Chapter Two

Literature Review

This chapter sheds light on the theoretical background of second language

vocabulary acquisition. It also presents a historical overview of some of the traditional
methods for teaching vocabulary. In addition, it briefly describes some of the popular
techniques utilized by second language teachers in favor of teaching vocabulary . It
also presents some of the previous studies which are concerned with vocabulary
teaching and learning in second language class.

2.1 What is vocabulary ?

The conventional answer for this question likely has something to do with the words
of a language, which is perhaps how most people think of vocabulary, and that is
correct because vocabulary does deal with words. Yet vocabulary is much more than
just single words. This takes us to a more complex term as some recent vocabulary
studies draw on an understanding of lexis, the Greek for word, which in English
“refers to all the words in a language, the entire vocabulary of a language” (Barcroft,
Sunderman, & Schmitt, 2011, p. 571). So it will probably not surprise you to learn that
vocabulary also includes lexical chunks, phrases of two or more words, such as Good
morning and Nice to meet you, which research suggests children and adults learn as
single lexical units." Phrases like these involve more than one word but have a clear,
formulaic usage and make up a significant portion of spoken or written English
language usage. Also called formulaic sequences" (Alali & Schmitt, 2012). So
vocabulary can be defined as the words of a language, including single items and
phrases or chunks of several words which convey a particular meaning, the way
individual words do.

It is important to mention that some researchers have viewed the difference between
word and vocabulary. Richards and his colleagues. (1992. as cited in Siriwan
2007 :18), define the term word as “the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur
on its own in speech or writing” , but vocabulary, as “a set of lexemes which includes
single words, compound words and idioms” . For the purpose of the current study, a
vocabulary means both a list of words and the range of words known . Here, the two
concepts word and vocabulary are used interchangeably with the same meaning. And
since the main purpose of the study is to explore the effectiveness of graded readers
on vocabulary learning ,the researcher will not elaborate on the long history of word
definitions ,and instead dedicate more explanation related to the current research.

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 2.2 Kinds of Vocabulary

Many experts of English Language Teaching divide vocabulary into two types:
active and passive vocabulary. Harmer (1991) distinguishes between these two major
types of vocabulary. The first type of vocabulary refers to the one that the students
have learnt and that they are expected to be able to use. Meanwhile, the second one
refers to the words which the students will recognize when they meet them, but which
they will probably not be able to pronounce.Haycraft, quoted by Hatch and Brown
(1995),indicate two kinds of vocabulary, namely receptive vocabulary and productive
vocabulary.
"Receptive Vocabulary is words that learners recognize and understand when they
are used in context, but cannot produce. It is vocabulary that learners recognize when
they see or meet in reading text but do not use it in speaking and writing" (Stuart
Webb, 2009).
" Productive Vocabulary is the words that the learners understand and can pronounce
correctly and use constructively in speaking and writing. It involves what is needed for
receptive vocabulary plus the ability to speak or write at the appropriate time.
Therefore, productive vocabulary can be addressed as an active process, because the
learners can produce the words to express their thoughts to others" (Stuart Webb,
2005).

2.3 Learning vocabulary

Many will probably argue that knowing the literal meaning of single words is what it
takes for an effective vocabulary acquisition ,but it is actually more complex than it
may appear. Thornbury (2002 ) explains that complete knowledge of a word includes
knowing its written and spoken form, its meanings and the words it most commonly
associated with, its derivation, how it is used in different situations its frequency.
Harmer ( 1993) lists the different aspects which are involved in knowing a word

1) Meaning, i.e. relate the word to an appropriate object or context

2) Usage, i.e. knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well as

style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of any
connotations and associations the word might have

3) Word formation, i.e. ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, to
know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),

4) 4) Grammar, i.e. to use it in the appropriate grammatical form

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 Generally speaking ,vocabulary learning often occurs in two ways.
First the vocabulary which is acquired incidentally through experience
when children are exposed to everyday encounters before they even start
attending school. Medina (1993:1) said:

" During the preschool years, children rely

exclusively on the oral language they listen to
in order to acquire their first language. This
acquisition of language takes place before
children can read and without explicit
instruction of any kind. Furthermore, even after
children begin to attend school, they continue to
acquire vocabulary that has not been learned
formally".

