Analysing

Text

Key Terms
Accent
The way words are pronounced, according to either the location
or social class of the speaker. Accents can vary widely from region
to region.
e.g. In Manchester, bath is pronounced ‘bæth’, while in Sussex it is
pronounced ‘barth’.

Active Voice
The active voice is used when the subject of the sentence is doing
something (rather than having something done to it). The opposite
of active voice is passive voice, where the subject of the sentence
has something done to it, rather than doing something itself.
e.g.
Active voice: Sarah ate the cake.
Passive voice: The cake was eaten by Sarah.

Adjective
A word that describes a noun.
e.g. brown, beautiful, loud

Adverb
A word that modifies (describes) a verb, adjective or other adverb.
e.g.
He ran quickly.
The bang was really loud.
The weather report is almost always wrong.

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Allegory
A text in which the story and characters symbolise something else;
its meaning is deeper than it appears on the surface.
e.g. George Orwell’s Animal Farm is an allegory for the Russian
Revolution.

Alliteration
The sound at the start of a word is repeated, either in sequence or
throughout a sentence.
e.g. ‘Fair is foul and foul is fair.’ (William Shakespeare’s Macbeth)

Allusion
To make a passing reference to an event, an artistic work or a
person, leaving the reader to make the connection.
e.g. The twins were about as caring as the two ugly sisters.

Analogy
To compare something to something else, in order to explain or
comment on it.
e.g. ‘This flea is you and I, and this / Our marriage bed, and marriage
temple is’ (John Donne, The Flea)

Anapest
In poetry, a metrical foot or unit that consists of two short
(unstressed) beats followed by one long (stressed) beat.
e.g. ‘’Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house…’
(Clement Clarke Moore, A Visit from St Nicholas.)

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Anaphora
The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of clauses
for effect.
e.g. ‘Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!’ (William
Shakespeare, ‘King John’)

Antagonist
The person working against the protagonist or the central character
in a story; their enemy.
e.g. In Othello, Iago is the antagonist.

Anecdote
A small story, usually telling of someone’s personal experiences.
e.g. That reminds me of the time I met a man with a wooden leg on
the pier at Blackpool, who told me…

Antihero
A protagonist or central character in a story who lacks the qualities
we would usually associate with a hero.
e.g. Macbeth is an antihero because he allows his ambition to
overtake his sense of what is morally right.

Antithesis
A person, idea or thing that is the complete opposite of something
else.
e.g. His actions were the antithesis of selfishness.

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Antonym
A word that means the opposite of another word.
e.g. Good is the antonym of bad.

Apostrophe
When someone who is absent or non-existent is addressed.
e.g. Justice, you have departed from this world.

Assonance
Where a vowel sound is repeated over several words.
e.g. Lou and Sue found the room cool.

Authorial Intrusion
When a writer steps away from the story to address the reader
directly.
e.g. ‘Although I am not disposed to maintain that being born in a
workhouse is in itself the most fortunate and enviable circumstance
that can possibly befall a human being, I do mean to say that in this
particular instance, it was the best thing for Oliver Twist that could
by possibility have occurred.’ (Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist)

Authorial Mediation
When an author comments on, tempers or manipulates how
information is given to the reader, so that they can put their own
view (or the view of the narrator) across.
e.g. ‘What do you want?’ he asked cautiously, aware that he
could be in grave danger.

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Caesura
A strong pause in a line of verse, breaking up the rhythm. A caesura
is annotated using two vertical lines: ||
e.g. ‘To err is Human; || to Forgive, Divine.’ (Alexander Pope, Essay
on Criticism.)

Cliché
A phrase or idea that is so overused that it lacks deep thought.
e.g. She is as pretty as a picture.

Cohesion
A sense of something being whole or complete.
e.g. The repetition of the opening line at the end gives a sense of
cohesion.

Colloquial
Relaxed, informal language.
e.g. He did a runner from the shop.

Comparative
An adjective that compares something to something else.
e.g. He was taller than his brother.

Connotation
An implied meaning or idea that goes beyond surface meaning.
e.g. The colour red has the connotation of danger.

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Consonance
When consonant sounds are repeated over a phrase.
e.g. The addled adults ducked under the door.

Dialect
The words and speech patterns associated with a particular region.
e.g. A bread roll is known as different things in different dialects,
including a ‘batch’, a ‘barm’ and a ‘cob’.

Direct Address
When the writer explicitly speaks to the reader.
e.g. Do you know what it is like to be hungry?

Direct Speech
Where the speaker’s exact words are used, rather than a rephrasing
of them.
e.g.
Direct speech: ‘I’m hungry’, he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he was hungry.

Discourse marker
A word or phrase that signposts the direction a text is taking, but
which, of itself, does not significantly add to the meaning.
e.g. On the other hand, so, moreover

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Dramatic irony
When the audience is aware of events that the characters on stage
don’t know about.
e.g. In An Inspector Calls, Mr Birling talks about how unsinkable the
Titanic is. This is an example of dramatic irony because the audience
knows that the Titanic will, in fact, sink.

