370

INTERNAL FLOW

converges. (Typically only a few iterations are required for convergence to

three or four digits of precision.)
In problems of the third type, the diameter is not known and thus
the Reynolds number and the relative roughness cannot be calculated.
Therefore, we start calculations by assuming a pipe diameter. The pressure
drop calculated for the assumed diameter is then compared to the specified
pressure drop, and calculations are repeated with another pipe diameter in
an iterative fashion until convergence.
To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter calcula-
tions, Swamee and Jain (1976) proposed the following explicit relations that
are accurate to within 2 percent of the Moody chart:

e ln c 1 4.62a # b d f
#
V 2L e nD 0.9 22 10 26 , e/D , 10 22
hL 5 1.07 5
(8–52)
gD 3.7D V 3000 , Re , 3 3 108

b ln c 1 a b d
# gD5hL 0.5 e 3.17v 2L 0.5
V 5 20.965a Re . 2000 (8–53)
L 3.7D gD 3hL

D 5 0.66 c e a b 1 nV 9.4 a b d
#
1.25
LV 2 4.75 # L 5.2 0.04 10 26 , e/D , 10 22
(8–54)
ghL ghL 5000 , Re , 3 3 108

Note that all quantities are dimensional and the units simplify to the
desired unit (for example, to m or ft in the last relation) when consistent
units are used. Noting that the Moody chart is accurate to within 15 percent
of experimental data, we should have no reservation in using these approxi-
mate relations in the design of piping systems.

EXAMPLE 8–3 Determining the Head Loss in a Water Pipe

0.2 ft3/s
2 in
water Water at 608F (r 5 62.36 lbm/ft3 and m 5 7.536 3 1024 lbm/ft·s) is flow-
ing steadily in a 2-in-diameter horizontal pipe made of stainless steel at a rate
200 ft of 0.2 ft3/s (Fig. 8–32). Determine the pressure drop, the head loss, and the
required pumping power input for flow over a 200-ft-long section of the pipe.
FIGURE 8–32
Schematic for Example 8–3. SOLUTION The flow rate through a specified water pipe is given. The pressure
drop, the head loss, and the pumping power requirements are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance
effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 3 The pipe
involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 The piping
section involves no work devices such as a pump or a turbine.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be r 5
62.36 lbm/ft3 and m 5 7.536 3 1024 lbm/ft·s, respectively.
Analysis We recognize this as a problem of the first type, since flow rate,
pipe length, and pipe diameter are known. First we calculate the average
velocity and the Reynolds number to determine the flow regime:
# #
V V 0.2 ft3/s
V 5 5 2
5 5 9.17 ft/s
Ac pD /4 p(2/12 ft)2/4

rV D (62.36 lbm/ft3)(9.17 ft/s)(2/12 ft)

Re 5 5 5 126,400
m 7.536 3 10 24 lbm/ft·s
 371
CHAPTER 8

Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent. The relative roughness
of the pipe is estimated using Table 8–2
0.000007 ft
e/D 5 5 0.000042
2/12 ft
The friction factor corresponding to this relative roughness and Reynolds
number is determined from the Moody chart. To avoid any reading error, we
determine f from the Colebrook equation on which the Moody chart is based:

bS 5 22.0 log a b
"f "f 126,400 "f
1 e/D 2.51 1 0.000042 2.51
5 22.0 loga 1 1
3.7 Re"f 3.7

Using an equation solver or an iterative scheme, the friction factor is deter-

mined to be f 5 0.0174. Then the pressure drop (which is equivalent to
pressure loss in this case), head loss, and the required power input become

a b
L rV 2 200 ft (62.36 lbm/ft3)(9.17 ft/s)2 1 lbf
DP 5 DPL 5 f 5 0.0174
D 2 2/12 ft 2 32.2 lbm·ft/s2
5 1700 lbf/ft2 5 11.8 psi
DPL L V2 200 ft (9.17 ft/s)2
hL 5 5f 5 0.0174 5 27.3 ft
rg D 2g 2/12 ft 2(32.2 ft/s2)

b 5 461 W
# # 1W
Wpump 5 V DP 5 (0.2 ft3/s)(1700 lbf/ft2)a
0.737 lbf·ft/s
Therefore, power input in the amount of 461 W is needed to overcome the
frictional losses in the pipe.
Discussion It is common practice to write our final answers to three signifi-
cant digits, even though we know that the results are accurate to at most two
significant digits because of inherent inaccuracies in the Colebrook equation,
as discussed previously. The friction factor could also be determined easily
from the explicit Haaland relation (Eq. 8–51). It would give f 5 0.0172,
which is sufficiently close to 0.0174. Also, the friction factor corresponding
to e 5 0 in this case is 0.0171, which indicates that this stainless-steel
pipe can be approximated as smooth with minimal error.