It is important to state that the quote above can

be applied on the overall language learning
process.This goes beyond picking single lexical
items.This is made clear by Krashen's theory
( 1989)
“Language acquisition is a subconscious process; while
it is happening we are not aware that it is happening,
and the competence developed this way is stored in the
brain subconsciously

There is also a stronger argument about this type of acquisition in

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (1989, as cited in Medina 1993); According to
this hypothesis, new, unfamiliar vocabulary is acquired when its
significance is made clear to the learner. Meaning is conveyed by
providing extra linguistic support such as illustrations, actions, photos, and
realia. Krashen further states that the amount of comprehensible input is
proportionate to the amount of vocabulary acquired. (Ibid).

2.4 Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary

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 As stated at the introduction of this study that teaching
vocabulary has gained much interest among linguists and
educationalists around the world. And, It has always been of
much concern for second language learners as they are keen
on improving their general command of vocabulary . This
has encouraged authors of English language teaching to
develop effective means of presenting new lexical items for
students. In fact, there are so many different techniques to
introduce vocabulary in the English calss;however this
section will present some of the most popular

2.4.1 Visual Techniques

Visual techniques include Realia: Using a variety of real objects which is one of the
most efficient ways of teaching and learning vocabulary. Another more interesting
tool is Pictures: The main advantage of pictures is that they are able to illustrate very
large objects which are not easily brought into the classroom. Mime and gesture: This
is an extremely effective way of introducing a new word since it resembles to the Total
Physical Response, which clearly promotes the understanding and meaningful
retention of new vocabulary items.According to an article by Pčolinská (2010)

" Visual techniques for the presentation of new lexical items pertain to visual memory,
which is considered helpful especially with vocabulary retention. Learners can
remember the presented material far more effectively if it has been presented by
means of visual aids. They help students associate presented material in a meaningful
way and incorporate it into their existing system of language."

However, each technique has its own pros and cons.For example the Total Physical
Response which is very commonly used for Beginners and young children has some
few drawbacks as pointed out by Muhren ( 2003: 19)

" It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the opportunity to express
their own views and thoughts in a creative way.  It is easy to overuse TPR.  It is
limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method. It must be combined
with other approaches.  It is challenging for shy students and suitable for children
only ."

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2.4.2 Translation
Translation was a significant part of ELT for a long time, and then a significant missing part
for a long time also. With the arrival and then total dominance of communicative
methodologies, translation was quickly consigned to the past, along with other ‘traditional'
tools such as dictation, reading aloud and drills. However, it and these other abandoned
activities are now a feature of many communicative classrooms and successful aids to
learning. Although , translation is probably the easiest and the least time –consuming
method for most language teachers and L2 learners, it still has a number of
disadvantages. Using translation by looking at possible negative impact on learners and
then on teachers. Kaye ( 2010) presents this impact as follows :

1. Translation encourages learners to use L1, often for long periods of class time, when the
aim of modern teaching is to remove it from the classroom.

2. The skills involved in translation may not be suitable for all kinds of learners. It may, for
example, be best for learners who are more analytical or have preferences for verbal-
linguistic learning

3. Translation activities are tricky to set up and take a lot of preparation, especially
anticipating possible problems.

4.It requires a motivated class.

5. The teacher needs to have a sophisticated knowledge of the L1 and the L1 culture.
Without this translation can create more problems than benefits. This level of awareness is
almost impossible in a multi-lingual class.

2.4.3 Guessing from context

" One way to help learners with the unfamiliar words they encounter in a reading text
is to train them to use contextual clues for inferring the meaning of these words
instead of depending heavily on dictionaries. Thus, guessing from context is
considered a subskill of reading " Nation ( 2001).
In order to make this technique effective and successful. There is a need to consider a
number of crucial factors or known as " contextual clues " that help learners infer the
correct meanings of words.

1.Linguistic context: the linguistic environment in which a word is used within a text

2.Situational context: extra linguistic elements that contribute to the construction of

meaning this may involve background knowledge of the subject.

3. the meaning of vocabulary items that surrounds it;

4. the way the word is formed.( its morphological formation )
5. background knowledge of the subject and the situation.

However, it is important to bear in mind that each technique chosen by the language
teacher can be suitable for intermediate and above levels. This means that guessing from
the context is not perfect in a class for beginners because they need to have extended
competence of the L2 in order to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words. The same goes
to the use of Total Physical Response ,often used for teaching children or beginners;
therefore it will not be usable to teach lexical items for students at higher levels.

