Mechanics

Satadal Bhattacharyya
May 22, 2024

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1. 1-D harmonic oscillator:

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The Lagrangian is

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Lagrangian L = T − V =
1 1
mẋ2 − kx2
ac
2 2
∂L ∂L
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= mẋ and = −kx
∂ ẋi ∂xi
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∴ From Lagrange’s equation: mẋ + kx = 0
dt
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2. Projectile motion:
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It a two dimensional problem. We use xaxis as horizontal and y-axis

as vertical axis.
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1
m ẋ2 + ẏ 2


Kinetic energy T =
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2
Potential energy V = mgy
1
m ẋ2 + ẏ 2 − mgy


Lagrangian L =
2
∂L ∂L
= mẋ and =0
∂ ẋ ∂x
∂L ∂L
= mẏ and = −mg
∂ ẏ ∂y
∴ Equation of motion for x: ẍ = 0
and Equation of motion for y: ÿ + g = 0

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 Figure 1: A simple pendulum of length L and bob of mass m

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3. Simple Pendulum:

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Let (x, y) be the location of the bob. The motion can be better
described by θ: ac
x = L sin θ
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y = −L cos θ
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1
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Kinetic energy T = m ẋ2 + ẏ 2 = mL2 θ̇2

2 2
Potential energy V = −mgL cos θ
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Lagrangian L = mL2 θ̇2 + mgL cos θ
2
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∂L ∂L
= mL2 θ̇ and = −mgL sin θ
∂θ
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∂ θ̇
g
∴ From Lagrange’s equation: θ̈ + sin θ = 0
L

4. Central force Pproblem:

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 It is convenient to use polar coordinate (r, θ).
1  
Kinetic energy T = m ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2
2
Potential energy V = V (r)
1  
Lagrangian L = m ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 − V (r)
2
∂L ∂L
= mr2 θ̇ and =0
∂ θ̇ ∂θ
∂L ∂L ∂V
= mṙ and = mrθ̇2 −
∂ ṙ ∂r ∂r

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d 2 
∴ Equation of motion for θ: mr θ̇ = 0
dt

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d  ∂V
and Equation of motion for r: mṙ − mrθ̇2 + =0

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dt ∂r
Note that the Lagrangian is explicitly independent of θ and the angular
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momentum mr2 θ̇ = constant.
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5. A particle of mass m is constrained to move on the inside surface of a
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smooth cone of semi vertical angle α (Fig. 2). Find the equations of
motion.
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Figure 2: A smooth cone of semi vertical angle α

Hints: Use cylindrical coordinate (r, θ, z).

1  
Kinetic energy T = m ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 + ż 2
2
Potential energy V = mgz)
Constraint z = r cot α

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 Note again that the Lagrangian is explicitly independent of θ and thus
the angular momentum mr2 θ̇ = constant.
Equation of motion for r:
r̈ − rθ̇2 sin2 α + g sin α cos α = 0
6. Spring pendulum:
Consider a pendulum made out of a spring with a mass m on the end
(see Fig. 3). The spring is arranged to lie in a straight line. Assuming
that the motion takes place in a vertical plane, find the equations of
motions.
Hints: Let the equilibrium length of the spring be l and at any time

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Figure 3: Spring pendulum

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t, the length of the pendulum be l + x(t).

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1  2 2 2

Kinetic energy T = m ẋ + (l + x) θ̇
2
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1
Potential energy V = −mg l + +x cos θ + kx2


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7. Point of support rotating on a vertical circle:
The point of support of a pendulum of length L moves on a massless
rim of radius a, in the vertical plane, with constant angular velocity ω.
Find the equations of motions.
Hints: The coordinates of m
x = a cos ωt + L sin θ
y = a sin ωt − L cos θ
mh 2 2 i
L = a ω + L2 θ̇2 + 2Lθ̇aω sin(θ − ωt)
2

− mg a sin ωt − L cos θ

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Figure 4: A pendulum is attached to a rotating rim.

8. Pendulum in an accelerating car:

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Find the frequency of small oscillations of a simple pendulum placed
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in a car that has constant acceleration a in the x-direction.
The position of m with respect to the fixed frame is
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Figure 5: A pendulum on accelerating car.

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1
x = ut + at2 + l sin θ
2
y = l(1 − cos θ)
mh i2
L = u + at + lθ̇ cos θ − mgl(1 − cos θ) CHECK
2
Equation of motion:
g a
θ̈ = − sin θ − cos θ
l l
9. A simple pendulum of length L and bob of mass m is attached to a
massless support moving vertically with constant acceleration. Find

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 the equation of motion.

