CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The putative "coronavirus" is thought to be a zoonotic virus that causes acute

respiratory tract infections and deadly pneumonia in humans (Probasco, 2020). It

was originally found in December 2019 in Wuhan, China's capital of Hubei

Province, and originated from animal sources before spreading to humans.

According to Probasco (2020), the symptoms of the new coronavirus include fever,

cough, shortness of breath, and diarrhea. Severity of the infections can cause

pneumonia, renal failure, and death.

The intensity of the virus prompted the World Health Organization to declare it a

global pandemic that had taken many lives, causing widespread alarm and

contributing to many people worrisomeness (Zhou, 2020). In view of this,

Quinones (2020) maintains that the impacts on public and mental health, social

structures, and local and global economies have been enormously disruptive in

practically every nation.

While numerous steps were implemented to limit and minimize the spread of the

virus, efforts were made would formulate a vaccine for the lethal pandemic, which

was accomplished in 2020. (Heymann, 2021).

The vaccine was designed to confer acquired immunity against the virus that

causes COVID19, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2).

According to Gwaha (2021), the COVID-19 immunization is a critical component

in limiting the extent to which people become infected by the virus. Furthermore,

to ensure effective distribution, acceptance, and utilization of the COVID-19

vaccine as postulated by Ukpong (2021), television as a form of mass media

played a significant role. The mass media, generally, are mandated with the

fundamental role of educating, creating awareness, and informing the public during

pandemics, and television is not an exception (Gever & Ezeah, 2020). Similarly,

Hanitzsch, (2019) noted that d During a pandemic, the television takes on the role

of an educator, teaching the public about health concerns so that they can be

mentally prepared to avoid the spread of a pandemic.

Coverage in the view of Gever and Ezeah (2020) is the most effective approach for

which television disseminates, and keep the public informed during a pandemic.

This was achieved by frequently reporting on the health implications of COVID-

19, advocating appropriate health practices, and recommending measures to help in

pandemic containment, as well as advertising the need for, availability of, and

enrollment procedure for COVID-19 immunization (Apuke, & Tunca,

2019). More so, the television media as postulated by Apuke and Tunca (2019),

plays its role through high coverage of news, and visual framing, as well as
information about the pandemic and related vaccine needs. Given the importance

of television media in vaccine information transmission as discussed above, it is

vital to investigate the function of television media in delivering COVID-19

immunization information in Nigeria.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The initial occurrences of COVID-19 were traced back to Wuhan, China, and the

virus spread mostly through human-to-human transmission. Tang (2021) said that

human-to-human transmission of the virus is likely to occur mostly through

intimate contact with infected people's respiratory droplets, which are often formed

by sneezing and coughing. As a result of the virus's virulence, many control and

preventative measures were developed and executed (Chinn & Soroka, 2020). The

COVID-19 vaccine, on the other hand, was developed to eradicate the pandemic

among humans. The COVID-19 vaccination is a critical component in limiting the

extent to which people become infected with the virus. However, the vaccine's

objective would not have been successfully served if mass media like as television

had not been used for mass information transmission (Engler, 2021). According to

Ukpong (2021), in order to keep the public informed, the media, like healthcare

personnel, have been working hard to assure the virus's eradication and the use of

the COVID-19 vaccine. In accordance with the aforementioned, journalists have

been on the front lines, reporting on the cases, the death toll, and the precautions
that the general public should take to prevent getting the virus, including the

necessity for, availability of, and enrollment in the COVID-19 vaccination. In

addition to alerting people about the pandemic, television media works to shape

public opinion regarding the virus, its method of transmission, and the preventative

steps that can help to mitigate it, as well as the COVID-19 vaccine, as much

misinformation has circulated on social media platforms. In the light of the above,

the study role of television media on disseminating covid-19 vaccination

information in Nigeria.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

Generally, the study is focused on evaluating the role of television media in

disseminating COVID-19 vaccination information in Nigeria. To achieve this, the

study will specifically:

1. To analyze the quantity and quality of COVID-19 vaccination information

disseminated by Arise TV in Nigeria.

2. To assess the accuracy and comprehensiveness of COVID-19 vaccination

messaging portrayed by Arise TV.

3. To investigate the impact of Arise TV's coverage on public perceptions,

attitudes, and behaviors regarding COVID-19 vaccination in Nigeria.

4. To identify the key themes, narratives, and perspectives presented by Arise TV

regarding COVID-19 vaccination.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

The following questions will guide this study:

(1). What is the extent and standard of COVID-19 vaccination information

distributed by Arise TV within Nigeria?

(2). How accurate and thorough is the depiction of COVID-19 vaccination

messaging by Arise TV?

(3). What influence does Arise TV's coverage exert on public views, sentiments,

and actions concerning COVID-19 vaccination in Nigeria?