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2.5 The Importance of Vocabulary in Language Teaching

Recent research shows that teaching vocabulary has always been a daunting task for
second language learners as they often face communication breakdown when they
hear or read unfamiliar words in written or spoken context. This makes them fail to
express themselves effectively. The importance of vocabulary is central to English
language teaching because without sufficient vocabulary learners cannot understand
others or express their own ideas. Wilkins (1972 : 111–112) wrote

“ While without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing
can be conveyed”.

Lewis (1993(p. 89) wrote “ lexis is the core or heart of language” . As learners
develop greater fluency and expression in English, it is significant for them to acquire
more productive vocabulary knowledge and to develop their own personal vocabulary
learning strategies. Learners often instinctively recognize the importance of
vocabulary to their language learning. Schmitt (2010 : 4) said “ learners carry
around dictionaries and not grammar books” so teaching vocabulary helps learners
understand and communicate with others in English.

In addition, change of attitude towards vocabulary is due to the spread of the audio
lingual method followed by the communicative approach ,since then the findings of
applied linguistics slim down the syntax and give more importance to the
lexicon .This revolution of vocabulary has created explosion of publications on
vocabulary aimed at second language teachers and course designers.Carter, R.
(1998:184) thinks that vocabulary was neglected in second language researches, as a
result of syntax and phonology domination in this field. Moreover, vocabulary
presentation seems to be difficult task for syllabus designers because of its infinite
nature. But now vocabulary is in the top of researchers' consideration.Jordens , et al
(1996:359) believe that vocabulary is more important than grammar because people
generally use vocabulary and reduce grammar particularly when getting a message
across quickly and precisely is of the utmost importance; like telegrams, panic
situations or times when emotions are very high. Moreover, the number of
ungrammatical sentences people speak and write is enormous, unless they need to
convey complex messages precisely. It is clear that vocabulary has been recognized as
a key area of language knowledge.

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In addition, Birdal (2011:N P), argues that,

"Priority of grammar and sound system of the language was emphasized over
vocabulary teaching for some reasons such as learning too many words before the
grammar had been mastered might give rise to the mistakes in sentence construction.
Furthermore, teaching vocabulary in the classroom was considered to be useless
with a claim that word meanings could only be comprehended through ‘experience’
and giving so much time to it was seen as a waste of time."

It has been believed that one of the valuable gifts that teachers can give
to their students in order to gain success, especially in their educational
life, is a wealthy amount of vocabulary and the skills to use it correctly.
Benjamin and Crow (2013), assert that word study should play a more
significant role in English classes and across the curriculum.

In this regard , ,many researchers in the field of English language teaching have
carried out different studies to investigate the significance of vocabulary learning and
teaching ,the difficulties faced by both teachers and students when approaching
vocabulary in English class. Also, a number of varying teaching methods aids,
sources have been utilized to see how they can affect vocabulary acquisition among
learners of different ages , needs, proficiency levels and attitudes towards second
language learning.A study by Waring ( 2003) examined the rate at which vocabulary
was learned from reading the 400 headword graded reader "A Little Princess". It
mainly aimed at finding whether words of different frequency of occurrence rates
were more likely to be learned and retained or forgotten.The subjects were 15
intermediate level female Japanese subjects. Three tests (word-form recognition,
prompted meaning recognition and unprompted meaning recognition) were
administered immediately after reading, after one week and after a three month delay.
The results show that words can be learned incidentally .

In another empirical study conducted by Barcroft (2009), incidental and

intentional vocabulary learning were compared in terms of L2 synonym generation.
One hundred and fourteen Spanish speaking university students in Mexico City at the
intermediate English level were selected for the study. After reading a passage
containing 10 target words translated in the text, participants were assigned to read for
meaning (incidental), or read for meaning while trying to learn the translated words
and generate their Spanish synonyms (intentional). Results showed that learners that
were instructed to learn the target words and requested to generate synonyms
positively affected L2 word-forming as compared with the learners instructed to read
for meaning only, which suggests that explicit instruction has an effect on target word
recall.

Since this thesis mainly examines the use of graded readers which is often referred to
as extensive reading in many journals and books discussing this subject .So it is
important to shed light on two important studies in the field of extensive reading and

7
 how it can contribute to vocabulary acquisition (Nation and Wang, 1999 and
Wodinsky and Nation, 1988) investigated the potential contribution of graded readers
to vocabulary learning by examining word frequency. They concluded that graded
readers can be an important source of vocabulary learning for second language
learners if used appropriately. Although useful, these are corpus-based studies that, as
their writers suggest, should be followed by research in order to test whether this
learning actually takes place.

