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Chapter 5. Three-Phase Transformers

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13778.50889

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 Chapter

5
Three-Phase Transformers
F. Gonzalez-Longatt

5.1 Objective
This chapter presents a general summary of three-phase transformers and its practical aspects related to the
operation in AC steady-state systems.
5.2 Introduction
A power transformer is defined as1:
"A power transformer a static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which, by electromagnetic induction,
transforms a system of alternating voltage and current into another system of voltage and current usually of
different values and at the same frequency for the purpose of transmitting electrical power."
In the UK high-voltage, long-distance transmission systems operate at 275 kV and 400 kV; distribution systems
operate most commonly at 132 kV, 66 kV and 33 kV, with local systems operating at 11 kV down to 415 V. All of these
systems have three-phases. Transmission and distribution systems operate at high voltages in order to reduce loses
and improve efficiency. However, it is clear that for such systems to work three-phase transformers are required to
link sections operating at different voltages.
5.3 Three-phase transformer basics
The primary windings of three identical single-phase transformers are connected to a 3-phase supply, and each
winding is connected between a pair of lines. That situation is depicted in Fig. 5.1(a).
a1 c1
a2 b1
b2 c2

1 2 3
a1

a2

(a) Single-phase transformers connected to a three-phase supply: three-phase transformer bank.

1  2  3
a1 b1 c1

a2 b2 c2

(b) Three-limb transformer: Three-phase transformer unit.

Fig. 5.1. Three-phase transformer arrangements: (a) bank and (b) unit. Magnetic flux directions are shown.

Under normal balanced conditions, the three voltages, and consequently the three fluxes, are mutually displaced by
120, so that 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 . If the three transformers are placed side-by-side, with a common yoke top and bottom,
there is no need to provide a return path for the flux. This arrangement, shown in Fig. 5.1(b), is the very common 3-
limb construction.
In Fig. 5.2(b), the lengths of the magnetic paths for the three phases are not quite equal, and the magnetising currents
are consequently not balanced, with the centre phase being lower.
Very large transformers use the five-limb construction of Fig. 5.2., which has windings only on the centre three limbs.
Five limb transformers have balanced phases, but because the yokes and outer limbs carry only half the flux of the
centre limbs their size can be reduced. The reduction in height can ease transportation difficulties.
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1  2  2 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2

These heights are

reduced because
1 2 3 the yoke flux is
reduced

1 BS EN 60076-1:2011, Power transformers, Part 1: General. Sub-section 3.1.1 of Terms and definitions General.
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.2. Illustrative example of a 3-phase 5-limb transformer core. Magnetic flux directions are shown.

A 3-phase transformer bank costs less, weighs less, requires less floor space and has a slightly higher efficiency than
three single-phase transformers of the same total rating.
The VA rating of each phase (or each transformer of a group of three single-phase transformers) is one-third of the
total VA rating of the bank, regardless of the connection or core type used. However, the voltage and current ratings
of the individual phases or transformers depend on the connection used.
5.4 Three-phase connections
The number of possible of 3-phase transformer winding connections is considerable. However, straightforward
combinations of the standard star and delta arrangements are generally preferred. Common 3-phase transformer
connections are listed in Table 5.1, where the relationships are valid for balanced conditions only.

Star-Delta (Y-) IL1 IL2

VL1 + IP1
VP1 = I P1 = I L1 + +
3 VP1 + VL2
VL1
I L2 - -
VP 2 = VL2 IP2 = VP2 IP2
3 - -
N N2
VP1 = 1 VP 2 I P1 = IP2
N2 N1
where N1 = primary phase turns
N2 = secondary phase turns

Delta-Star (-Y) IL1 IL2

I L1 IP2 + +
VP1 = VL1 I P1 = +
3 VL1 + VP2
VL 2 - - VL2
VP 2 = I P 2 = I L2 IP1 VP1
3 - -
N1 N
VP1 = VP 2 I P1 = 2 IP2
N2 N1
where N1 = primary phase turns
N2 = secondary phase turns