EXAMPLE 8–4 Determining the Diameter of an Air Duct

0.35 m3/s
Heated air at 1 atm and 358C is to be transported in a 150-m-long circular air D
plastic duct at a rate of 0.35 m3/s (Fig. 8–33). If the head loss in the pipe
is not to exceed 20 m, determine the minimum diameter of the duct. 150 m

SOLUTION The flow rate and the head loss in an air duct are given. The FIGURE 8–33
diameter of the duct is to be determined. Schematic for Example 8–4.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance
effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed. 3 The duct
involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 Air is an
ideal gas. 5 The duct is smooth since it is made of plastic. 6 The flow is
turbulent (to be verified).
Properties The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of air at
358C are r 5 1.145 kg/m3, m 5 1.895 3 1025 kg/m·s, and n 5 1.655 3
1025 m2/s.
 372
INTERNAL FLOW

Analysis This is a problem of the third type since it involves the deter-
mination of diameter for specified flow rate and head loss. We can solve
this problem using three different approaches: (1) an iterative approach by
assuming a pipe diameter, calculating the head loss, comparing the result
to the specified head loss, and repeating calculations until the calculated
head loss matches the specified value; (2) writing all the relevant equations
(leaving the diameter as an unknown) and solving them simultaneously using
an equation solver; and (3) using the third Swamee–Jain formula. We will
demonstrate the use of the last two approaches.
The average velocity, the Reynolds number, the friction factor, and the
head loss relations are expressed as (D is in m, V is in m/s, and Re and f are
dimensionless)
# #
V V 0.35 m3/s
V 5 5 5
Ac pD2/4 pD 2/4
VD VD
Re 5 5
n 1.655 3 10 25 m2/s

b 5 22.0 loga b
"f Re "f Re "f
1 e/D 2.51 2.51
5 22.0 loga 1
3.7
L V2 150 m V2
hL 5 f S 20 m 5 f
D 2g D 2(9.81 m/s2)
The roughness is approximately zero for a plastic pipe (Table 8–2). There-
fore, this is a set of four equations and four unknowns, and solving them
with an equation solver such as EES gives
D 5 0.267 m, f 5 0.0180, V 5 6.24 m/s, and Re 5 100,800
Therefore, the diameter of the duct should be more than 26.7 cm if the
head loss is not to exceed 20 m. Note that Re . 4000, and thus the turbu-
lent flow assumption is verified.
The diameter can also be determined directly from the third Swamee–Jain
formula to be

D 5 0.66 c e1.25 a b 1 nV 9.4 a b d

#
LV 2 4.75 # L 5.2 0.04
ghL ghL

5 0.66 c 0 1 (1.655 3 10 25 m2/s)(0.35 m3/s)9.4 a b d

5.2 0.04
150 m
2
(9.81 m/s )(20 m)
5 0.271 m
Discussion Note that the difference between the two results is less than
2 percent. Therefore, the simple Swamee–Jain relation can be used with
confidence. Finally, the first (iterative) approach requires an initial guess for D.
If we use the Swamee–Jain result as our initial guess, the diameter converges
to D 5 0.267 m in short order.

EXAMPLE 8–5 Determining the Flow Rate of Air in a Duct

Reconsider Example 8–4. Now the duct length is doubled while its diameter
is maintained constant. If the total head loss is to remain constant, determine
the drop in the flow rate through the duct.
 373
CHAPTER 8

SOLUTION The diameter and the head loss in an air duct are given. The
drop in the flow rate is to be determined.
Analysis This is a problem of the second type since it involves the deter-
mination of the flow rate for a specified pipe diameter and head loss. The
solution involves an iterative approach since the flow rate (and thus the flow
velocity) is not known.
The average velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor, and the head loss rela-
tions are expressed as (D is in m, V is in m/s, and Re and f are dimensionless)
# # #
V V V
V5 5 S V5
Ac pD2/4 p(0.267 m)2/4
VD V (0.267 m)
Re 5 S Re 5
n 1.655 3 10 25 m2/s

b b
"f Re "f "f Re "f
1 e/D 2.51 1 2.51
5 22.0 loga 1 S 5 22.0 loga
3.7
L V2 300 m V2
hL 5 f S 20 m 5 f
D 2g 0.267 m 2(9.81 m/s2)