(4). What are the principal themes, storylines, and viewpoints conveyed by Arise

TV concerning COVID-19 vaccination?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will be most useful to the Arise Television Channel as well as other

mass media authorities; the study will re-enlighten them on the irreplaceable role

and paramount position occupied by television in addressing public health issues

and the need to ensure efficiency in supplying the public with reliable, accurate,

and educative information.

Additionally, subsequent researchers will use it as a literature review. This means

that other students who may decide to conduct studies in this area will have the

opportunity to use this study as available literature that can be subjected to critical

review. Invariably, the result of the study contributes immensely to the body of
academic knowledge with regard to the role of television media in disseminating

COVID-19 vaccination information in Nigeria..

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Generally, this study is channeled towards evaluating the role of the television

media in disseminating COVID-19 vaccination information in Nigeria. The study

however will specifically identify if the television media effectively created public

awareness on the availability of Covid-19 vaccines, ascertain if the television

media educated the public on the right need for Covid-19 vaccination, ascertain if

the television media played a significant role in the effective distribution of Covid-

19 vaccines, and ascertain if the television media promoted health behavioral

changes among mass who has been misinformed about the Covid-19 vaccine. 1.7.

1.7 Limitations Of The Study

In the course of carrying out this study, the researcher experienced some

constraints, which included time constraints, financial constraints, language

barriers, and the attitude of the respondents.

In addition, there was the element of researcher bias. Here, the researcher

possessed some biases that may have been reflected in the way the data was

collected, the type of people interviewed or sampled, and how the data gathered

was interpreted thereafter. The potential for all this to influence the findings and

conclusions could not be downplayed.

More so, the findings of this study are limited to the sample population in the study

area, hence they may not be suitable for use in comparison to other local

governments, states, and other countries in the world.

1.8 Definition Of Terms

Mass Media: This is a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large

audience via mass communication

Television media: This is a television set, a television show, or the medium of

television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising,

entertainment, news, and sports.

Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from

the common cold to more severe diseases.

Vaccine: a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide

immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from the causative agent of a

disease, its products, or a synthetic substitute, treated to act as an antigen without

inducing the disease.

COVID-19 Immunization: COVID-19 immunization, as discussed by Ukpong

(2021), refers to the process of administering vaccines to individuals to induce

immunity against the virus causing COVID-19. Television media is identified as a

significant vehicle for promoting the acceptance, distribution, and utilization of

COVID-19 vaccines among the population.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.1.1 MEDIA COVERAGE OF HEALTH CRISIS

Media Coverage of Health Crisis Studies conducted outside Nigeria that focused

on health issues are growing. For example, Bowen (2013) found that media

messages convinced Cameroonians to use a treated net to prevent the spread of

malaria. This outcome suggests a positive relationship between health media

messages and healthy behavior. Contrary to this outcome, another study found that

media overconcentration on panic reporting during the Ebola outbreak in Ghana

increased the fear among the public and health care workers. It also made some to

flee from isolation centers, and suspicious patients in dire need of medical attention

were abandoned (Iddrisu, 2018). Basch et al. (2014) investigated how three widely

read newspapers covered Ebola in the United States. The study found that the

media primarily focused on death tolls, with less emphasis on educating the readers

on the critical aspect of the Ebola epidemic. With regard to studies conducted in

Nigeria, Uwom and Oloyede (2014) studied newspaper coverage of health issues

in Nigeria with a focus on the Guardian and Punch newspapers. The study found

that even though health issues were well reported in the media, most of the news

were reported using straight news format and there was less prominence allocated
to the issue of health. Straight news here means stories that report only the most

essential information in a concise and impartial manner. Having understood media

coverage of health crisis, it is pertinent to specifically look at media coverage of

COVID-19 pandemic which is the focus of this study

2.1.2 THE MEDIA AND COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Recent evidence has shown that media coverage could be an effective way to curb

the spread of COVID-19 (Zhou et al., 2020). Mutua and Oloo Ong’ong’a (2020)

studied international news media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic. The focus

was on BBC, CNN, Al-Jazeera, and people’s daily. The results showed that the

media played a vital role in providing information on the initial stages of the

outbreak, which influenced public perceptions of the disease and contributed to

curtailing the spread. This is contrary to Basch et al. (2020) study, which analyzed

Google videos from January to February 2020 and found death rates as the most

common topic mentioned across all videos. Pertinent information regarding

preventive measures received little attention, suggesting that most of the videos

missed the chance to encourage and promote coping strategies and health-

sustaining behavior. With regard to Nigeria, Gever and Ezeah (2020) investigated

media coverage of COVID-19 in Nigeria with a focus on TV, Radio, and

Newspapers. The study found that the sampled Nigerian media outlets had less

emphasis on the issues of COVID-19 before the first case was announced in
Nigeria. However, after cases were reported, the media had an upsurge in its

interest and reportage. It should be noted that there are two main types of media in

Nigeria, and this includes private and government-owned media. The private

media are entirely established by private individuals, while the government media

are owned and managed by the government (Dogari et al., 2018). An example of

the private press in Nigeria includes Arise TV, TVC news, AIT, Vanguard

newspaper, Tribune newspapers, Daily Trust, Daily Sun, and many more,

including online newspapers. At the same time, the government media includes

NTA, Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), and so on (Apuke, 2017).