Delta-Delta (-) IL1 IL2

I L1 + +
VP1 = VL1 I P1 = VL2
3 VL1 + +
I L2 - -
VP 2 = VL2 IP2 =
IP1 VP1 VP2 IP2
3 - -
N1 N2
VP1 = VP 2 I P1 = IP2
N2 N1
where N1 = primary phase turns
N2 = secondary phase turns

Star-Star (Y-Y) IL1 IL2

VL1 + + IP1 IP2 + +
VP1 = I P1 = I L1
3 VP1 VP2
VL1 VL2
VL 2 - -
VP 2 = I P 2 = I L2
3 - -
N N
VP1 = 1 VP 2 I P1 = 2 IP2
N2 N1
where N1 = primary phase turns
N2 = secondary phase turns
Table 5.1. Common 3-phase transformer connections. (valid only in balanced conditions)

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Page 2 of 8

 Three-Phase Transformers

• The star-delta connection is common in stepping down from a high to a medium or low voltage, since an earthed
neutral may then be provided on the HV side.
• Similarly, a delta-star connection is common when a voltage is stepped up to a high voltage. Delta-star is also
used in distribution systems where a neutral point is required for single-phase loads.
• In a delta-delta connection, one transformer may be removed for repair or maintenance, and the supply may be
maintained. The arrangement of the two remaining transformers is called an open-delta connection.
• The star-star connection is seldom used, because of the problems involved in harmonic reduction.
• In rectifier circuit applications secondary phase windings are sometimes inter-connected to produce a 6-phase
output or to improve load distribution between phases.

5.5 Transformer groups

A large number of possible transformer connections are specified in standards, where they are arranged in groups
that have the same primary to secondary phase displacement. The most common groups, listed in Table 5.2, are2:
• Group 1: Zero phase displacement (Yy0, Dd0, Dz0).
• Group 2: 180° phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6, Dz6).
• Group 3: 30° lagging phase displacement (Dy1, Yd1, Yz1).
• Group 4: 30° leading phase displacement (Dy11, Yd11, Yz11).
Connections are designated by letters; Y or y for star, D or d for delta and Z or z for zig-zag, upper case is used for
the high voltage (HV) windings and lower case for the low voltage (LV) windings. The differentiation between primary
and secondary is made on the basis of power flow alone; i.e. the winding receiving active power from a supply source
is the primary and the winding delivering active power to a load is the secondary. Some transformers do not have
their windings inter-connected internally but have both ends of each phase winding brought out to terminals; these
are designated III for high-voltage windings and iii for low-voltage windings. Some of the connections introduce a
phase displacement between the primary and secondary line voltages; for example, the delta-star arrangement of Fig.
4.2 has a 30° leading displacement. The group phase displacements are indicated using a clock face system where
zero phase displacements are 0 (or 12 o’clock), 180 is 6 (6 o’clock) 30° lagging is 1 (1 o’clock) and 30° leading is 11 (11
o’clock).
Vab VAB
30°
A a
+ + Van
VCA -
+ Van Vab -Vbn
+ -
C VAB n - Vbn
- - + -
-
VBC + Vcn b
+ Vcn Vbn
B c
VCA VBC
Group 4: +30° (Dy11)
Fig. 5.3. Delta-star 3-phase transformer: Group 4: Dy11.

5.6 Terminal markings

Transformer terminal markings are generally specified by standards; however, they evolve in time, and they often
differ between countries or standards regimes. The numbering style used here should not be taken as compliant with
any standard.
Transformer terminals are marked with upper case letters (e.g. ABC) for HV windings and with lower case letters
(e.g. abc) for LV windings. The ends of each winding or winding section are designated by sequential pairs of subscript
numbers (e.g. A1-A2 or b3-b4). Winding sections or tappings are numbered in order of their separation from 1. An HV
winding on phase A with four tappings would be numbered A1, A2, A3 … A6, with A1 and A6 being the ends of the
winding. If the induced emf in an HV winding A1-A2 is in the direction A1 to A2 at a given instant, then the induced
emf in the corresponding LV winding at the same instant will be from a1 to a2. These designations are demonstrated
in Fig. 4.3, which shows the winding connections for a group 2 delta-zig-zag (Dz6) arrangement.