Ellipsis
The omission of a word or phrase from a text, indicated by the use
of three dots: … This is often used to show a pause or a thought
left hanging, or to indicate that something does not need to be said
explicitly.
e.g. The door swung slowly open…

Emotive Language
Words designed to provoke an emotional response in the reader.
e.g. The cat was ravenous, begging for even a scrap of food.

End-stopped line
A line of poetry which ends with a final punctuation mark, such as a
full stop.
e.g. ‘O rose, thou art sick!’ (William Blake, The Sick Rose)

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Enjambment
When a line of verse continues onto the next line without a break.
e.g.
‘Five years have past; five summers, with the length
Of five long winters!’
(William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey)

Eulogise
To speak or write with praise about something or someone.
e.g. ‘Earth has not anything to show more fair’ (William Wordsworth,
Composed upon Westminster Bridge)

Euphemism
A reference to something unpleasant or negative that is made in a
way that is less distressing or harsh.
e.g. ‘Passed away’ is a euphemism for ‘died’.

Extended Metaphor
A metaphor that is continued beyond a simple phrase or sentence.
e.g. The classroom was a jungle. Students hooted insults at each
other over their desks, while the teacher stalked between the
chairs, a tiger on the prowl. At the back of the room, two boys
swung, monkey-like, on their chairs. All were baking in the stifling,
tropical heat of an unventilated classroom at the height of the
British summer.

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First Person
A narrative style in which the story is told from the narrator’s point
of view, using ‘I’, ‘me’ and ‘my’.
e.g. This is the story of my life.

Foreshadowing
A hint for the reader of something that will happen further on in
the story.
e.g. ‘I turned my eyes—a little dimmed by looking up at the frosty
light – towards a great wooden beam in a low nook of the building
near me on my right hand, and I saw a figure hanging there by the
neck.’ (Charles Dickens, Great Expectations)

Flashback
While the writer recounts their story, they go back to the past to tell
the reader about something that happened before the story started.
e.g. It was three years before these events that I had been walking
down the High Street and had seen a robbery…
Genre
A type or category of literature (can also be used to refer to other
forms of art, such as music).
e.g. science fiction, adventure, romance.

Gerund
A verb that is used as a noun.
e.g. Walking is my favourite form of exercise.

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Homophone
A word that sounds like another word but has a different spelling
and meaning.
e.g. One of the students won the race.

Hyperbole
An exaggeration of the importance or dramatic impact of something.
e.g. I have a ton of homework to do; I’ll be studying for the rest of
my life.

Iambic Pentameter
A line of verse that has five ‘feet’ or units, each consisting of an
unstressed followed by a stressed syllable.
e.g. ‘When I do count the clock that tells the time’ (William
Shakespeare, Sonnet 12)

Idiom
A phrase that has a meaning which is not necessarily literal, but the
meaning of which is obvious to the speaker.
e.g. That exam was a piece of cake.

Imagery
The use of words or phrases to conjure up particular pictures in the
mind of the reader.
e.g. The woman was a cat, stalking her prey with calm cunning.

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Imperative
A command.
e.g. Buy it now.

Indirect Speech
Where the words of the speaker are reported without being
directly quoted.
e.g.
Direct speech: ‘I’m hungry’, he said.
Indirect speech: He said that he was hungry.

Irony
When what is said is opposite to what is meant or expected.
e.g. The letter complaining about the poor manners of the staff was
filled with swear words.

Juxtaposition
Placing two very different things next to each other to highlight
their differences.
e.g. A ballerina sitting in a mechanic’s workshop.

Litotes
Using a negative to reinforce a positive; a deliberate understatement.
e.g. I won’t be sorry to see the back of him.

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Metaphor
A figure of speech that describes something by saying it is
something else.
e.g. His face was a beetroot.

Metonymy
A figure of speech in which something is referred to by something
which represents it.
e.g. Downing Street refused to confirm the rumours.

Narrative Perspective
The point of view from which a narrative is related. This could
be third person omniscient (where we see events from different
characters’ points of view), third person limited (where we only see
events from one character’s point of view), or first person (where
the narrator is ‘me’ and events are told from ‘my’ point of view only).
e.g.
I was confused about what Ayla wanted. (First person narrative)
Harry was confused about what Ayla wanted. (Third person limited)
Harry was confused about what she wanted. Ayla felt pleased he
had not guessed her secret. (Third person omniscient)

Non-sequitur
A jump from one subject to another, completely unrelated, subject.
e.g. I like apples. My brother has chickenpox.

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Noun
The name of a person, place or thing.
e.g. Helen, Birmingham, table

Noun phrase
The set of words that accompany a noun and give more information
about it.
e.g. The hardest-working of the three sisters went to university.