Further evidence has shown that in Nigeria, Radio reach more people; however,

television is also largely used by a lot of Nigerians with both low and high literacy

as well as low and high class (Apuke, 2017).

2.1.3 THE VIRUS: CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN

SARS-CoV-2 is a member of the family Coronaviridae and order Nidovirales. The

family consists of two subfamilies, Coronavirinae and Torovirinae and members

of the subfamily Coronavirinae are subdivided into four genera: (a)

Alphacoronavirus contains the human coronavirus (HCoV)-229E and HCoV-

NL63; (b) Betacoronavirus includes HCoV-OC43, Severe Acute Respiratory

Syndrome human coronavirus (SARS-HCoV), HCoV-HKU1, and Middle Eastern

respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV); (c) Gammacoronavirus includes

viruses of whales and birds and; (d) Deltacoronavirus includes viruses isolated

from pigs and birds [Burrell C, et al. 2016]. SARS-CoV-2 belongs to

Betacoronavirus together with two highly pathogenic viruses, SARS-CoV and

MERS-CoV. SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped and positive-sense single-stranded

RNA (+ssRNA) virus [Kramer A, et al.2006].

SARS-CoV-2 is considered a novel human-infecting Betacoro- navirus [Lu R,et

al.2020]. Phylogenetic analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 genome indicates that the

virus is closely related (with 88% identity) to two bat-derived SARS-like

coronaviruses collected in 2018 in east- ern China (bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-

CoVZXC21) and genetically distinct from SARS-CoV (with about 79% similarity)

and MERS-CoV [Lu R,et al.2020]. Using the genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2,

RaTG13, and SARS-CoV [Zhou P,et al.2020], a further study found that the virus

is more related to BatCoV RaTG13, a bat coronavirus that was previously detected

in Rhinolophus affinis from Yunnan Province, with 96.2% overall genome

sequence identity [Zhou P,et al.2020]. A study found that no evidence of

recombination events detected in the genome of SARS-CoV-2 from other viruses

originating from bats such as BatCoV RaTG13, SARS- CoV and SARSr-CoVs

[Zhou P,et al.2020]. Altogether, these findings suggest that bats might be the

original host of this virus.

However, a study is needed to elucidate whether any inter- mediate hosts have

facilitated the transmission of the virus to humans. Bats are unlikely to be the

animal that is directly responsi- ble for transmission of the virus to humans for

several reasons [Lu R,et al.2020]:

(1) there were various non-aquatic animals (including mammals) available for

purchase in Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market but no bats were sold or found;

(2) SARS-CoV-2 and its close relatives, bat- SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-

CoVZXC21, have a relatively long branch (sequence identity of less than 90%),

suggesting those viruses are not direct ancestors of SARS-CoV-2; and

(3) in other coronaviruses where bat is the natural reservoir such as SARS-CoV

and MERS-CoV, other animals have acted as the intermediate host (civets and pos-

sibly camels, respectively). Nevertheless, bats do not always need an intermediary

host to transmit viruses to humans. For example, Nipah virus in Bangladesh is

transmitted through bats shedding into raw date palm sap.

 RISK FACTORS

The incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection is seen most often in adult male patients

with the median age of the patients was between 34 and 59 years. SARS-CoV-2 is

also more likely to infect people with chronic comorbidities such as cardio-

vascular and cerebrovascular diseases and diabetes. The highest proportion of

severe cases occurs in adults 60 years of age, and in those with certain underlying
conditions, such as cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and diabetes.

Severe mani- festations maybe also associated with coinfections of bacteria and

fungi [Chen N. et’al 2020].

Fewer COVID-19 cases have been reported in children less than 15 years

[20,30,7,32]. In a study of 425 COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, published on

January 29, there were no cases in chil- dren under 15 years of age. Nevertheless,

28 paediatric patients have been reported by January 2020. The clinical features of

infected paediatric patients vary, but most have had mild symptoms with no fever

or pneumonia, and have a good prognosis. Another study found that although a

child had radiological ground-glass lung opacities, the patient was asymptomatic.

