Surveying - - Itis the art of determining the relative position of different objects on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal distance between them, and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus in this discipline the measurements are taken only in the horizontal plane.Levelling - Itis the art of surveying is to prepare a map relative vertical distance of different points on the surface of the earth. - Therefore in levelling the measurements are taken only in vertical plane.Object of surveying — The aim of surveying is to prepare a map to show the relative positions of the objects on the surface of the earth. It show the natural feature of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers etc. — naa Maps may also include details of different engineering works, such as roads, railways, irrigation canals etc.eee of surveying - To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages towns, forests, etc of a country. To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other properties. To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canal, etc. To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different parts of country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the defense of a country. To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the best possible route for roads, railways, etc. To prepare a geological map showing area including underground resources. To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.Classification of surveying - A. Primary Classification ee 1. Plane surveying 2. Geodetic surveying Plane surveying — - We know that thie shape of the earth is spheroidal. Thus the surface is obviously curved. But in plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is not taken into consideration. - This is because plane surveying is carried out over a small area. So the surface of the earth is considered as plane. Plane surveying is done on an area of less than 250 km2. Geodetic surveying. > In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. It is extended over a large area. - Itis carried out over an area exceeding 250 km?.Secondary Classification 1. Based on instruments 3. Based on object a. Chain surveying _ a. Geological surveying b. Compass ® Face 4 b. Mine surveying , jt j c. Archeological surveyi d. Theodolite surveying d. iomaroneen ia e. Tacheometric surveying f. Photographic surveying 4. Based on nature of field 2, Based on methods a. Land surveying a. Triangulation surveying b. Marine surveying b. Traverse surveying ¢. Astronomical surveyingGeneral principle of surveying — a To work form the whole to the part Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference To work from the whole to the part — According to this the whole are is first enclosed by main station and main survey lines. The are is then divided into a number of parts by forming well conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral triangles is considered to be the best well conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain. Then the side of the triangles are measured. During this procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole work. The error can always be detected and eliminated. But if the reverse process (from the part to the whole) is followed then the minor errors in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and a stage will come when these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable. re1. To work from the whole to the part -Distance AC and BC can be measured and point C can be plotted by drawing the “two arcs to the same scale to which AB has been plotted. This principle is very much used in chain surveying . A perpendicular is drawn on the reference line AB and length AD and BD are measured. The point C can then be plotted using set square. The distance BC and the angle ABC can be measured and point C is plotted by measn of a protractor.In this method, the distance AC and BC are not measured but angle ABC and BAC are measured with an angle measuring instruments. Point a plotted by means of a protractor. Angle CBA and distance AC are measured and point C is platted drawing angle and swinging are an arc form C.Instruments used for taking measurements — 1. Ranging and laying out survey lines — ranging roads, line rangers, cross staff, optical square etc. iE1. Direct measurements of lengths — Chain, tape, steel band etc. Steel bandMeasurement of length indirectly — tacheometer, subtense bar, electronic distance measuring instruments etc. 71 Tacheometer Subtense Bar EDM/Total stationDirection of lines - prismatic compass, box sextant, theodolite etc. CompassSlope and height — clinometer, level etc Clinometer Dumpy level —_ ——Chain Surveying or Chain Triangulation — - _ Itis that type of surveying on which only liner measurements are taken in the field and no angular measurement