stress

Solution: A

1) J 
3.14
2
 
304  204  1.021  10 6 mm 4

120 
T 30 
 T 
 
120 1.021 10 6  4.08  10 6 N.mm  4.08 kN.m
1021  10 4 30

2)  min 
4.08 10 20  79.9 MPa
6

1.021  10 6
Alternative solution

 max  120  80 MPa

R1 20
 min 
R2 30

Shearing stress in shafts of variable cross-section

The formulae which we have derived previously for the shearing stress in a shaft of uniform cross-
section subjected to torque at the end of the shaft, can be used for a shaft of variable cross-section
subjected to torques at points other than the ends of the shaft. The internal torque, in each section
where the shaft changes its diameter or where the external torque changes it magnitude or direction,
can be determined by cutting the shaft at that point and considering the equilibrium of either part
under the external and internal torques. See the following example.

Example
For the shaft of variable cross-section in figure, 6 kN.m 4 kN.m
determine the shearing stress in each portion if 2 kN.m kN.m kN.m
kN.m
portion AB is circular solid with diameter equal to 60
mm, portion CD is circular solid with diameter equal A
B C D
to 80 mm, while portion BC has a hollow circular

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 31

section with the inner diameter equal to 80 mm and
the outer diameter equal to 100 mm.
Solution:
Assume that torques having the vector directed with positive x-axis are positive
T  0  2  T  0  T  2 kN.m
AB AB
6 kN.m 4 kN.m
T  0  2  6  T  0  T  4 kN.m
BC BC
2 kN.m
kN.m
kN.m kN.m

T  0  4  T  0  T  4 kN.m
CD CD
A
J AB 
3.14304  1.272  10 mm6 4
B C D

2 2 kN.m
kN.m
J BC 
3.14
2
 
504  404  5.793  10 6 mm 4
TAB

A
6 kN.m
J CD 
3.1440 4
 4.019  10 mm 6 4 2 kN.m kN.m TBC
TCD 4 kN.m
kN.m
kN.m kN.
2

 AB 
2  10 30  47.2 MPa
6

1.272  10 6

 BC 
4  10 50  34.5 MPa
6

5.793  10 6

 CD 
4  10 40  39.8 MPa
6

4.019  10 6

Stresses due to torsion on inclined surfaces T T

Until now we have considered only shearing
stresses because the elements considered had the D
N
faces either perpendicular or parallel to the axis of
the shaft. But we know that normal stresses, max Ao
shearing stresses or a combination of them can
C
exist depending on the orientation of the faces of B
max Ao
the element.
Now consider rectangular element in figure which faces are subjected to shearing stresses only. Cut
the element in two triangles and consider the lower triangle BCD. We can see that for equilibrium
of the triangle BCD, face CD must be subjected to tensile force N given by:
N   max Ao 2 (3-15)

where Ao is the area of faces BC and BD. Taking into account that the area of face CD is A  Ao 2
the corresponding tensile stress is
N  max Ao 2
    max (3-16)
A Ao 2

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 32

On face BE of the triangle we find a compressive stress equal to E
   max . We conclude that the stresses exerted on the faces inclined N

by 45o from the axis of the shaft are normal stresses equal to the max Ao
maximum shearing stress in the shaft.
TR B C
 max   max   (3-17) max Ao
J
For this reason, ductile materials break by shearing stresses at surfaces normal to the axis of the
shaft, while brittle materials break by normal stresses at surfaces inclined 45 o from the axis of the
shaft.

Relation between torque and angle of twist in the elastic range

Consider a shaft subjected to torque T so that deformations are in the elastic range. From previous
discussion we found that  max  R L , but in the elastic range hook's law applies    G , thus
 max TR
 max  
G GJ
R TR
  (3-18)
L GJ
Hence
TL
 (in radians) (3-19)
GJ
From this relation we see that within the elastic range the angle of twist  is proportional to the
torque T. Equation (3-19) enables us to determine experimentally the modulus of rigidity G.

Experimental determination of the modulus of rigidity G

Applied torque T (N.mm)

A cylindrical specimen of known diameter and length is

placed in a torsion testing machine. Torques of increasing
magnitude are applied to the specimen and the
corresponding values of  are recorded. In the elastic range
the points obtained by plotting  against T will fall on a
straight line. The slope of this line represents the quantity
Angle of twist  (radians)
GJ L . Because J and L are known we can determine G.