In summary, children might be less likely to be infected or, if infected, present

milder manifestations than adults; therefore, it is possible that their parents will not

seek out treatment leading to underestimates of COVID-19 incidence in this age

group.

2.1.4 TRANSMISSION

The role of the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in propagating disease is

unclear. Many initial COVID-19 cases were linked to this market suggesting that

SARS-CoV-2 was transmitted from animals to humans. However, a genomic study

has provided evidence that the virus was introduced from another, yet unknown

location, into the market where it spread more rapidly, although human-to-human
transmission may have occurred earlier [Yu W,et al.2020]. Clusters of infected

family members and medical workers have confirmed the presence of person-to-

person transmission [Yu W,et al.2020]. After January 1, less than 10% of patients

had market expo- sure and more than 70% patients had no exposure to the market

[Yu W, et’al. 2020]. Person-to-person transmission is thought to occur among

close contacts mainly via respiratory droplets produced when an infected person

coughs or sneezes. Fomites may be a large source of transmission, as SARS-CoV

has been found to persist on surfaces up to 96h [Kramer A, et al.2016] and other

coronaviruses for up to 9 days.

Whether or not there is asymptomatic transmission of disease is controversial. One

initial study published on January 30 reported asymptomatic transmission [18], but

later it was found that the researchers had not directly interviewed the patient, who

did in fact have symptoms prior to transmitting disease [Kramer A, et al.2020]. A

more recent study published on February 21 also purported asymptomatic

transmission [shang w. 2020], but any such study could be limited by errors in self-

reported symptoms or contact with other cases and fomites.

Findings about disease characteristics are rapidly changing and subject to selection

bias. A study indicated the mean incubation period was 5.2 days (95% confidence

interval [95%CI]: 4.1–7.0). The incubation period has been found to be as long as
19 or 24 days , although case definitions typically rely on a 14 day window (G.S

2020).

The basic reproductive number (R0) has been estimated with varying results and

interpretations. R0 measures the average num- ber of infections that could result

from one infected individual in a fully susceptible population. Studies from

previous outbreaks found R0 to be 2.7 for SARS and 2.4 for 2009 pandemic H1N1

influenza. One study estimated that that basic reproductive number (R0) was 2.2

(95% CI: 1.4–3.9). However, later in a further analysis of 12 available studies

found that R0 was 3.28. Because R0 represents an average value it is also

important to consider the role of super spreaders, who may be hugely responsible

for outbreaks within large clusters but who would not largely influence the value of

R0. During the acute phase of an outbreak or prepandemic, R0 may be unstable .

In pregnancy, a study of nine pregnancy women who developed COVID-19 in late

pregnancy suggested COVID-19 did not lead to substantially worse symptoms than

in nonpregnant persons and there is no evidence for intrauterine infection caused

by vertical transmission [Chen HEA 2020].

In hospital setting, a study involving 138 COVID-19 suggested that hospital-

associated transmission of SARS-CoV-2 occurred in 41% of patients [Wang. D

2020 ]. Moreover, another study on 425 patients found that the proportion of cases

in health care workers gradually increased by time [Wu P, et al.2020]. These cases
likely reflect exposure to a higher concentration of virus from sustained contact in

close quarters.

Outside China, as of February 12, 2020, there were 441 confirmed COVID-19

cases reported in 24 countries of which the first imported case was reported in

Thailand on January 13, 2020. Among those countries, 11 countries have reported

local transmission with the highest number of cases reported in Singapore with 47

confirmed cases.

 PATHOGENESIS AND IMMUNE RESPONSE

Like most other members of the coronavirus family, Beta- coronavirus exhibit high

species specificity, but subtle genetic changes can significantly alter their tissue

tropism, host range, and pathogenicity. A striking example of the adaptability of

these viruses is the emergence of deadly zoonotic diseases in human history caused

by SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. In both viruses, bats served as the natural

reservoir and humans were the terminal host, with the palm civet and dromedary

camel the intermediary host for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, respectively.

Intermediate hosts clearly play a critical role in cross species transmission as they

can facilitate increased contact between a virus and a new host and enable further

adaptation necessary for an effective replication in the new host. Because of the

pandemic potential of SARS- CoV-2, careful surveillance is immensely important

to monitor its future host adaptation, viral evolution, infectivity, transmissibility,

and pathogenicity.