Hints: The position of m with respect to the fixed frame is

1 2
y = at − L cos θ
2
x = L sin θ

Equation of motion:
g+a
θ̈ + sin θ = 0
L

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q
L
For small oscillation T = 2π a+g

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10. A simple pendulum of length L and bob of mass m is attached to a

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massless support oscillating horizonlly as x = a cos ωt. Find the equa-
tion of motion.
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Hints: The position of m with respect to the fixed frame is
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x = L sin θ + a cos ωt
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x = −L cos θ

Equation of motion:
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g aω 2
θ̈ + sin θ − sin ωt cos θ = 0
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L L
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11. The point of support of a simple pendulum oscillates vertically. Find

the Lagrangian and the equation of motion.

12. The point of support of a simple pendulum is moving on an ellipse,

2
x2
a2
+ yb2 = 1. Find the Lagrangian and the equation of motion.

13. The point of support of a simple pendulum moves on a parabola, z =

ax2 . Find the Lagrangian and the equation of motion.
2 2

14. Find the equation of motion for the Lagrangian L = eγt m2q̇ − kq2 .

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15. Consider a simple pendulum of length L and bob of mass m attached
to a fixed support. After the pendulum is set into motion, the length
of the pendulum is shortened at a constant rate dtd L = −α. Find the
Lagrangian.

Hints:
1  2 
Kinetic energy T = m α + L2 θ̇2
2
Potential energy V = −mgL cos θ

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Note that the energy of this oscillator is not constant.

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16. Consider a double pendulum made of two masses, m1 and m2 , and two
massless strings of lengths l1 and l2 . Find the equations of motion.

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17. A bead slides on a smooth wire bent in the shape of a parabola z = cr2 .
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The wire is rotating about its vertical z-axis with angular velocity ω.
Find the Lagrangian.
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Hints: Use cylindrical coordinate (r, θ, z).

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1  2 2 2 2

Kinetic energy T = m ṙ + r θ̇ + ż
2
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Potential energy V = mgz

Constraint z = cr2
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18. A particle of mass m moves under gravity along the helix z = kθ, r =
= constant, where k is constant. Determine the equation of motion.

Hints: Equation of motion is

g
z̈ =
r2 /k 2 +1

19. Consider the double pulley system shown in Fig. 6. Determine the
equations of motion.

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Figure 6: A double pulley system.

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Hints: Consider the pulleys to be massless, and let l1 and l2 be the
lengths of the rope hanging freely from each of the two pulleys. The
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distances x and y are measured from the centre of the two pulleys.
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For m1 v1 = x = ẋ
dt
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d

For m2 v2 = l1 − x + y = −ẋ + ẏ
dt
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d

For m3 v3 = l1 − x + l2 − y = −ẋ − ẏ
dt
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Potential Energy V = −m1 gx − m2 g(l1 − x + y) − m3 g(l1 − x + l2 − y)

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20. Spherical pendulum: Detrmine the equation of motion for a spherical

pendulum of mass m and length b (see Fig. 7).

Hints: The generalized coordinates are θ and φ.

1  2 2 
Kinetic energy T = m b θ̇ + b2 sin2 θφ̇2
2
Potential energy V = −mgb cos θ

21. Bead on a rotating hoop:

A bead is free to slide along a frictionless hoop of radius R. The hoop

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Figure 7: A spherical pendulum.

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rotates with constant angular speed ω around a vertical diameter (see

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Fig. 8). Find the equation of motion for the position of the bead.
Hints:
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Figure 8: A bead on a rotating hoop.

1  2 2 2 2 2

Kinetic energy T = m R θ̇ + R sin θω
2
Potential energy V = −mgR cos θ
g
Eq. of motion θ̈ = ω 2 sin θ cos θ − sin θ
R
where θ is the angle that makes R with the z-axis.

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 0.1 Invariance of Lagrange’s Equation
22. If L is a Lagrangian for a system of n degrees of freedom satisfying
Lagrange’s equation, show by direct substitution that
dF
L′ = L +
dt
also satisfies Lagrange’s equation where F = F (q1 , q2 , · · · , qn , t) is any
arbitrary, but differentiable, function of its arguments. Thus the La-
grangian for a given system is not unique.

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A frame moving with a constant velocity with respect to an inertial

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frame is also inertial. Thus there is an infinite number of inertial frames.
The equations of motion are invariant with respect to transformations

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from one inertial frame to another, and the transformed Lagrange func-
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tion can differ from the initial one only by an irrelevant full derivative.
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Consider two inertial frames S and S ′ in relative motion. At t = 0, their
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origins coincide and ~u is the constant relative velocity of S ′ . Let ~r and

~r′ be the position vectors of a particle in S and S ′ frames respectively.
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The basic transformation equation is

~r′ = ~r − ~ut
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The Lagrangian in S ′ is
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1 ′2
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L′ = mv − V
2
1


= ~v − ~u · ~v − ~u − V
2
1 2 1
= mv − V − m~v · ~u + mu2
2 2
d 1 2

= L+ mu − m~r · ~u
dt 2
d
= L + F (~r, t)
dt
Note that V remains the same, because it depends normally on the
separation between the particles which is same in both frames.