Finally, a study was conducted by Bohosh (2010) to investigate the use of Total
Physical Response Approach (TPR) to sixth grade learners in teaching English
vocabulary in Libyan schools. The participants in this study were 36 students (twenty
girls and sixteen boys) at Elshaheed Emhmd Bodhlef School. The researcher divided
the students into experimental and control groups. In addition, the researcher taught
'English for Libya' syllabus to both groups. The researcher also introduced the new
vocabulary to the experimental group by (TPR) . On the other hand, the control group
was taught the same vocabulary items through the Grammar Translation Method
(GTM) . After conducting pre-test and post-test to both groups, the researcher adopted
t-test to analyze the data gained from both tests. It is clear that the innovative method
TPR is more effective than the traditional method GTM in presenting the target
language vocabulary items to the Sixth Grade Learners .

2.6 Methods of Teaching Vocabulary

The profession of language teaching has been going through so much

change and development since the last century.As in other fields, English
language teaching methods are based on theoretical assumptions and
concepts which serve the practice of language teaching, the design of
syllabus and how the whole language acquisition takes place.In this
section, the researcher briefly describes some of those methods and how
each method deals with teaching vocabulary in L2.

2.6.1 Grammar Translation Method

According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), Grammar Translation Method

approaches the language first through detailed analysis of rules, followed by
application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out
of target language.

This old-fashioned method has some particular features as Rivers ( 1968:16-17)

describes in short :
" Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language. These aims are achieved in the classroom by long and elaborate
grammatical explanations and demonstrations in the native language."

8
 This method approaches new vocabulary differently. A typical lesson will be a
reading text often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items
used in the text together with the mother tongue translation. Accurate use of language
items is central to this approach.. Moreover, the phraseology and idioms of the target
language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation. In addition, this
method believes that translation interprets words of the target language in the best
manner. Thus we can say that according to this method vocabulary is presented mainly
through direct translation from the target language and the role of the students is to
memorize endless lists of new vocabulary.However, this approach has faced criticism
by many scholars and educationalists . As Krashen (1987: 128) points out, “It can be
claimed that grammar translation provides scraps of comprehensible input. The focus
is entirely on the form, and not on meaning … students are forced to read word by
word, and consequently rarely focus completely on the message’’.

2.6.2 The Direct Method

The direct method is a radical change from Grammar-Translation Method by the

use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the language
classroom, and by the avoidance of the use of the first language and of translation as a
technique. It is a shift from literary language to the spoken everyday language as the
object of early instruction.

Richards and Rodgers (2001:12 ), describe principles of procedures underlying the

Direct Method in the following way
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in carefully graded progression organized
around question-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive
classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally. 6. Concrete vocabulary was taught
through demonstrating, objects (e.g.realia or pictures), and pictures; abstract vocabulary
was taught by association of ideas.

According to this method, only vocabulary is introduced in the initial phase, whereas
other language skills are taught in the following phases. Regarding the role of the
teacher, the teacher should demonstrate, not explain or translate.

2.6.3 The Reading Approach

Reading approach or reading method was first devised for English learners in India and
French or German learners in the United States of America who have not the time to

9
master the “active” or oral use of the language. It has also been advocated in England for
pupils of inferior language-learning ability. Reading approach is like GTM (Grammar
Translation Method) since it also stressed on written skills. Only the grammar necessary
for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. But, it was flexible approach as far as the
teaching is concerned.

In terms of vocabulary , this approach deals with teaching lexical items differently.
Mora( 2012) explains
" the vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for
difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of
vocabulary is considered more important than grammatical skill. Translation reappears in
this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the
written text. "

Since this thesis views reading graded readers stimulates better vocabulary learning and
this includes what is known as "extensive reading ".Thus, this Reading approach implies
this as Krashen (1985) posited that the best way to improve reading is by reading. The
benefits of extensive reading include fluency, vocabulary acquisition, awareness of
grammar, models for writing, and an immersion in the culture of the second or foreign
language.

Based on the above, priority is given to growing the reading habit among second
language learners and eventually adds to their storage of vocabulary in general.
One can argue that this era marked the beginning of considering vocabulary as an
essential element of language learning. According to Zimmerman(1997: ibid):

"For the first time, vocabulary was considered one of

the most important aspects of second language learning
and a priority was placed on developing a scientific
rational basis for selecting the vocabulary content of
language courses."