The host range of a virus is governed by multiple molecular interactions, including

receptor interaction. The envelope spike (S) protein receptor binding domain of

SARS-CoV-2 was shown struc- turally similar to that of SARS-CoV, despite

amino acid variation at some key residues . Further extensive structural analysis

strongly suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may use host receptor angiotensin-converting

enzyme 2 (ACE2) to enter the cells, the same receptor facilitating SARS-CoV to

infect the airway epithelium and alveolar type 2 (AT2) pneumocytes, pulmonary

cells that synthesize pulmonary surfactant. In general, the spike protein of

coronavirus is divided into the S1 and S2 domain, in which S1 is responsible for

receptor binding and S2 domain is responsible for cell membrane fusion. The S1

domain of SARS-CoV and SARS- CoV-2 share around 50 conserved amino acids,

whereas most of the bat-derived viruses showed more variation. In addition,

identification of several key residues (Gln493 and Asn501) that govern the binding

of SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain with ACE2 further support that SARS-

CoV-2 has acquired capacity for person- to-person transmission. Although, the

spike protein sequence of receptor binding SARS-CoV-2 is more similar to that of

SARS- CoV, at the whole genome level SARS-CoV-2 is more closely related to

bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-CoVZXC21.

2.1.5 CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

Clinical manifestations of 2019-nCoV infection have similarities with SARS-CoV

where the most common symptoms include fever, dry cough, dyspnoea, chest pain,

fatigue and myalgia [Huang C, et al.2020]. Less common symptoms include

headache, dizziness, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, and vomiting [Huang C, et

al.2020]. Based on the report of the first 425 confirmed cases in Wuhan, the

common symptoms include fever, dry cough, myalgia and fatigue with less

common are sputum production, headache, haemoptysis, abdominal pain, and

diarrhoea. Approximately 75% patients had bilateral pneu- monia. Different from

SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections, however, is that very few COVID-19

patients show prominent upper respiratory tract signs and symptoms such as

rhinorrhoea, sneezing, or sore throat, suggesting that the virus might have greater

preference for infecting the lower respiratory tract [Huang C, et al.2020]. Pregnant

and non-pregnant women have similar characteristics.

Severe complications such as hypoxaemia, acute ARDS, arry- thmia, shock, acute

cardiac injury, and acute kidney injury have been reported among COVID-19

patients [Huang C, et al.2020]. A study among 99 patients found that

approximately 17% patients developed ARDS and, among them, 11% died of

multiple organ failure. The median duration from first symptoms to ARDS was 8

days .
  DIAGNOSIS

Efforts to control spread of COVID-19, institute quarantine and isolation measures,

and appropriately clinically manage patients all require useful screening and

diagnostic tools. While SARS-CoV- 2 is spreading, other respiratory infections

may be more common in a local community. The WHO has released a guideline on

case surveillance of COVID-19 on January 31, 2020. For a person who meets

certain criteria, WHO recommends to first screen for more common causes of

respiratory illness given the season and location. If a negative result is found, the

sample should be sent to referral laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 detection.

Case definitions can vary by country and will evolve over time as the

epidemiological circumstances change in a given location. In China, a confirmed

case from January 15, 2020 required an epidemiological linkage to Wuhan within 2

weeks and clinical features such as fever, pneumonia, and low white blood cell

count. On January 18, 2020 the epidemiological criterion was expanded to include

con- tact with anyone who had been in Wuhan in the past 2 weeks [50]. Later, the

case definitions removed the epidemiological linkage.

The WHO has put forward case definitions [23]. Suspected cases of COVID-19 are

persons (a) with severe acute respiratory infections (history of fever and cough

requiring admission to hospital) and with no other aetiology that fully explains the

clinical presentation and a history of travel to or residence in China during the 14

days prior to symptom onset; or (b) a patient with any acute respiratory illness and

at least one of the following during the 14 days prior to symptom onset: contact

with a confirmed or probable case of SARS-CoV-2 infection or worked in or

attended a health care facility where patients with confirmed or probable SARS-

CoV-2 acute respiratory disease patients were being treated. Probable cases are

those for whom testing for SARS-CoV-2 is inconclusive or who test positive using

a pan-coronavirus assay and without laboratory evi- dence of other respiratory

pathogens. A confirmed case is one with a laboratory confirmation of SARS-CoV-

2 infection, irrespective of clinical signs and symptoms.

For patients who meet diagnostic criteria for SARS-CoV-2 test- ing, the CDC

recommends collection of specimens from the upper respiratory tract

(nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swab) and, if possible, the lower respiratory

tract (sputum, tracheal aspirate, or bronchoalveolar lavage). In each country, the

tests are per- formed by laboratories designated by the government.

 LABORATORY fiNDINGS

Among COVID-19 patients, common laboratory abnormalities include

lymphopenia, prolonged prothrombin time, and elevated lactate dehydrogenase.

ICU-admitted patients had more laboratory abnormalities compared with non-ICU

patients. Some patients had elevated aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase,

creatinine, and C-reactive protein. Most patients have shown normal serum
procalcitonin levels. COVID-19 patients have high level of IL1β, IFN-γ, IP10, and

MCP1. ICU-admitted patients tend to have higher concentration of granulocyte-

colony stimulating factor (GCSF), IP10, MCP1A,MIP1A, and TNF-α.