are taken. Chain Surveying is suitable when - 1. Asmall area is to be surveyed 2. The formation of well conditioned triangles is easy 3. The ground surface is more or less level 4. Asmall scale map is to be prepared hain surv i itable when — 1. The area is very large 2. The formation of well conditioned triangles becomes difficult due to obstacles 3. The area consists of too many undulations 4. The area is crowded with may details.Principle of Chain surveying - The principle of chain surveying is triangulation which means to divide the whole area into network of triangle of suitable sides. Since triangle is only the simple figure which can be plotted by measuring its sides only. To get good result in plotting, the framework should consist of triangles which are as nearly equilateral as possible.Definition of terms — Survey station Base line Check line Tie line Frame work Survey station — - Animportant point on the chain line is called survey station. They are the point at the beginning and the end of a chain line. Types of survey station 1. Main station 2. Subsidiary or tie station VPon>in sti The ends of the survey lines which command the boundaries of the survey are called main station. The line joining the main station are called main survey line or simply chain lines. The main survey lines should cover the whole area to be surveyed. The main station are denoted by (A) with letters A,B,C,D etc. and main survey lines by AB, BC, and so on. MiSubsidiary or tie station — - They are the points selected on main survey lines to run subsidiary or tie lines to locate the interior detail such as building, fences, etc. - These station is denoted by (0) with letters S,, S,, S, etc.The line on which the framework of the survey is built is known as base line and is the most important line of the survey. Generally the longest of the main survey lines is considered the base line. This line should be taken through fairly level ground, and should be measured very carefully and accurately.Check line — line - The line joining the apex point of a triangle to some fixed point on the base line is known as check line. It is taken to check the accuracy of the triangle. Sometime this line helps to locate interior details.Tie line - - Itis a line joining some subsidiary points as tie stations on the main lines. It enables the surveyor to locate the interior details and also to check the accuracy of frame work. - _ Itis also denoted by (0) with letters T,, T,, etc.1.Revenue chain —~ 2. Gunter’s chain 3. Engineer's chain 4. Metric chain 5. Steel bandsInstruments used in chain surveying — . Chain . Arrows . Cross staff or optical square Pegs . Wooden mallet . Ranging road . Offset road . Tapes . Plumb bob WMNAHARWNH=Chain - - Aninstrument which is used for measuring the distance between two points in the field is called chain.Chain - - Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized steel wire (4mm in diameter) bent into rings at the end and joined each other by three small circular or oval wire rings.L in - The ends of the chain are provided with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground. - The handle is linked with a swivel joint at the end so that the chain can be turned around without twisting.Revenue Chain — showing the extent, value, and ownership of land, especially for taxation. 16 no. Length of each link 2.(1/16) = 33/16 = 2.0625 ft Uses Cadastral surveyGunter’s Chain - Length Links Length of each link Uses 10 Gunter's chain 80 Gunter's chain 10 Square Gunter’s chain 66 ft 100 no. 0.66 ft Measuring distance in miles & furlongs 1 furlong 1mile 1 AcreEngineer's Chain - Tallies are provided at every 10 links (10ft.). The tallies are one pointed. Two pointed and so on. One pointed tally represents the 10 ft. or 90 ft. similarly two pointed represents the length as 20 ft. or 80 ft. and so on form one side. The central tally being round. Such chain were previously used for all engineering worksSteel band or band chain - This consists of a long narrow strip of blue steel, of uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm.Ste el band or band chain - Metric steel bands are available in lengths sot 0 CS It is divided by brass studs at every 20 cm numbered at every metre. The first and last link (20 cm length) are subdivided into cm and mm. Itis either wound round special steel cross or metal reels which it can be easily unrolled. For practice work steel band should always be used in preference to the chain. A steel band is lighter than the chain and is easier to handle and is not liable to kinks. Itis easily broken and difficult to repair in the field.Ranging rods~ - Such a rods are made of seasoned timber or seasoned bamboo. - Sometimes GI pipes of 25 mm diameter are also used as ranging rods. - The lower end of the rod is pointed or provided with an iron shoe. - Ranging rods have a length either 2 