The groups are derived from BS EN 60076-1:2011, Power transformers, Part 1: General. Annex D.
2

Page 3 of 8 Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

Chapter 5

A2 a2 A2 b1 c1

Yy0 Yy6 n
N n N

C2 B2 c2 b2 C2 B2 a1

A2 a2 A2 b c1
b1

Dd0 C A c a Dd6 C A
a c

C2 B B2 c2 b b2 C2 B B2 a1

A2 a4 A2 c3
b3
a b a b c
Dz0 C A Dz6 C A c n
b c
c n a b a
C2 B B2 c4 b4 C2 a3
B B2

Group 1 (0°) Group 2 (180°)

A2 a2 Dy11 A2 a2

Dy1 A B C A n b2
c2 n

C2 B2
C2 C B2 b2 B c2
A2 a2 A2 a2
c b
Yd1 Yd11 a
N c2 a N b2

C2 B2 b C2 B2 c
b2 c2
A2 a4 A2 a4
a
Yz1 c b
a Yz11 b b
N c N c b4
c4 n n
a a
C2 B2 b C2 B2
b4 c4 c

Group 3 (-30°) Group 4 (+30°)

Table 4.3. 3-phase transformer groups.

A1 A2 a3 a1 a2
a4
B1 B2 b3 b1 b2
b4
C1 C2
c3 c1 c2
c4
Fig. 5.4. Group 2 Dz6 winding connections

5.7 Three-phase transformer calculations

The behaviour of a 3-phase transformer is determined in the same way as a single-phase transformer, but it is
conventional to make the following assumptions:
• The primary and secondary windings can often be assumed to be star-connected, even if they are not 3,4. This
eliminates the problems of having to deal with delta/star combinations of voltage and current.
• Only one phase of the assumed star-star transformer is considered, i.e. the system is always assumed to be
balanced.
• The primary voltage of the hypothetical single-phase transformer is the line-to-neutral voltage of the incoming
line.
• The secondary voltage of the hypothetical single-phase transformer is the line-to-neutral voltage of the outgoing
line.

3 In conventional power applications, the terms primary and secondary are used only in reference to the direction of power flow, the windings being
identified by their rated voltage, i.e. high or low voltage. Here the terms primary and secondary are retained in the description of the equivalent
circuit to maintain continuity with previous material, however, they may not be used in practice.
4 In most cases when considering industrial 3-phase loads the connection is unknown. For example, 3-phase motors, generators transformers,

capacitors, and so on, often have only three external terminals with no way to tell the internal connection. Under these circumstances, it is normal
to assume that the connection is a star (because a star connection is slightly easier to deal with than a delta connection).
In a star connection, the impedance per phase is taken to be the line-to-neutral impedance, the voltage per phase is simply the line voltage divided
by and the current per phase is equal to the line current.
Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Page 4 of 8
 Three-Phase Transformers

• The nominal power rating of the hypothetical single-phase transformer is one-third of the rating of the 3-phase
transformer bank.
• The load on the hypothetical single-phase transformer is one-third of the load on the 3-phase transformer bank.

5.8 Equivalent circuits

Three-phase transformers are usually represented by the conventional (approximate) single-phase equivalent circuit
Fig. 5.4, with the phases, assumed to be the same.

VP 1 Ip1 jX1

Ip1 R1 X1 I P2 IP 2 Ip1 R1

+ IP0 + V
+ P2

+ Z1 Ip1
VP 1 rm xm V P2 VP 2
EP1 f2 I P2

- IP 0a - IP 0r - - f1
N1:N2
Ideal IP0
Transformer
Fig. 5.5. Approximate phase equivalent circuit (left) and phasor diagram (right).