2.1.5 TREATMENTS

Similar to MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, there is still no specific antiviral treatment

for COVID-19. Isolation and supportive care including oxygen therapy, fluid

management, and antibiotics treatment for secondary bacterial infections is

recommended. Some COVID-19 patients progressed rapidly to ARDS and septic

shock, which was eventually followed by multiple organ failure [Huang C, et

al.2020]. Therefore, the effort on initial management of COVID-19 must be

addressed to the early recognition of the suspect and contain the disease spread by

immediate isolation and infection control measures .

Currently, no vaccination is available, but even if one was avail- able, uptake

might be suboptimal. A study of intention to vaccinate during the H1N1 pandemic

in the United States was around 50% at the start of the pandemic in May 2009 but

had decreased to 16% by January 2010.

Neither is a treatment available. Therefore, the management of the disease has

been mostly supportive referring to the disease severity which has been introduced

by WHO. If sepsis is identi- fied, empiric antibiotic should be administered based

on clinical diagnosis and local epidemiology and susceptibility information.

Routine glucocorticoids administration are not recommended to use unless there

are another indication. Clinical evidence also does not support corticosteroid

treatment. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin might help for severely ill patients .

Drugs are being evaluated in line with past investigations into therapeutic

treatments for SARS and MERS. Overall, there is not robust evidence that these

antivirals can significantly improve clinical outcomes A. Antiviral drugs such as

oseltamivir combined with empirical antibiotic treatment have also been used to

treat COVID- 19 patients [Huang C, et al.2020]. Remdesivir which was developed

for Ebola virus, has been used to treat imported COVID-19 cases in US [Holshue

ML, 2020]. A brief report of treatment combination of Lopinavir/Ritonavir,

Arbidol, and Shufeng Jiedu Capsule (SFJDC), a traditional Chinese medicine,

showed a clinical benefit to three of four COVID-19 patients [Holshue ML, 2020].

There is an ongoing clinical trial evaluating the safety and efficacy of lopinavir-

ritonavir and interferon-α 2b in patients with COVID- 19 [Huang C, et al.2020].

Ramsedivir, a broad spectrum antivirus has demonstrated in vitro and in vivo

efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 and has also initi- ated its clinical trial. In addition,

other potential drugs from existing antiviral agent have also been proposed.

2.1.7 CONTROL AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES

COVID-19 is clearly a serious disease of international concern. By some estimates

it has a higher reproductive number than SARS, and more people have been

reported to have been infected or died from it than SARS. Similar to SARS-CoV

and MERS-CoV, disrupting the chain of transmission is considered key to stopping

the spread of disease. Different strategies should be implemented in health care

settings and at the local and global levels

Health care settings can unfortunately be an important source of viral transmission.

As shown in the model for SARS, applying triage, following correct infection

control measures, isolating the cases and contact tracing are key to limit the further

spreading of the virus in clinics and hospitals. Suspected cases present- ing at

healthcare facilities with symptoms of respiratory infections (e.g. runny nose, fever

and cough) must wear a face mask to con- tain the virus and strictly adhere triage

procedure. They should not be permitted to wait with other patients seeking

medical care at the facilities. They should be placed in a separated, fully ventilated

room and approximately 2 m away from other patients with con- venient access to

respiratory hygiene supplies. In addition, if a confirmed COVID-19 case require

hospitalization, they must be placed in a single patient room with negative air

pressure – a minimum of six air changes per hour. Exhausted air has to be filtered

through high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) and medical personnel entering the

room should wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, gown,
disposable N95, and eye protection. Once the cases are recovered and discharged,

the room should be decontaminated or disinfected and personnel entering the room

need to wear PPE particularly facemask, gown, eye protection. In a community

setting, isolating infected people are the primary measure to interrupt the

transmission. For example, immediate actions taken by Chinese health authorities

included isolating the infected people and quarantining of suspected peo- ple and

their close contacts. Also, as there are still conflicting assumptions regarding the

animal origins of the virus (i.e. some studies linked the virus to bat while others

associated the virus with snake), contacts with these animal fluids or tissues or

consumption of wild caught animal meet should be avoided. Moreover, educating

the public to recognize unusual symptoms such as chronic cough or shortness of

breath is essential therefore that they could seek medical care for early detection of

the virus. If large-scale community transmission occurs, mitigating social

gatherings, temporary school closure, home isolation, close monitoring of

symptomatic individual, provision of life supports (e.g. oxygen supply, mechanical

ventilator), personal hand hygiene, and wear- ing personal protective equipment

such as facemask should also be enforced .