This is a set of four equations in four unknowns and solving them with an
equation solver such as EES (Fig. 8–34) gives
#
V 5 0.24 m3/s, f 5 0.0195, V 5 4.23 m/s, and Re 5 68,300

Then the drop in the flow rate becomes

# # #
V drop 5 V old 2 V new 5 0.35 2 0.24 5 0.11 m3/s (a drop of 31 percent) FIGURE 8–34
EES solution for Example 8–5.
Therefore, for a specified head loss (or available head or fan pumping power),
the flow rate drops by about 31 percent from 0.35 to 0.24 m3/s when the
duct length doubles.
Alternative Solution If a computer is not available (as in an exam situation),
another option is to set up a manual iteration loop. We have found that the
best convergence is usually realized by first guessing the friction factor f,
and then solving for the velocity V. The equation for V as a function of f is

Å fL/D
2ghL
Average velocity through the pipe: V5

Once V is calculated, the Reynolds number can be calculated, from which a

corrected friction factor is obtained from the Moody chart or the Colebrook
equation. We repeat the calculations with the corrected value of f until con-
vergence. We guess f 5 0.04 for illustration:

Iteration f (guess) V, m/s Re Corrected f

1 0.04 2.955 4.724 3 104 0.0212
2 0.0212 4.059 6.489 3 104 0.01973
3 0.01973 4.207 6.727 3 104 0.01957
4 0.01957 4.224 6.754 3 104 0.01956
5 0.01956 4.225 6.756 3 104 0.01956
Notice that the iteration has converged to three digits in only three iterations
and to four digits in only four iterations. The final results are identical to
those obtained with EES, yet do not require a computer.
 374
INTERNAL FLOW

Discussion The new flow rate can also be determined directly from the sec-
ond Swamee–Jain formula to be

b ln c 1 a b d
# gD5hL 0.5 e 3.17n 2L 0.5
V 5 20.965a
L 3.7D gD 3hL

b
(9.81 m/s2)(0.267 m)5(20 m) 0.5
5 20.965a
300 m

3 ln c 0 1 a b d
3.17(1.655 3 1025 m2/s)2(300 m) 0.5
(9.81 m/s2)(0.267 m)3(20 m)

5 0.24 m3/s
Note that the result from the Swamee–Jain relation is the same (to two sig-
nificant digits) as that obtained with the Colebrook equation using EES or
using our manual iteration technique. Therefore, the simple Swamee–Jain
relation can be used with confidence.

8–6 ■
MINOR LOSSES
The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves,
bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, expansions, and contractions in addition to
the straight sections of piping. These components interrupt the smooth flow of
the fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing
they induce. In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor com-
Pipe section with valve: pared to the head loss in the straight sections (the major losses) and are called
minor losses. Although this is generally true, in some cases the minor losses
may be greater than the major losses. This is the case, for example, in systems
with several turns and valves in a short distance. The head loss introduced by a
V
1 2
completely open valve, for example, may be negligible. But a partially closed
valve may cause the largest head loss in the system, as evidenced by the drop
(P1 – P2)valve
in the flow rate. Flow through valves and fittings is very complex, and a theo-
retical analysis is generally not plausible. Therefore, minor losses are deter-
mined experimentally, usually by the manufacturers of the components.
Pipe section without valve: Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL
(also called the resistance coefficient), defined as (Fig. 8–35)
V
1 2 hL
Loss coefficient: KL 5 2
(8–55)
V /(2g)
(P1 – P2)pipe
where hL is the additional irreversible head loss in the piping system caused
∆PL = (P1 – P2)valve – (P1 – P2)pipe
by insertion of the component, and is defined as hL 5 DPL /rg. For example,
imagine replacing the valve in Fig. 8–35 with a section of constant diameter
FIGURE 8–35
For a constant-diameter section of a pipe from location 1 to location 2. DPL is defined as the pressure drop from
pipe with a minor loss component, 1 to 2 for the case with the valve, (P1 2 P2 )valve, minus the pressure drop
the loss coefficient of the component that would occur in the imaginary straight pipe section from 1 to 2 without
(such as the gate valve shown) is the valve, (P1 2 P2 )pipe at the same flow rate. While the majority of the
determined by measuring the irreversible head loss occurs locally near the valve, some of it occurs down-
additional pressure loss it causes stream of the valve due to induced swirling turbulent eddies that are pro-
and dividing it by the dynamic duced in the valve and continue downstream. These eddies “waste” mechanical
pressure in the pipe. energy because they are ultimately dissipated into heat while the flow in the