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23. The point of support of a simple pendulum is moving horizontally with
a constant velocity. Find the Lagrangian and the equation of motion.

24. A particle is sliding down an inclined plane without slipping. Find the
Lagrangian and Lagrange’s equation.

25. A particle is sliding down an inclined plane without slipping which is

moving horizontally with a constant velocity. Find the Lagrangian and
the equation of motion of the particle.

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26. Show that the two Lagrangians L1 = q + q̇ and L2 = q 2 + q̇ 2 are

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equivalent.

27. A mass m is free to move on a frictionless table and is connected by

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a string, which passes through a hole in the table, to a mass M which

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hangs below (see Fig. 9). Assume that M moves in a vertical line only,
and assume that the string always remains taut.
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Find the equations of motion for the variables r and θ shown in the
figure.
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Under what condition does m undergo circular motion?
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What is the frequency of small oscillations (in the variable r) about

this circular motion?
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Figure 9: Mass through the hole of a table.

Hints: The Lagrangian is

1 1
L = M ṙ2 + m ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 + M g(l − r)


2 2

p2θ
The radius of circular motion is r03 = M mg

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28. A particle of mass m rests on a smooth plae. The plane is raised to an
inclination angle θ at a constant rate α (at t = 0, θ = 0) causing the
particle to move down the plane. Find the equation of motion.

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Figure 10: Motion on incline with variable angle.

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Hints: It is better to use polar coordinates as shown in Fig. 10.

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1  2 
Kinetic energy T = m ṙ + r2 θ̇2 , θ = αt
ac 2
Potential energy V = −mgr sin θ
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Eq. of motion r̈ − α2 r = −g sin αt
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29. Two blocks, each of mass M , are connected by an inextensionable uni-

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form string of length l. One block is placed on a smooth horizontal

surface, and the other block hangs over the side, the string passing
over a frictionless pulley. Describe the motion (a) when the mass of
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the string is negligble and (b) when the string has a mass m.
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Hints: Refer to the Fig. 11: y = l − (S − x), so ẋ = −ẏ

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1  2  1  
Kinetic energy T = M ẋ + ẏ 2 = M ẏ 2 + ẏ 2
2 2
Potential energy V = −mgy
g
Eq. of motion ÿ = −
2
(b) If the string has a mass m, we must consider its kinetic energy and
potential energy
1 1
KE of string T = mẋ2 = mẏ 2
2 2
m y
Potential energy V = − yg
l 2
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 Figure 11: Two blocks connected by a string pass through a pulley.

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30. An extremely limber rope of uniform mass density, mass m and length
b lies on a table with a length z hanging over the edge of the table.

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Find the Lagrange’s equation of motion.

Solution: Refer to the Fig. 12:

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Figure 12: Hanging rope.

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1 2 m
z

Lagrangian L = mż − z g
2 b 2
gz
Eq. of motion z̈ =
b
31. A bead of mass m is sliding on a uniformly rotating wire in a force-free
space. (The axis of rotation is perpendicular to the wire). Determine
the equation of motion.
32. A bead of mass m slides without friction on a straight wire inclined at
an angle θ with the vertical z-axis. If the wire rotates about the z-axis
with constant angular velocity ω, find the Lagrangian.

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33. A cylinder of mass M and radius R is rolling down an inclined plane.
Find the equation of motion of the cylinder.

34. A bob of radius r is rolling on a circular track of radius R. Set up the

Lagrangian.

35. A hoop is rolling, without slipping, down an inclined plane. Set up the
Lagrangian.

36. A particle is constrained to move on the plane curve xy = constant

under gravity. (x-horzontal and y-vertical). Set up the Lagrangian.

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37. Two points of mass m are joined by a rigid massless rod of length L,
the centre of which is constrained to move on a circle of radius a. Find

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the Lagrangian.

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38. A Lagrangian for a particular physical system is
ac
m
k
aẋ2 + 2bẋẏ + cẏ 2 − ax2 + 2bxy + cy 2


L=
tt
2 2
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where a, b, and c are constants such that b2 − ac 6= 0. Find the equation

of motion.
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39. Find the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of mass-spring systems of Fig. 13a
to Fig. 13d.
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(b) Fig 2
(a) Fig 1

(c) Fig 3 (d) Fig 4

40. Find the equation of motion of a pendulum bob suspended by a spring

and allowed to swing in a vertical plane. (mr2 θ̈+2mrṙθ̇+mgr sin θ = 0)

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41. A particle of mass m moves on a plane in a force field given by F~ =
−kr cos θr̂. Find the equation of motion.

42. A particle of mass m is projected with an initial velocity u at an angle

α with horizontal. Find the equation of motion.

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