The circuit of Fig. 5.4 comprises:

• The primary circuit phase resistance R1, which is equivalent to the primary and referred secondary
phase resistances.
• The primary circuit phase reactance X1, which is equivalent to the primary and referred secondary
phase leakage reactances.
• The core loss resistance rm taking an active current IP0a, such that I P 0a 2rm is one-third of the total core
loss.
• The magnetizing reactance xm taking a reactive current IP0r which is the magnetizing current per phase.
• An ideal transformer of turns ratio N1:N2 having the following characteristics:
The core material has infinite relatively permeability, i.e. it has zero reluctance.
The core material exhibits no hysteresis (and therefore no hysteresis loss).
The core material is non-conductive, i.e. it has infinite resistivity (and therefore no eddy current loss).
All flux set up by one winding links the other, i.e. mutual coupling is perfect.
The windings have zero resistance (and therefore no resistive losses).
In addition:
• IP0 is the no-load primary phase current, which comprises the active component IP0a, which is in phase
with VP1, and the reactive component IP0r, which is in phase quadrature with VP1.
• I P 2 is the component of the primary phase current which compensates for the secondary phase current.

• IP1 is the total primary phase current and the phasor sum of IP0 and I P 2 .

• I P 2 R1 is the voltage drop associated with the total phase winding resistance and is in phase with I P 2 .

• I P 2 X1 is the voltage drop associated with the total phase leakage reactance and is in phase quadrature
with I P 2 .

• cos f1 and cos f2 are the primary and secondary power factors respectively.
• VP 2 = VP 2 ( N2 N1 )

I P 2 N 2
• N1 I P 2 = N2 I P 2 or =
I P 2 N1

Page 5 of 8 Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

Chapter 5

Because the no-load current is relatively small rm and xm are often neglected when considering the behaviour near
full-load.
5.9 Rating and performance
The basic electrical components of a definition of rating for a 3-phase transformer are:
• Rated power
• Rated line voltages
• Rated line currents
• Rated frequency
• Group
Note: These are only some of the elements which a manufacturer is required to include on the rating plate
fixed to every transformer produced.
The two most important performance criteria by which transformers are judged - voltage regulation and efficiency -
can be predicted quite accurately using the equivalent circuits.
5.9.1 Rated power
The nominal rated power of a transformer is a conventional value of apparent power (in VA, kVA or MVA) which the
transformer can safely supply under the manufacturer's specified conditions, i.e. the rating specifies the output. It
establishes the rated secondary winding current and implies the rated primary winding current. The rated power has
an almost exclusively thermal basis, the limitation being the maximum working temperature for which the insulation
will have a reasonable economic life.
Because transformer losses are small in comparison to their operating power it is common to neglect them for the
purposes of VA calculation and to assume that:
S1 = 3VP1 I P1  S2 = 3VP 2 I P 2 (5.1)
Or:
S1 = 3VL1 I L1  S2 = 3VL2 I L2 (5.2)
and
P1 = 3VP1 I P1 cosf1  P2 = 3VP 2 I P 2 cos f2 (5.3)
or
P1 = 3VL1 I L1 cos (f1 )  P2 = 3VL2 I L2 cos (f2 ) (5.4)
where:
S1, S2 = the primary and secondary apparent powers respectively (VA)
P1, P2 = the primary and secondary powers respectively (Watt)
f1, f2 = primary and secondary power factors respectively
Note: The practice of neglecting the losses when making VA calculations is only permissible when
considering large transformers where losses are a small proportion of overall power transfer and the
efficiency is very high. In small transformers, it is usually necessary to take account of the losses.
5.9.2 Voltage regulation (VR)
Voltage regulation (VR) is the change in the secondary voltage between no-load and full-load with the primary voltage
assumed constant. It can be expressed directly as a voltage:
Voltage regulation (VR) = no-load voltage – full-load voltage (5.5)
but is usually expressed as a fraction of the no-load voltage, either per-unit or per-cent.
no-load voltage − full-load voltage
Voltage regulation (VR ) % = 100% (5.6)
no-load voltage
which can be calculated with the line or phase voltages, or
I
Voltage regulation (VR ) %  P 2 ( R1 cos 2  X1 sin 2 ) 100% (5.7)
V P1

which is calculated with phase current and voltage, with the reactive component added for lagging power factors and
subtracted for leading power factors.
5.9.3 Efficiency ()
Efficiency () is the ratio of output power and input power. It can be expressed either in per-unit or percentage terms.
output power output power
efficiency,  % = = 100% (5.8)
input power output power + losses