m or 3 m the 2 metre length being more common and are painted in alternative bands of black & white or red & white or orange & white, each band being 20 cm deep so that on occasion the rod can be used for rough measurements of short length. Uses - 1. Forranging of the lines 2. Forrough measurements of short length 3. Formaking the position of the station.Arrows ~ - There are also called marking pins. They are used to mark the end of each chain during chaining. - They are made of steel wire 4 mm in diameter. One end of the arrow is bend into a ting of diameter 50 mm and the other end is pointed. - Its overall length is 400 mm. Arrows are used for counting the number of chaing while measuring a chain line. - Usually, ten arrows are supplied with one chain.Offsets rod - + Itis similar to ranging rod. It is usually 3 m long and is divided with paint into parts of each 0.2 m lengths. ————— - Atthe top it is provided with a notch or hook for pulling or pushing the chain through a hedge or other obstruction. It is used for measuring the offsets roughly.Cross staff -Cross staff - It is the simplest instrument used for setting our perpendicular it i.e. taking offsets form a chain line. It is easier and quicker method, but not very accurate. The common forms of cross staff are Metal open cross staff French cross staff Cross StaffMetal open cross staff - It is made of a metallic head having four metal arms provided with two pairs of verticals slits giving two lines of sights at right angles to each other. - The head is mounted on the top of wooden pole about 2.5 cm diameter and 1.2 to 1.5m long. - Itis provided with a conical metal show at the bottom for fixing it into the ground. French cross staff - It consist of a hollow octagonal box about 15 cm deep and 10 cm wide between opposite faces. - Ithas an alternate vertical sighting slit and an opposite vertical window with a vertical fine wire or house hair on each of the four sides. - Itis therefore, possible to set out angle of either 45° or 90° with instruments.Tapes — - For precise work generally, tapes are used. They are classified according to the material of which they are made such as follow. 1. Cloth or linen tape 2. Metallic tape 3. Steel tape 4. Invar tape Se reedCloth or linen tape - Such a tape is made of closely woven linen and is varnished to resist moisture. - Itis 15mm wide and available in length of 10 and 15m. - The end of the tape is provided with a brass ring whose length is included in the tape length. - It cannot withstand much wear and tear. After much use, it elongate and the figure get indistinct. It is easily affected by dampness.Metallic or steel tape — When linen tape is reinforced with brass or copper wire to make it durable, when it is called a metallic tape. This tape is available in length of 15, 20 and 30m. Each meter length is divided into decimetres and centimetres. It is also available in leathering cover fitted with a winding device. The zero end of the tape is provided with a brass ring. It cannot be used for very accurate and important measurements.Invar tape - - _ Invar tape made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickle (36%) - _ Its thermal coefficient is very low. Therefore it is not affected by change in temperature. - Itis 6 mm wide and is usually available in length of 30, 50, 100 m. + Itis also graduated as the steel tape and provided with a brass ring at the zero end. - The tape is wound in a rust proof metal case having a suitable winding device.Pegs — Pegs are made of hard timber usually 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm and 15 to 30 cm long. Iron pegs of 1 cm diameter are sometime used instead of wooden pegs. In soft ground, large sized pegs of 30 to 50 cm are used. The pegs are tapered at one end and are driven into the ground with hammer. Pegs are used for making the position of station.Plumb bob — bob - It is made of conical weight of metal (preferable brass) and is suspended form strong thread for testing the verticality of the object. - — Itis used to transfer the point to the ground while chaining on sloping ground as in method of stepping. - Itis also used for accurate centering of the theodolite over the station point.Wooden mallet - - Wooden mallet (or hammer) is made of hard wood. It is 7 - 10 cm in diameter at ends, about 20 to 25 cm in length and is provided with a wooden handle about 45 cm long. - Itis used for driving in the pegs into the ground.Ranging — The method of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between the two fixed points is known as ranging. It is done before chaining is started. It may be done by eye or by using some instruments such as line ranger or theodolite There are two method of ranging Direct ranging Indirect rangingDirect Ranging Direct ranging is done when both end station of the survey line are intervisible > Itmay be done by