Diffraction

Instructor: Dr. SDV

TIET, Patiala
Wavefront:
Diffraction definition:
Bending/spreading out of waves as they pass by some objects
or through a finite-width aperture.
a b

(a) Spreading of light producing diffraction pattern.

(b) Absence of diffraction patterns if paths of light waves are
straight lines.
Huygens’s principle:
Every unobstructed point on a wavefront will act a source of
secondary spherical waves which spread out in the forward
direction. The new wavefront is the surface tangent to all the
secondary spherical waves.
Huygens’s principle:

If a portion of the wavefront enters a different medium (enters

glass from air, for example), then the wavelets generated by each
portion of the wavefront travel with the velocity that is
appropriate for the medium that the wavefront is in.
Diffraction:
Interference vs. diffraction:

 In interference, interaction takes place between two

separate wavefronts originating from two coherent sources
while in diffraction, interaction takes place between
secondary wavelets originating from same wavefront.
 In interference, minima are usually perfectly dark while this
is not the case for diffraction.
 In interference, all maxima are of same intensity but they
have varying intensity in diffraction.
 Fringe width could be equal in some cases in interference
while they are never equal in diffraction.
Interference vs. diffraction:
If you have two infinitely-narrow double slits, there will be
just interference, but for finite-width slits there can be both
interference and diffraction effects.
Finite width slit: the width of slit is comparable with the
wavelength λ.
One continuous wide slit is equivalent to the N → ∞ limit of
the N-slit result of interference.
Diffraction is simply the N → ∞ limit of interference, there is
technically no need to introduce a new term for it. But on the
other hand, a specific kind of pattern arises, so it makes
sense to give it its own name.
Fresnel vs. Frauhofer diffraction:
Fresnel diffraction: when either source or screen (or both) is at
finite distance from aperture.

Frauhofer diffraction: both the source and screen are at infinite

distance from aperture.
Diffraction at single slit:
Diffraction at single slit:

Slit can be assumed to consist

of large number of equally
spaced point sources emitting
secondary wavelets.
Let the point sources be at A1,
A2, A3, . . .An.
As slit is continuous
distribution of such points, so
eventually we let n to infinity
and Δ to be zero.

If the distance between two consecutive points be Δ. Thus,

if the number of point sources is n, then
𝑏 = 𝑛 − 1 Δ.
Diffraction at single slit:

The additional path traversed by the disturbance emanating

from point 𝐴2 will be 𝐴2 𝐴′2 , where 𝐴2 𝐴′2 = Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
2𝜋
Corresponding phase difference, 𝜙 = Δ sin(𝜃)
𝜆

If the field at point P due to the disturbance emanating from

point 𝐴1 is “𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡)”, then the field due to the disturbance
emanating from 𝐴2 is “𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) ”.
Diffraction at single slit:
Field due to the disturbance emanating from 𝐴3 is “𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡
− 2𝜙)” and so on. For 𝐴𝑛 it will be “𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)𝜙) ”.

Resultant field at point P will be,

𝐸
= 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜙
+ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)𝜙)
2𝜋
Where 𝜙 = Δ sin(𝜃)
𝜆

Mathematically,
𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜙
+ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − (𝑛 − 1)𝜙)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜙Τ2 1
=𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑛 − 1 𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙Τ2 2
Diffraction at single slit:
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜙Τ2 1
𝐸=𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑛 − 1 𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙Τ2 2
1
= 𝐸𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑛 − 1 𝜙
2

where the amplitude 𝐸𝜃 of the resultant field is given by :

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜙Τ2 2𝜋
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑎 And 𝜙 = Δ sin(𝜃)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙Τ2 𝜆

In the limit of n→∞ and Δ→0 in such a way that n Δ→b,

𝑛𝜙 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑛 𝛥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 → 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜙=
𝜆 𝑛
Diffraction at single slit:
𝜙 𝜙
If n→∞ then 𝜙 → 0; sin =
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜙Τ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Τ𝜆 2𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐸𝜃 ≈ 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎 𝜙=
𝜙Τ2 𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 Τ𝜆 𝜆 𝑛

sin 𝛽
𝐸𝜃 = 𝐴
𝛽
𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟e 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑎; 𝛽 = =𝑛
𝜆 2
sin 𝛽 1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑛 − 1 𝜙
𝛽 2
sin 𝛽
𝐸=𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 , 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑛 → ∞
𝛽
Diffraction at single slit:
sin 𝛽
𝐸=𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽
𝛽

Intensity distribution for this will be given by :