Onomatopoeia
A language feature in which a word sounds like the thing it is
describing.
e.g. Crash, sizzle, crunch

Oxymoron
A language feature in which two contradictory ideas are placed
together for effect.
e.g. ‘O loving hate’ (William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet.)

Paradox
An idea or concept which seems impossible because it contradicts
itself.
e.g. This statement is false.

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Passive Voice
When the subject of the sentence has something done to it, rather
than doing something itself. The opposite of passive voice is active
voice, where the subject of the sentence is doing something (rather
than having something done to it).
e.g.
Active voice: Sarah ate the cake.
Passive voice: The cake was eaten by Sarah

Pathetic Fallacy
When human emotions are attributed to the natural world.
e.g. The sun shone its friendly beams on our faces.

Personification
When an inanimate object is given human qualities.
e.g. The floorboards groaned under the weight of the box.

Preposition
A part of speech that indicates the position (either in time or space)
or relationship between other words.
e.g.
I came to class after him.
The book was for George.

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Pronoun
A word used instead of a noun, usually to avoid repetition.
e.g. Amir went to the canteen. He was hungry.
Protagonist
The leading character in a text.
e.g. Viola is the protagonist in Twelfth Night.

Repetition
When a word or phrase is repeated within a text for effect.
e.g. The rain fell in grey slants onto the grey pavement, soaking the
grey commuters with grey faces and grey suits.

Pronoun
A word used instead of a noun, usually to avoid repetition.
e.g. Amir went to the canteen. He was hungry.

Rhetorical Question
A question which doesn’t require an answer, intended to make the
reader think about an issue.
e.g. Do you really think that this is acceptable?

Rhyme
Two or more words with a similar sound.
e.g. ‘slink’ and ‘pink’

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Rhythm
The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables which gives words
and lines a beat.
e.g. The line ‘This is the Night Mail, crossing the border / Bringing
the cheque and the postal order’ has a regular rhythm that sounds
like a train travelling along tracks.

Rule of Three
Listing something using three items or three words.
e.g. Dogs are always likeable, loving and loyal.

Satire
When a particular group or character trait is mocked or ridiculed,
either throughout a text or in a single statement. Satire is often
directed at politics and politicians.
e.g. ‘The emperor his father published an edict, commanding all
his subjects, upon great penalties, to break the smaller end of their
eggs. The people so highly resented this law, that our histories tell
us, there have been six rebellions raised on that account; wherein
one emperor lost his life, and another his crown.’ (Jonathan Swift,
Gulliver’s Travels)

Second person
A narrative that is told using ‘you’ – directly addressing the reader.
e.g. You need to understand why this happened.

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Semantic field
When words within a text all relate to a particular topic or theme.
e.g. They stood to attention, while the teacher surveyed the new
recruits before her; a regiment of students with pristine uniforms
glistening in the midday sun. She dismissed them and they marched
inside, ready to face the battlefield before them.

Sibilance
The repetition of an ‘s’ or ‘sh’ sound in close proximity within a text.
e.g. The sleeping sisters succumbed to slumber.

Simile
A language feature in which something is described by using ‘like’ or
‘as’ to compare it to something else.
e.g.
His face was like a beetroot.
His face was as purple as a beetroot.

Stanza
Formal word for a verse of poetry.
e.g. The poem is written in three stanzas.

Structure
The way a text is put together. At a simple level, this can be the
order of words, sentences and paragraphs, but it can also refer to
the order in which the narrative, ideas, arguments and concepts are
introduced to the reader.

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e.g. The novel follows a simple structure, narrating the events
surrounding the accident chronologically.

Superlative
An adjective that describes something as the most or highest
degree of that particular quality.
e.g. He was the fastest runner in the race.

Symbol
An object or action in a piece of writing that represents something
else, often a concept or idea.
e.g. A cabin on a mountain could symbolise freedom or escape.

Synonym
A word that has a very similar meaning to another word.
e.g. ‘Hungry’ is a synonym for ‘starving’.

Tautology
Where a concept or idea is unnecessarily repeated in a different way.
e.g. There was a smelly odour in the room.

Term of endearment
An affectionate, informal way of referring to someone.
e.g. my dear, mate, love

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Term of address
The words used to refer to a person.
e.g. Your Highness, boy, Miss

Third person
The narrator uses ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’, rather than ‘I’.
e.g. He awoke one morning to find the world had changed.

Topic sentence
A sentence, usually found at the very beginning of a paragraph,
which explains what that paragraph will be about – what its topic
will be.
e.g. I believe that school uniform is far too expensive. The cost
of a new uniform in Year 7 is over £100, and even then…

Verb
A word that conveys an action or a state.
e.g. to run, to be

Verisimilitude
The addition of detail to a story or account to make it sound more
truthful.
e.g. The inclusion of forensic detail in a whodunit gives it verisimilitude.

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