two methods. ee 1. Ranging by eye judgment 2. Ranging by using line ranger Ranging by eye judgment — Let A and B be the two end points of survey line. The ranging of a line by eye is done by the surveyor and his assistant. The surveyor stands at point A with his ranging rod. Another ranging rod is fixed at point B The assistant then goes with another ranging rod and holds at a point approximately in line with AB. This distance is less than the chain length form A. The surveyor at A then sands about 2 m behind A and direct the assistant to the right or left of the chain line till the ranging rod appear in line with A and B. Now point ACB will be in a straight line.ine r: ir — A line ranger is a small reflecting instrument used for fixing intermediate point on the survey line. - Itis used where survey line is too long and it is not convenient or possible to go either end for ranging by eye. ZNLine ranger — Incorrect alignment Correct alignment- When the end station are not intervisible due to there being high ground between them, intermediate ranging rods are fixed on the line in an indirect way. - This method is known as indirect ranging or reciprocal rangingIndirect ranging or Reciprocal ranging — Suppose A and B are two end station which are not intervisible due to high ground existing between them. Suppose it is required to fix intermediate points between A and B. Two chain men take up position P1 and Q1 with ranging rods in their hands. The chain man at P11 stands with his face towards B so that he can see the ranging rods at P1 and B. Again the chainmen at Q1 stands with his face towards A so that he can see the ranging rods at Q1 and A. Then the chainmen proceed to range the line by directing each other alternatively in this manner, they change their position every time until they finally come to the positions P and Q which are in the straight line AB. This means the points A, PQ and B are in the same straight line.Indirect ranging or Reciprocal ranging —Offsetting - - The ground features such as buildings boundaries, roads, small drains (nallas) etc. are located with reference to the chain lines. - Distance are measured from the chain lines to the objects right or left of the chain line. Such lateral distance are called offsets. There are two types of offsets — 1. Perpendicular offsets 2. Oblique offsetsPerpendicular Offsets — - When the lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to the chain line, they are known as perpendicular offsets.Filed book — book — The note book of about 20 cm x 12. cm to 20 cm x 15 cm size in which survey is recorded by measurement and sketches is called field book and it opens length wise Field book is of two type Single line Double lineObstacles in chain surveying ~ During chaining various objects such as ponds, rivers, building, hills, woods, etc. come on the way of survey line. Such an obstruction is called an obstacle. But it is essential that chaining should be continued in a straight line. The obstacles may be of the following three types 1. When chaining is free, but vision is obstructed. 2. When chaining is obstructed, but vision is free. 3. When chaining and vision are both obstructed A omnes nn) ) . 4 Sey- Th ses 1. Both ends may be visible form intermediate point on the line 2. Both ends may not be visible from any intermediate points In case (1) the difficulty may be overcome by reciprocal rangingCase (2) occurs when it is required ta chain forest, high crops or trees, preventing the fixing of intermediate point random line methoo\ adopted here. Let AB be the chain line whose length is required. From A and B' a line is run in any convenient direction, B is visible form B’. Such a line is called random line. BB’ is perpendicular to AB’Then AB = (AB)? +(68')' —_— _— Similarly, cc = AC x gaa op *= 4O x ga: AB AB" Thus the line is cleared and chained.2. When chaining is obstructed, but vision is free - - Inthis case the end of the survey line are visible but chaining cannot be done across. Example ~ River, Pond etc. 1. When itis possible to chain round the obstacle e.g. a pond, hedge etc. 2. When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle e.g. river.Case 1 - a. When the obstacle can be chained around. — Let CD be the obstructed length. Erect perpendicular at C and D so that CE = DF. Measure the length EF which is equal to CD. — F potter eK K-45b. Erect perpendicular CE at C as shown in the fig. below. ED line clears the obstacle. Then — cD =\(ED )*-(CE)?