In global setting, locking down Wuhan city was one of the immediate measure

taken by Chinese authorities and hence had slowed the global spread of COVID-

19. Air travel should be limited for the cases unless severe medical attentions are
required. Setting up temperature check or scanning is mandatory at airport and

border to identify the suspected cases. Continued research into the virus is critical

to trace the source of the outbreak and provide evidence for future outbreak

[Heymann DL, Shindo et al.2020].

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is based on three theories: Agenda setting, Framing, and Propaganda

model.

2.2.1 AGENDA SETTING AND PROPAGANDA MODEL.

The Agenda Setting theory, proposed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in

1972 (McCombs & Shaw, 2016), has two core assumptions. First, the media filters

and shapes what we see rather than just reflecting stories to the audience. Second,

the more attention the media gives to an issue, the more likely the public will

consider that issue to be important (Gever & Ezeah, 2020). The media accomplish

its agenda setting functions through frequency of coverage and prominence (Apuke

& Omar, 2020). Frequency deals with the number of coverage while prominence

focus on the placement of stories on headlines and length/duration of time devoted

to stories.
2.2.2 PROPAGANDA MODEL THEORY

The “Propaganda Model” (PM), which was advanced by Herman and Chomsky

(1988), suggests that most mainstream media are themselves typically large

corporations, “controlled by very wealthy people or by managers who are subject

to sharp constraints by owners and other marketprofit-oriented forces” (Herman &

Chomsky, 1988, p. 14). According to Klaehn (2009), the propaganda model

assumed that the corporate ownership results in the interests of the ruling class

being represented in the mass media. The news media will consistently produce

news content that serves the interests of established power. As such, regardless of

the role of the media, ownership and political structure affects its operation

(Apuke, 2016). For instance, research has shown that ownership of the media has

influence on the frequency of coverage (Apuke & Tunca, 2020). Furthermore,

Apuke and Tunca (2019) found that the private media allocated more prominence

and had more frequency of coverage than the government media. The same study

also found that the private media had more stories on its headline compared with

the government media.

According to this theory, media ownership influences source selection, media tone,

and framing techniques. First, previous studies suggest that the government media

frequently rely on government officials and press release (Apuke & Tunca, 2020;

Gever et al., 2018). Second, past research found that ownership structure and
political context influence the likelihood of positive, neutral, and negative tone in

the media (Dunaway, 2013). According to Asogwa et al. (2020), when the media is

owned based on commercial interest, the contents will be suited to please

advertisers, opposition parties, politicians, and others sponsors. Whereas, when the

media is owned by the government it will resonate the interest of the government.

Asogwa et al. (2020) also found that government media (NTA) in Nigeria use

more of positive tone compare with private media (Channels TV). Third, past

research has shown that government media had more government intervention

frames than the private media (Apuke & Tunca, 2019). Tobechukwu (2011) found

that the content of reports and information conveyed by state-owned media in

Nigeria reveals that much attention is given to government and official statements

from politicians. This implies that the content of the media serves the interest of

the government and the party in power. In this view, Apuke and Tunca (2019)

found a significant difference with regard to private and government media

treatment of issues in Nigeria. The same study concludes that the private media use

more of visual/motion footages compared with the government media. Similar

finding were reported in the study of Apuke and Tunca (2020).

2.2.3 THE FRAMING THEORY

The framing theory is one of the influential media effect theory which suggests

framing does not focus on the amount of coverage but the angle taken (Gever &
Ezeah, 2020). This theory was first introduced in 1974 by Goffman (Goffman,

1974). Framing is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them

more salient in a communicating text. In doing so, framing promotes a particular

problem definition, a causal interpretation, a moral evaluation, and/or treatment

recommendation for the item described (Entman, 1993). Framing is achieved

through the selection of sources, tone, news, and visual frames (Apuke & Tunca,

2019).

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Interestingly, so many scholars have carried out empirical studies on the Media

System Dependency theory. Scholars such as Tsfati and Capella (2003), Tsfati and

Peri (2006) studied the relationship between media dependency and media trust.

Research have showed that gaining insight into users information seeking

behaviour is important to provide better services to the audience (Nkomo, Ocholla

and Jacobs, 2010 p. 138).

Noar, (2006) notes that the mass media have long been used as a tool for

promoting public health such that they are significantly used to exposé high

population of large populace to messages through routine uses of existing media

such as television, radio and newspapers. According to Akarika, (2019) the mass

media plays a fundamental role in educating people about diseases and ailments,

outbreaks, prevention, control and treatment. Jackob (2010) in his study found out
that there is significant positive relationship between media dependency and media

trust. According to him, this is influenced by the negative relationship between the

use of alternative sources and dependency.