5.9.4 Power Losses

The losses in a transformer have two main components:
• Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core and

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Page 6 of 8

 Three-Phase Transformers

• Resistive losses in the windings

5.9.4.1 Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core (Pi)

Core losses are reasonably constant since they vary with flux and the flux varies by only a few per cent between no-
load and full-load. These losses are usually called iron losses (Pi)

5.9.4.2 Resistive losses in the windings (Pc)

Total resistive losses (Pc) vary with load since they are related to the square of the winding currents. These losses are
usually called copper losses.
So that the efficiency () is defined as:
3VP 2 I P 2 cos (f2 )
= 100% (5.9)
3V I cos (f ) + P + P
P2 P2 2 i c

or
3VL 2 I L 2 cos (f2 )
= 100% (5.10)
3VL 2 I L 2 cos (f2 ) + Pi + Pc

Iron losses (Pi) are represented in the equivalent circuit by the power dissipated in the shunt phase resistances rm, so
that

Pi = 3 
(VP1 )2 [watts] (5.11)
rm

Copper losses (Pc) are represented in the equivalent circuit by the power dissipated in the series phase resistances R1,
so that
Pc = 3  ( I P 2 ) R1 [watts]
2
(5.12)
The full-load output power = S cos (f2), where S is the product of the rated secondary voltage and current, i.e. the
apparent power, so that at n times full-load:
n  S cos f2
 fl = 100%
n  S cos f2 + Pi + n2  Pc (5.13)

• Maximum efficiency ( = 1.0 = 100%) occurs when the iron loss and copper loss are equal:
Pi  Pc (maximum efficiency) (5.14)
Maximum efficiency occurs therefore at the fraction n of full load where:
Pi = n2  Pc (5.15)
and
n = Pi Pc (5.16)
Note: All of the equations in this section are valid for balanced conditions only, under other conditions
individual phase components of voltage, current and losses must be considered.
5.10 All-day (or energy) efficiency
The efficiency () as defined in Section 5.9.3 is sometimes called the ordinary or commercial efficiency, but there is a
second definition which is a measure of the efficiency of energy transfer in any 24-hour period.
output in kilowatt-hours
all-day efficiency = 100% (5.17)
input in kilowatt-hours 
Transformers are usually designed to have their maximum efficiency at a load that will maximise their all-day
efficiency. For example, generator transformers usually operate continuously at or near their full-load consequently
their maximum ordinary efficiency should be at full-load, but distribution transformers often operate well below their
full-load for long periods, consequently their maximum ordinary efficiency should occur at a lower load. Distribution
transformers have their primary windings connected to the supply 24 hours a day. The core losses are dissipated
continuously whereas the copper losses are dissipated only while the transformer is on load. If a transformer is not
operating on load continuously its all-day efficiency is less than its ordinary efficiency.
5.11 End notes
In most cases when considering industrial 3-phase loads the connection is unknown. For example, 3-phase motors,
generators transformers, capacitors, and so on, often have only three external terminals with no way to tell the
internal connection. Under these circumstances it is normal to assume that the connection is star (because a star
connection is slightly easier to deal with than a delta connection).
In a star connection the impedance per phase is taken to be the line-to-neutral impedance, the voltage per phase is
simply the line voltage divided by 3 and the current per phase is equal to the line current.

Page 7 of 8 Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt

Chapter 5

The assumption of star connection is not limited to individual loads but can be made for entire load centres such as a
factory containing motors, heaters furnaces, lights etc.

Dr. F. Gonzalez-Longatt Chapter_5_three-phase_Transformer_v2.docx Page 8 of 8

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