*~ (2) - Sometime it is not possible to go around the obstruction. Imagine a small river comes across the chain line. Suppose AB is the chain line. Two points C and D are selected on this line on opposite bank of the river at C a perpendicular CE is erected and bisected at F. - Aperpendicular is set out at E anda point G is so selected on it that D, F and G are in the same straight line. - From triangle DCF and GEF, - GE=CD > The distance GE is measured and thus distance DC is obtainedb. Consider the case when a large river interrupts the chain line. Let AB be the chain line. Points C, D and E are selected on this line such that D and E are on opposite banks of the river. The perpendicular DF and CG are erected on the chain line in such a way that E, F andG are on the same straight line. The line FH is taken parallel to CD. Now form triangle DEF and HFGChaining and vision are both obstructed — Such a problem arises when a building comes across the chain line. Suppose AB is the chain line. Two points C and D are selected on it at one side of the building Equal perpendiculars CC, and DD, are erected. The line C,D, is extended until the building is crossed.On the extended line, two points E, and F, are selected Then perpendicular E,E and F,F are so erected that E,E=F,F=0,D=C,C Thus the point C, D, E and F will lie on the same straight line AB. The distance D, E, is measured and is equal to the required distance DE & Fe ooo---T-4Errors in chaining Cumulative error Compensative error Mistake Chain correction Pull correction Temperature correction Sag correction- Errors is the difference between measured quantity and true value of that measured - Itcan be - ve or + ve depending upon the magnitude of measured and true quantity. - If the measured quantity is more than true the error will be + ve and vice versa. : Error = Measured quantity - True quantity = The correction is opposite in nature than error but equal in magnitude.Sources of error - 1. Instrumental error - - The error caused by faulty adjustment of the instruments are called instrumental errors. - Forexample tape too long or too short 2. Natural errors — - The errors caused by natural causes such as due to variation in temperature, heavy winds, refraction, magnetic declination, are called natural errors. 3. Personal error — - The error caused by person such as applying unequal tension in the chain, not removing parallax, not sighting the object correctly etc. are called personal error. |Classification of errors — a. Cumulative errors eae. b. Compensating errors ae c. Mistakes in chaining iea. Cumulative errors — - The cumulative errors are those which occur in one direction only and go on cumulating. These errors have got a serious effect on the accuracy of the survey work. The errors in chaining are regarded as + ve or — ve according as they make the result too great or too small. Causes — Incorrect length of chain (+ve or -ve). Sag in chain in stepping method (+ve). Measurement made along wrong ranging (+ve) Chain not being straight (+ve) Variation in temperature (+ve or -ve) Poonab. Compensating errors - - Errors which may occur in both direction (i.e. both positive and negative) and which finally tend to compensate are known as compensating errors. - These errors do not affect survey work seriously. Cause = Incorrect holding of chain. Incorrect placing of arrow. Incorrect plumbing. Incorrect measurement of right angle. Incorrect functional part of chain. QPwNn>c. Mistake — - These errors occurring due to carelessness or inexperience of chainmen. Cause — 1. Mistake in counting the chain length. 2. Reading from wrong end of chain. 3. Displacement of arrows. 4. Reading number wrongly 6 for 9 for tape upside down. 5. Booking wrongly by interchanging the figure. 6. Called number wrongly such as 30.2 as thirty two.Chain Correction - 1 f chain = - The distance measured with incorrect length of chain or tape will not be corrected. - Suitable correction will have to be applied. Q. A20mchain was found to be 10 cm too short after chaining a distance of 2240 m. it was corrected before the commencement of work. Find the true length OPtre ———— measured. L=20m Tee tee risen Tot = 2240_*19.95. MLL = 2240 m a T.L =2234.4m2. Correction to area - ue True area = Measured area x (Incorrect length of chain)? (Correct length of chain)? 3. Correction to volume - True volume = Measured volume x (Incorrect length of chain)? (Correct length of chain)? ssPull correction — C, = pull correction in metres LS P = pull applied during measurement in kilograms Py = pull at which the tape was standardized in kilograms L = length of tape in metre A= cross sectional area of tape in square centimetres E = modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) in 2.1 x 10° Kg/cm? The sign of correction will be positive or negative according as P is greater or less than P, 0 |Temperature correction — C, = temperature correction in metres L of tape in metre a= Coefficient of thermal expansion T,, = Temperature during measurement in degrees centigrade or Celsius T, = Temperature at which the tape was standardized in degree centigrade or Celsius |,Sag correction — C, = sag correction L= length of tape in metre W = total weight of tape or chain in Kg P = Pull applied in Kg.