Example
What torque should be applied to a solid circular steel
shaft in figure having a diameter d = 80 mm to produce T
B
an angle of twist of 4o? Assume G  80  10 3 MPa .
Solution: A
2m

J
3.1440 4
 4.02  10 6 mm 4
2

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 33

  3.14 
  4o  3
  69.8  10 rad
 180 

T
80 10 4.02 10  69.8 10   11.2 10
3 6
3 6
N  11.2 kN
2  10 3

Example
What angle of twist will be produced by a torque T in the previous shaft, if the maximum shearing
stress on the surface of the shaft is 80 MPa?
Solution:

80 
T 40 
 T 
 
80 4.02  10 6  8.04  10 6 N.mm
4.02  10 6 40


8.04 10 2 10   0.05 rad
6 3

80 10 4.02 10 

3 6

 180 
  0.05   2.9
o

 3.14 

Angle of twist of shafts of variable cross-section

If the shaft is composed of several portions of different cross-sections (different Ji), different
lengths Li, different materials Gi, and subjected to several torques Ti applied at different locations,
the total angle of twist  equals

  GT LJi

i
i

i
(3-20)

Example
The shaft in figure is composed of 3 portions.
Portion AB is circular solid with diameter dAB T = 3 kN.m
= 40 mm and made of aluminum. Portion BC
T = 1 kN.m
is circular solid with diameter dBC = 60 mm D
C T = 0.2 kN.m
and made of brass. Portion CD is made of steel
0.5 m
and has circular hollow section with the inner B
0.3 m
diameter equal to 40 mm and the outer A
0.4 m
diameter equal to 80 mm. Determine the total
angle of twist at point A.
Solution:

TAB  0.2 kN.m J AB 

3.14204  0.251  10 6 mm 4
2

TBC  0.2  1  1.2 kN.m J BC 

3.14304  1.272  10 6 mm 4
2

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 34

TCD  0.2  1  3  4.2 kN.m J CD 
3.14 404  204   3.768  10 6 mm 4
2

 AB 
0.2  10 400  0.0118 rad
6

27  10 0.251 10 
3 6

 BC 
1.2  10 300  0.0073 rad
6

39  10 1.272  10 
3 6

CD 
4.2  10 500  0.0070 rad
6

80  10 3.768  10 
3 6

tot  0.0118  0.0073  0.0070  0.0261 rad

 180 
tot  0.0261   1.45
o

 3. 14 

Statically indeterminate shafts T = 4 kN.m

Example
A
Shaft ABC in figure is composed of two portions.
B
Portion AB is made of steel and portion BC is made of
2m C
aluminum. The shaft has a uniform diameter d = 80
mm. Determine the reactions at supports A and C. 3m

Solution:
TA
Because the shaft is made of two portions of different
T = 4 kN.m
materials and different lengths, the reactions at A and
C will not be equal. Therefore TA  TC . A TC
B
For equilibrium of the shaft we have
TA  TC  4 C
This equation cannot be solved because it contains two unknowns. We need another equation
concerning deformations of the shaft. We note that the total angle of twist of the shaft AC, at either
ends, is zero because both ends are restrained. Thus
C  0
The angle of twist at end C is the sum of the angles of twist of portion AB and portion BC at the
same end.
TC LBC T  TC LAB
C    0
GBC J G AB J T = 4 kN.m


   
TC 3  10 3 4 2  10 3 TC 2  10 3
 
0
 A TC
27  10 3 80  10 3 80  10 3 B
 0.111 TC  0.1  10 6  0.025 TC  0 2m C
0.1  10  0.136 TC
6
3m
TC  0.735  10 6 N  0.735 kN

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 35

From the equation of equilibrium we have
TA  0.735  4
TA  3.265 kN

Example
A solid circular steel bar of diameter 50 mm and an
aluminum tube of outer diameter 80 mm and thickness 10 To
mm are connected to a fixed support and to a rigid disk as
shown in figure. Determine the maximum torque To that
can be applied to the disk if the allowable stress is 120 500 mm

MPa in the steel shaft and 70 MPa in the aluminum tube.

To
Solution:
For the equilibrium of the disk
Ts
To  Ts  Ta
where Ta

Ts is the torque exerted by the steel shaft on the disk and vice versa.
Ta is the torque exerted by the aluminum tube on the disk and vice versa.
The above equation of equilibrium cannot be solved because it contains two unknowns.
The compatibility equation is that the angle of twist of the steel shaft must be equal to the angle of
twist of the aluminum tube.
Ts L T L  G  J 
 s  a   a  Ta   a  a  Ts
G s J s Ga J a  Gs  J s 

Js 
3.1425
4
 0.613  10 6 mm 4
2

Ja 
3.14 404  304   2.75  10 6 mm 4
2
 27  10 3  2.75  10 6 
Ta   
3 
 T  1.514 Ts
6  s
 80  10  0.613  10 

Ta 
 all J a

702.75  10 6   4.81 kN.m
c 40

Ts 
4.81
 3.18 kN.m   s 

3.18  10 6 25 
 130 MPa  120 MPa (NG)
1.514 0.613  10 6
 all J s 1200.613  10 6 
Ts    2.94 kN.m
c 25
Ta  1.5142.94  4.45 kN.m
To  2.94  4.45  7.39 kN.m