2.6.5 Audio-lingual Method

This method was developed in the US during the II World War when the Americans
realized the necessity of teaching languages to their army in order to have
communication with their allies or with their enemy contacts.

The underlying assumption of this approach was based on the behaviorist theory as
Rivers (1964) put it " foreign language learning is basically a mechanical process of
habit formation and automatization". In practice, students were presented with language
patterns and dialogues, which they had to mimic and memorize. Language practice by
and large consisted of repetition of language patterns and drill exercises. Drill types
included substitution drills, variation drills, translation drills, and response drills.

10
2.6.6 Communicative Language Approach

By looking at each of the method described earlier , we could notice that those
methods or approaches adopted in English Language Teaching did not primarily aim
at developing a communicative competence in the learners.Having said that and
based on needs analysis, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged in
both Europe and the United States .The main focus was really shifted to functional
and communicative aspects. It was then that the approaches, methods and techniques
in language pedagogy witnessed a change.

Linguists at time thought that the main function of any language is to convey
messages across and have effective communication instead of memorizing
grammatical rules and fixed structural patterns without paying attention to their real
life usage or functions. Widdowson (1978) . “It was declared that there are ‘rules of
use, without which rules of Grammar would be useless’; a distinction was made
between grammatical rules of usage that enable users to construct correct sentences
and the use of language to accomplish some kind of communicative purpose”

Michael Swan(ELT Journal 1985) in ‘A Critical look at the Communicative

Approach’says:

During the last few years, under the influence of the ‘Communicative Approach’, the
language teaching seems to have made great progress. Syllabus design has become a
good deal more sophisticated, and we are able to give our students a letter and more
complete picture than before of how language is used. In methodology, the change
has been dramatic. The boring and mechanical exercise types which were so common
ten or fifteen years ago have virtually disappeared, to be replaced by a splendid
variety of exciting and engaging practice activities."

CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use different forms of the target
language in a variety of contexts to perform different functions or to express different
meanings. CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching with a clearly
defined set of classroom practice. Given below is David Nunan’s (1991) list of
features of CLT which is one of the most recognized of these lists:

1. Emphasizing student-student interaction in target language for learning the

language.

2. Providing learners with opportunities to focus not only on language but also on the
learning process itself.

3. The introduction of authentic materials into the learning situation.

4. An enhancement of the learner’s own responsibility and contribution to learning the

target language.

5. Creating a link between classroom language learning and language activities

outside the classroom.

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 Having looked at the different assumptions that each method presents , we can notice
that each method deals with teaching lexical items differently.Based on the brief
descriptions above , we can conclude that instead of memorizing grammatical rules
and isolated vocabulary, modern methodology like CLT prefers to present
contextualized language and to develop skills. Ronald V. White articulates three
principles of modern methodology: firstly, “the primacy of speech”; secondly, an
emphasis on “the centrality of connected text as the heart of teaching-learning
process”; and thirdly, an “absolute priority of an oral methodology in the classroom”
(White 11)

2.7 Graded Readers

2.7.1 Introduction

Exploring the teaching methods and the learning styles of second

language vocabulary has attracted so much attention among language
teachers and learners as well as many pedagogists around the world. It
goes without saying that vocabulary is a vital element of the whole
learning process in the second language classroom. Thus, many teaching
approaches and techniques have been developed for the teaching of
vocabulary as briefly described earlier in 2.4.In this part of the literature
review , the researcher will describe in brief ,the definition, the different
types of graded readers and how they contribute to the development of
language skills and, most importantly is how they stimulate more effective
vocabulary acquisition for learners of English language.

2.7.2 Definition of Graded Readers

Extensive Reading Foundation offers the following definition of graded readers:

Graded readers (also called ‗readers‘) are books (both fiction and non-fiction) written
especially for language learners to build their reading speed and fluency and to give
them chances to practice ‗real‘ reading for pleasure. They are called ‗graded‘ readers
because they are written according to a pedagogical syllabus which has increasing
grades, or levels, of difficulty. They are graded through tight control of the plot,
vocabulary, and grammar and judicious use of images. (p. 2)

This is completely in accordance with Nation and Wang‘s (1999 :356 ) definition,
stating that: ―"graded readers are books which are especially written or adapted for
12
second language learners. This involves severely restricting the vocabulary that can
occur and matching the length of text to the vocabulary and grammar controls."