Media audience behave in different ways in terms of their dependency on a certain

media. Thus, their attitudes and dependency towards information obtained from

certain media vary. According to Tsfati and Cohen (2013) cited in Egielewa (2020)

media trust always involve two sides, namely the trustor which is the side that

places trust in something or somebody and the trustee, which is the side being

trusted. Both the trustor and the trustee intermit in certain situations in which the

trustor may stand to gain but is also at a greater risk of losing.

Additionally, researches have further emphasized that media dependency arises

from audience truest which is tied to the media content. James, Akarika and

Kierian (2017:27) succinctly explains:

“We live in an enthralling world and even more enthralling society. From the

moment we wake up until the moment we go back to our beds, we avail ourselves

of numerous media programmes. At the end of the day, you avail yourself of the

latest news from your television and crave for your favourite music over the radio

and even log on to be connected to the rest of the world through the World Wide

Web. Our society is becoming more and more capable of being constantly
informed, entertained, and connected to the other individuals at the click of a

button. Life without the media is simply unthinkable”.

To buttress this point, Kierian, Akarika and Ukpe (2017) note that the advent of the

mass media, for example, television, magazines, newspapers, the internet and other

social networks such as facebook as well as means of communication has become

part of human life in the contemporary world.Similarly, Ernest, Level and

Culbertson (cited in Nkomo et al 2010) observe that electronic

access has drastically influenced information seeking behaviour. The web has

compelled a shift in the way people seek information. Clearly, evidence points to

shifts in information seeking behaviours due to rise of internet channels (Nkomo et

al. 2010).

2.4 SUMMARY

This chapter highlight the impact of media messages on public behavior. Bowen

(2013) found positive effects in Cameroon, where media messages increased the

use of treated nets to prevent malaria. Conversely, panic reporting during the Ebola

outbreak in Ghana increased fear and led to adverse outcomes (Iddrisu, 2018).

Basch et al. (2014) noted a focus on death tolls rather than education in U.S.

newspapers during the Ebola crisis. In Nigeria, Uwom and Oloyede (2014) found

that health issues were reported but lacked prominence and educational depth in

newspapers like the Guardian and Punch.

The COVID-19 pandemic, Mutua and Oloo Ong’ong’a (2020) observed

international media's role in shaping public perceptions, while Gever and Ezeah

(2020) noted increased coverage by Nigerian media post-first case. They

differentiated between private and government-owned media, emphasizing radio's

broader reach in Nigeria. Understanding media coverage of COVID-19 is crucial

due to its novelty and impact on public health.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 RESEAERCH DESIGN

The survey methnod was adopted for this study. According to Asema Adebisi and
Ayo (2019), survey research is a method of collecting and analyzing social data via
highly structured and often detailed interviews or questionnaires from large
number of respondents presumed to be a representation of a specific population.

3.2 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

Thepopulation of the study is 366,738. This consists of the total number of social
media users who follow reposted prom oted the obedient political movement on
various social media platforms between October 2022 and feburary 2023. The
population was generated through a forensic study conducted by team of experts.

The analysis is as follows:

Social media platforms Users

Twitter 300,738
Facebook 60,000
Other media platforms 6,000
Total 366,738
Source: 2023social media survey by political experts.

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE

The sampling size of this study consist of 400 respondents drawn from the
population. The taro yameni formular was adopted to arrive at this size. The
formula is:
 N
n = 1+ ( e ) 2

n = sample size
N = Population of the study
I = Constant
e = Error margin(0.05)2

366,738
n = 1+ 366,738 ( 0.05 ) 2

366,738
n = 1+ 366,738(0.0025)

366,738
n = 1+ 916,845

366,738
n = 917

n = 399.5

:n= 400

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The sampling technique adopted for this study the Taro yameni’s sampling
technique

3.5SOURCE OF DATA

The data used for this research was from two soyurces. Primary and Secondary
sources. The primary source ofdata used for this study is the questionnaire. The
secondary source of data used for this study include: Books, Newspapers,
Magazine and the internet.

3.6 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The questionnaire was used to collect data for this research. The questionnaire was
used because it was the easiest and most realible way through which data could be
generated for this study.

3.7 VALIDITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

To ascertain the validity of the questionnaire, a copy of the questionnaire was

given to the supervisor, a statistician and one educational research expert. Each of
them made corrections in the instrument and their corrections were effected on the
questionnaire.

3.8 RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The research instrument was tested to determine its reliability by conducting a pilot
study before the actual study. The fresearcher distributed some copies of the
questionnaire to the respondents twice and found out that their responses were
consistent.

3.9 METHOD OF DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

The researcher made use of simple statistical tables for data presentation and
analyzed the data using simple percentages. The formula for simple percentage is:
FX 100
%= N X 1

F = frequency

N= number of respondents