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 36

Torsion of rectangular bars
When a torque is applied to rectangular bar of width b and thickness h, it doesn't rotate only but it
also warps. Therefore, the shearing stresses and the angle of twist cannot be determined by simple
geometric considerations as for the circular shaft. More advanced methods of elasticity were used to
determine the shearing stresses and angle of twist as follows:

T b
h

L b

T
 max  (3-21)
bh 2
TL TL
  (3-22)
G bh 3
GJ t
where J t   bh 3 is the torsional constant.
 and  are two constants that depend on the aspect ratio b h of the section. The Table below
reports the values of  and  in function of b h . For thin rectangular sections b h   , they tend
to the limiting value 1/3.

b/h 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 ∞

 0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333

 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333

Example
For the rectangular steel sections of equal area in figure, subjected to a torque T = 4 kN.m, compare
the maximum shearing stress  max and the angle of twist . The two sections have the same length L
120 mm
= 2 m. G  80  10 3 MPa .
Solution: 30 mm
Section 1: b h  120 30  4    0.282 ,   0.281
Section 1
4  10 6
 max   131.3 MPa 60 mm
0.282120302

4  10 6 2000
 0.11 rad
0.281120303 80  10 3 
60 mm

 180 
  0.11    6..5
o
Section 2
 3.14 
Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 37
Section 2: b h  60 60  1    0.208 ,   0.141
4  10 6
 max   89 MPa
0.20860602

4  10 6 2000
 0.055 rad
0.14160603 80  10 3 
 180 
  0.055    3.2
o

 3.14 
From the above results it can be seen that square sections are more resistant for torsion than thin
rectangular sections.

Torsion of thin walled sections composed of several rectangles

Thin-walled sections composed of several rectangles of uniform thickness h can be unfolded and
treated as a rectangular section of width b equal to the sum of the widths of the rectangles and
thickness h.

Example
For the L100 100 10 steel section in figure, determine the maximum shearing stress and the angle
of twist if the section is subjected to a torque T = 1 kN.m, and L = 0.5 m.
Solution: 10
b 190
  19      0.333 10
h 10
1  10 6
 max   150 MPa 100
0.333200102 10 190


1 10 0.5  10   0.0938 rad
6 3
100
0.33320010 80  10 
3 3

 180 
  0.0.938    5.38
o

 3.14 

Example
Determine the maximum torque that can be supported by the open thin-walled steel section in figure
if the allowable shearing stress  all  120 MPa . Also determine the corresponding angle of twist if
L = 2 m.
Solution: T
b = perimeter = 2 3.14100  628 mm
10 100 mm
b 628
  62.8      0.333 mm
h 10
Tmax
120 
0.333628102
Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 38
Tmax  2.51  10 6 N.mm  2.51 kN.m 10


2.51 10 2  10   0.312 rad
6 3

0.33362810 80  10  3
628 mm
3

 180 
  0.312    17.9
o

 3.14 


Thin-walled hollow sections
The shearing stress at any point of the section is given by t

T
 (3-23)
2t
where T
2
  area enclosed within the center line of the wall, mm .
t = wall thickness, mm.
The maximum shearing stress occurs at the point where the wall thickness is minimum.
T
 max  (3-24)
2  t min
The angle of twist for a section of variable thickness can be determined by


TL ds
 (3-25)
4 2 G t
If the section is regular and the thickness is constant, the angle of twist is given by
TL s
  (3-26)
4 G t
2

where s is the length of the center line, mm.

Example
Determine the maximum torque that can be supported by a thin-walled hollow circular section
having a mean radius of 100 mm and wall thickness of 10 mm, if the allowable shearing stress
 all  120 MPa . Also determine the angle of twist if L = 2 m. Compare the results with the case of
open section of the previous example.
Solution:
  3.14100  31.4  10 3 mm 2 T
2

Tmax 100 mm
120  10

2 32.4  10 3 10  mm

Tmax  75.36  10 6 N.mm  75.36 kN.m

s  23.14100  628 mm


75.36 10 2 10   628  0.03 rad
6 3

4 31.4  10  80  10  10
3 2 3

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 39

  180 
  0.03    1.72
o

 3.14 
Comparison between closed section and open section
Tmax closed section 75.36
  30
Tmax open section 2.51
 open section 17.9
  10.4
 closed section 1.72

Example
For the thin-walled hollow aluminum section in figure subjected to a torque T = 4 kN.m, determine
the shearing stress in each wall, and determine the angle of twist if L = 2 m and G  27  10 3 MPa .
Solution:
  9677  7392 mm 2
4  10 6 4
 AB   67.6 MPa
273924 4 3 80

4  10 6
 CD   135.3 MPa 2
273922
4  10 6 100
 AC   54.1 MPa
273925
4  10 6
 BD   90.2 MPa
273923


4  10 2  10   96  96  77  77   0.153 rad
6 3

47392 27  10   4 3 
2 3
2 5
 180 
  0.153    8.8
o

 3.14 

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Amman 40