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝐼 = 𝐼0
𝛽2
Where 𝐼0 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 gives intensity at 𝜃 = 0 (central maximum).
Diffraction at single slit:
Positions of Minima:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐼 = 𝐼0 2
𝛽=
𝛽 𝜆
The intensity is zero when 𝛽 = 𝑚 𝜋 𝑚≠0
sin 𝛽
When 𝛽 → 0, = 1 and 𝐼 = 𝐼0 which corresponds to the
𝛽
maximum intensity.
𝛽 =𝑚𝜋 𝑚≠0
𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 𝑚𝜋
𝜆
Hence, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆; where 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . . . . 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝜆
First minimum occurs at 𝜃 = ± sin−1 , second minimum occurs
𝑏
2𝜆
at 𝜃 = ± sin−1 and so on. This can be used for fringe width
𝑏
calculations. Upper limit of sin(θ) is 1 so max. value of m is integer
closest to b/λ.
Diffraction at single slit:
Positions of Maxima :
Intensity distribution is given by
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝐼 = 𝐼0
𝛽2
𝑑𝐼 2 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= 𝐼0 2
− 3
=0
𝑑𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
⇒ sin 𝛽 𝛽 − tan 𝛽 = 0

Condition sin 𝛽 = 0 or 𝛽 = 𝑚 𝜋(𝑚 ≠ 0) gives minima.

𝛽 = 0 gives central maxima.

Condition tan 𝛽 = 𝛽 gives maxima. Roots are found by
intersection of curves 𝑦 = 𝛽 and 𝑦 = tan 𝛽
Diffraction at single slit:
Amplitude and Intensity distribution.

roots of equation
tan 𝛽 = 𝛽.
Roots are:
𝛽 = 1.43𝜋, 2.46𝜋 and
so on.
Diffraction at single slit:

https://www4.uwsp.edu/physastr/kmenning/fendt/html5phen/html5phen/phen/singleslit_en.htm
Two slit diffraction pattern: Both slits are of same size
(b) separated by distance d

Resultant intensity distribution will be product of the single-slit

diffraction pattern and the interference pattern produced by two
point sources separated by distance “d”.
Two slit diffraction pattern :

𝐵1 𝐵1′ = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐵1′
Corresponding phase
difference will be:
2𝜋
𝛼= 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆

Same phase difference will be in between points A2 and B2; A3 and

B3 and so on….
The field produced by first slit at point P is:
sin 𝛽
𝐸1 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽
𝛽
The field produced by second slit at point P is:
sin 𝛽 2𝜋
𝐸2 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼 𝛼= 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝛽 𝜆
Two slit diffraction pattern :
The resultant field will be given by:
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽
=𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 𝛽
sin 𝛽
=𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽
sin 𝛽 𝛼 𝛼 2𝜋
=2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼= 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝛽 2 2 𝜆

The intensity distribution will be given by

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2
𝛼 2
𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼0 = 𝐴
𝛽2 2
Two slit diffraction pattern :
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2
𝛼 𝜋𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽=
𝛽 2 𝜆
In this expression, sin2 𝛽 /𝛽 2 represents diffraction pattern
produced by single slit of width “b”.
𝛼
Second term 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 represents interference produced by two
2
point sources separated by distance “d”.
If slit widths are very small (𝑏 → 0, sin 𝛽 → 𝛽) so that there is no
variation of the term sin2 𝛽 /𝛽 2 with θ, then one simply obtains
Young's interference pattern in which
2
𝛼
𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
Two slit diffraction pattern :
Positions of minima :
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2
𝛼 𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2𝜋
𝐼 = 4𝐼0 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ; where 𝛽 = ;𝛼 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝛽 2 𝜆 𝜆

Intensity is zero wherever

𝛽 = 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋 … … … … . .
Which means 𝑏 sin(𝜃) = 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, … … …

Or when 𝛼 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋 … … … … … … … . .
1
Which means 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 − 𝜆 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … … . .
2
Two slit diffraction pattern :
Positions of maxima:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2
𝛼 𝜋 𝑏 sin 𝜃 2𝜋
𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = ;𝛼 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝛽 2 𝜆 𝜆
Interference maxima wherever
𝛼 𝜋
when = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 … … … … or 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋 … … … . .
2 𝜆

which means 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … … . .

This can be used to calculate fringe width for double slit
interference maxima.
This will be approximate positions of maxima provided variation of
diffraction pattern is not too rapid.
Two slit diffraction pattern :
Missing order:
A maximum may not occur at all if θ at which interference
maximum is expected (which is: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … … . .)
corresponds to diffraction minimum (𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … …).
These are called missing orders.
In other words,
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … … . .
And
𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … …
Both conditioned are satisfied at certain values of 𝜃, at those
values of 𝜃 there will be zero intensity.
Two slit diffraction pattern :

slits of width b separated by

distance d and illuminated by wavelength λ. What you see
is the Young's interference pattern modulated by the
single-slit diffraction pattern.
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/wave-interference/latest/wave-interference_en.html

http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/HTML5/double_slit.html
Two slit diffraction pattern (Missing order) :

missing orders:

In other words, 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … … . .

And

𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … …

Both conditioned are satisfied at certain values of 𝜃, at those values of 𝜃 there

will be zero intensity.
N-slit diffraction pattern:

N slits are of same width “b”

separated by same distance
“d”.

The resultant fields at point P will be superposition of fields due to each

slit:
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 … … … … … . 𝐸𝑁
N-slit diffraction pattern:
The resultant field at any arbitrary point P will be:
𝐸
sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽
=𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 𝛽
sin 𝛽
+𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 2𝛼 + ⋯ …
𝛽
sin 𝛽
+𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝑁 − 1 𝛼
sin𝛽𝛽
=𝐴 ൫𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽

Using same trigonometric relation as used in single slit

𝑁𝛼
sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁−1
E=𝐴 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 2
2
The corresponding intensity distribution will be:
𝑁𝛼
sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁−1
E=𝐴 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2
𝜋 𝑏 sin 𝜃 2𝜋
where 𝛽= ;𝛼 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝜆 𝜆

𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝐼 = 𝐼0 2
𝛽2 2 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
In this expression, represents diffraction pattern produced
𝛽2
by single slit of width ‘b’.
𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
Second term 𝛼 represents interference produced by N
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
equally spaced point sources separated by distance ‘d’.
N-slit diffraction pattern:
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 2
𝐼 = 𝐼0
𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑁 = 1: 𝐼 = 𝐼0 Same as obtained in single slit
𝛽2
2𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑁 = 2: 𝐼 = 𝐼0 2
𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
2
𝛼 𝛼 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
I = 𝐼0 𝛼
𝛽2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2
𝛼
= 4𝐼0 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝛽 2 Same as obtained in double slit
N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of principal maxima:
L' Hôpital's rule or L' hospital's rule:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ± ∞
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

𝑓′(𝑥)
If lim exists
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔′(𝑥)
N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of principal maxima:
𝑁𝛼
sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑁−1
𝐸=𝐴 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2
Apply L' Hôpital's rule :

𝑁𝛼 𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = ±𝑁
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
2 →𝑚𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 →𝑚𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
𝐴 sin 𝛽 𝑁−1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝛽 2
Physically, at these maxima fields produced by each of the slits are
in phase and hence resultant field (E) is N times of field produced by
single slit.
N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of principal maxima:
𝛼 2𝜋
= 𝑚𝜋 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, 3 … 𝛼 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
2
𝜆
𝜋
⇒ 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜋
𝜆

⇒ 𝐝 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝐦 𝛌; 𝐦 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 …

Since sin(𝜃) ≤ 1, m can not be greater than d/λ.

N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of principal maxima:
Intensity will be given in this case by
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛽
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑁 2
𝛽2
𝜋 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝜋 𝑏 𝑚 𝜆 𝜋 𝑏 𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽= = = ; 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, 3 … . .
𝜆 𝜆 𝑑 𝑑

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
 Intensity has large value unless itself is small.
𝛽2

 It means more is the number of slit (N), intensity of maxima will

be more.

 This concept is used in diffraction grating where you have 15000

or so slits per inch!
N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of minima :
𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜋 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼0 2 ; where 𝛽 = ; 𝛷1 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝛽2 𝛼 𝜆 𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
Intensity is zero wherever
𝛽 = 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋 … … … … .. (minima for single slit!)

which means 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 𝜆; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … …

𝑁𝛼
or when = 𝑝 𝜋; 𝑝 ≠ 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁 … … … . .
2
Because Intensity “I” corresponds to principal maxima at 𝑝
= 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁 …. 𝑁
2𝜋
𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑁𝛼 𝜆
=𝑝𝜋⇒ =𝑝𝜋
2 2
𝜆
⇒ 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑝 ; 𝑝 ≠ 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁 … … … . .
𝑁
N-slit diffraction pattern:
Position of minima :
𝑝𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ; 𝑝 ≠ 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁 … . .
𝑁
𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆 𝑁−1 𝜆 𝑁+1 𝜆 𝑁+2 𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = , , … . , , …..
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
2𝑁 − 1 𝜆 2𝑁 + 1 𝜆 2𝑁 + 2 𝜆
, ,
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

Notice the missing terms! They correspond to principal maxima.

There are (N-1) minima between 2 principal maxima.

Between two consecutive minima, intensity has to have a

maximum; these maxima are called secondary maxima. There will
be (N-2) secondary maxima between two principal maxima.
N-slit diffraction pattern:
𝑁𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2

N-1 minima
N-2 secondary maxima

𝛼
→
2
https://www4.uwsp.edu/physastr/kmenning/flash/Grating_diffraction.html
N-slit diffraction pattern:
What if angle of principal maxima is same as diffraction
minima?
This will happen at a particular value of 𝜽, these conditions are
satisfied simultaneously:
Principal maxima:
𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝝀 𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … … … … .

Diffraction minima:
𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏 𝝀 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … … … … .

These are referred as missing order.

Diffraction grating:
A very large number of equidistant slits is called diffraction
grating.

Corresponding diffraction pattern is called as the grating

spectrum.

Principal maxima:
𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒎𝝀 𝒎 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … … … … .

As it depends on wavelength, so principal maxima (m≠0) for

different λ will give different θ. Thus, by measuring angle of
diffraction for different colours (m is known), can be used for
measurement of λ.

More is number of slits, narrower will be principal maxima.

Usually 15,000 per inch slits are there.
Lines should be as equally spaced as possible.
Diffraction grating:
Grating Spectrum :
Principal maxima condition: d sin θ = m λ m=0,1,2,……..
This equation is also called the grating equation/ grating law.

The zeroth order principal maxima occurs at θ=0 irrespective of

wavelength. Thus for white light, central maximum will be white.

For m≠0, θ are different for different λ, various spectral

components appear at different locations.
Diffraction grating:
Dispersive power of grating :
Principal maxima: 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆; 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … …

Differentiating this equation:

𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝛥𝜃 = 𝑚 𝛥𝜆
𝛥𝜃 𝑚
⇒ =
𝛥𝜆 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Δθ/Δλ is called dispersive power.

Conclusions:
1. Dispersive power is proportional to “m” (order of principal
maximum). Higher is m, well separated will be maxima
corresponding to 2 close wavelengths like sodium doublet.
Zeroth order principal maxima will overlap.
Diffraction grating:
Conclusions contd:

2. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to “d” (the grating

element). Smaller is “d”, larger will be angular dispersion.
3. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos(θ). if θ is
very small then cos(θ)≃1,
𝑑𝜃 𝑚 𝑑𝜃 𝑚
= becomes =
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜆 𝑑
Such spectrum is known as normal spectrum. For this dθ is
directly proportional to dλ.
Diffraction grating:
Diffraction grating:
Resolving power of grating :

Minimum separation at which two objects look separate is called

“limit of resolution”.

Smaller is separation between 2 objects an instrument can

resolve, higher is its resolving power and better is the instrument.

In case of diffraction grating, resolving power (R) is power of

distinguishing two nearby spectral lines and is defined as:
𝑅 = 𝜆/Δ𝜆
Δ𝜆 is separation between two wavelengths which are just resolved
by grating.

Smaller is Δ𝜆, larger is resolving power.

Diffraction grating:
Rayleigh's Criterion :
If the principal maximum corresponding to wavelength 𝜆
+ Δ𝜆falls on first minimum (on either side) of the wavelength
λ, then the two wavelengths λ and 𝜆 + Δ𝜆 are said to be just
resolved.
Diffraction grating:
Mathematically this means that
If angle θ is the angle corresponding to mth order spectrum then
these conditions are satisfied simultaneously :

principal maximum for wavelength 𝜆 + Δ𝜆:

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚(𝜆 + Δ𝜆)
minimum for wavelength λ:
𝜆
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 +
𝑁
𝜆
Equating both sides: 𝑚 𝜆 + Δ𝜆 = 𝑚𝜆 +
𝑁

𝜆
or 𝑚 Δ𝜆 =
𝑁
𝜆
or =𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆
𝜆
is called the resolving power of a grating.
Δ𝜆
Diffraction grating:
𝜆
Resolving power of grating: =𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆

For ex. For resolving sodium doublet (5890 and 5896 Ao ),

𝜆 = 5890 𝐴𝑜
Δ𝜆 = 6 𝐴𝑜
𝜆 5890
= ≈ 981 (this much resolving power is required)
Δ𝜆 6

𝜆 981
= 𝑚 𝑁 = 981 ⟹ 𝑁 =
Δ𝜆 𝑚
Hence N should be at least 981 to resolve sodium doublet in first
order spectrum.
𝜆
Just Resolved: =𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆
𝜆
Not Resolved: >𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆
𝜆
Fully Resolved: <𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆
Diffraction grating:

𝜆
Resolving power: =𝑚𝑁
Δ𝜆

 Resolving power depends on total number of lines in grating

exposed to incident light (N). From here, it seems that resolving
power can be increased indefinitely by increasing no. of slits (N);
but for given width of grating D(= Nd), as N increases, d
decreases and hence maximum value of m decreases.
𝜆
(𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆 ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 ;
𝑑
𝑑
since sin 𝜃 ≤ 1 this means m can not be greater than
𝜆

 Resolving power is proportional to “order of spectrum”.