Hill (2013: 92) lists three publishers " The largest, Pearson Penguin Readers is
followed by Macmillan and Oxford’s Bookworms. Although the main target group of
graded readers are adult language learners, there are 31 books aimed at younger
learners, too. For example, Macmillan Readers (2015) books offer these categories:
Macmillan Children‘s Readers, Macmillan Readers (aimed at learners at all levels) and
Macmillan Literature Collections (aimed at advanced learners) .

The number of headwords differ in all levels from Starter to Upper Intermediate, and
expresses gradation of the vocabulary in a story. Day et al (2011: 35) define headwords
as: ―The words allowed at each level of a graded reader series without any
highlighting, supporting definition, or illustration.‖ Publishers normally issue reader
series with four to six different reading levels to suit a range of skill levels of learners.
According to The Extensive Reading Foundation, typically, there are names for the
levels such as ―Starter‖, ―Elementary‖ or ―Intermediate‖ (or simply ―Level 1‖,
―Level 2‖, etc.), but there is no standardization in how these terms are applied. It may
happen that and an ―Elementary/Level 2‖ book from one publisher may be set at a
very different language level than an ―Elementary/Level 2‖ book from another. The
Extensive Reading Foundation‘s Grading Scale (Table 3), is one of the commonly used
ways to level books.

Table 1 Graded Reader Scale, taken from The Extensive Reading Foundation

As we look at the scale above, there are pedagogical assumptions and reasons for this
graduation and simplification of graded readers.

According to Hill (2001), simplification of modern and classic novels help learners in
four ways:
1) They motivate.

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 2) They help develop the skill of reading fluently, e.g. at 200 words or more per
minute.

3) They help language learning by providing a context for language that enhances
and extends the learner‘s grasp of the lexis and syntax.

4) They offer a most accessible source of exposure to the target language.

Similarly, Day et al. (2011 :29 :30 ) point out that the purpose of graded readers is
described in three golden keys‖ as benefits of graded readers:

" comfort, choice and enthusiasm. The comfort of graded readers lies in the ease with
which the learners read the books. If learners do not understand what they read, they
feel uncomfortable and might become distracted with difficult words. As a result, by an
easy, pleasurable reading learners develop their reading fluency faster.
.
Choice is the second benefit of using graded readers that, for instance, is not present
in intensive reading. Obviously, every learner is an individual and has different
interests and preferences. By providing learners with a wide range of books to choose
from, teachers allow learners to make a personal choice. As many authors of graded
readers assert:
Selfselected material is far more likely to be motivating, and to lead students to
pleasure reading. As can be expected, enthusiasm works in the class only when
teachers themselves are enthusiastic about reading. As authors claim, no matter how
much learners are reluctant to reading, if teachers show a good role model themselves
and encourage readers‘ responses, everyone will ―want to be included in

2.7.2 The Use of Graded Readers in and outside The Classroom

In recent years, the concept of graded readers has been put to use by many
EFL/ESL researchers and practitioners. Bringing Extensive Reading into the
Classroom(2011) is a practical guide co-written by experts in extensive reading
including for example professor Richard Day, Jennifer Bassett, Bill Bowler, Sue
Parminter, and Mark Furr. It describes the contribution of extensive reading to
language teaching and evidence of its success in extensive reading programmes in
Jordan, Bahrain, and Japan.

Graded readers may be used in two basic ways in the classroom and that is either
a shared reading experience or an individual reading experience. The shared reading
experience, or the so-called class reader approach, is a method where a group of
learners read the same graded reader at the same time. Day et al. (2011: 44) say
"that this method is particularly appropriate for weaker, less confident learners who
are not yet ready for independent reading. Inclusion of a class reader into a

14
curriculum enables teachers to do the pre-reading and post-reading activities with all
the learners in the lesson "

Another advantage is that the teacher can set the homework for all the
learners who are reading the same book. According to Hill (2001), class readers have
a great potential to become popular among the learners.

Another method of using graded readers in the classroom is individualised

reading, or so-called self-selected reading. After introducing graded readers in the
classroom, students are encouraged to choose a book of their own interest in order to
provide an opportunity for further reading for pleasure out of the classroom. The role
of teachers is to foster engagement and involvement in reading and, thus, to
encourage students‘ voluntary reading.

According to Day and Bamford (1998), out of class reading plays a crucial
role in developing the habit of reading. Students find out what they like to read and
they can read at their own pace, anytime and anywhere they choose.

Day and Bamford cite Klepper (1992: 54 ) who points out " learners will more likely
respond to reading books of their own choice and at their own speed, rather than
being compelled to conform to some uniform programme."

15