CHAPTER 3

RIDGE C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D
FORMATION

At the end of this Chapter, we will be able to:

1. Understand the difference between ridges and furrows
2. Apply and identify the different fingerprint pattern
3. Understand the ridge function and interpretation
4. Familiarize and understand the basic and composite ridge characteristics
5. Define delta and core
6. Familiarize and apply the rules in selection of Delta
7. Familiarize between pattern area and type line

INTRODUCTION

Ridge characteristics known as Galton ridges or minutiae are small distinctive points in a fingerprint
impression. Generally, ridge characteristics are common from one fingerprint to another. Its placement in the
pattern makes it peculiar from other. Ridge bifurcates while it runs, and sometimes it forms a dot, an island, or
spur. Irrespective of the prevalence of these unique characteristics, a fingerprint expert must identify points as
many as he can to produce positive identification. Positive identification can only be concluded once the ridge
details in two impressions (impression from perfect and fingerprint recovered from the crime scene) are of perfect
similarity as to relative position, orientation, direction, and structures without any single difference or deviations.

TERM USE IN FINGERPRINT TECHNOLOGY

1. Friction ridges or papillary ridges - Elevated strips of skin that begin as

raised apertures around the pores and then are joined together into rows forming
the ridges. Friction ridges begin to form on the human fetus during the third and
fourth months of fetal life.

2. Friction ridge breath – the width of the friction ridges varies different areas
as well in different people. In general, they are narrower in females and wider in males.

3. Ridge units and pores - Pores ducts open along the top of the friction ridges. Each ridge unit has one sweat
gland and a pore opening randomly somewhere on its surface. Eccrine gland contains approximately 99% water
and 1% solid.

4. Specific ridge path – The friction ridges have been compared to corduroy, but unlike corduroy they are not
continuous in nature. The path taken by the ridges may branch, start, or stop, turn, twist, or thicken and narrow
independently.
5. Incident friction ridges – Narrow and often fragmented ridges may appear between normal friction ridges.
These are called incipient, rudimentary, or nascent ridges. They differ from the typical ridges by being thinner
and fragmented.

6. Friction ridge imbrication – In some areas of the volar surfaces, the friction ridges all tend to lean on the
same direction. Imbrications ridges vary among individuals and even the regions of volar areas where they are
found.

7. Overall friction ridge pattern - The friction ridges form patterns on the volar surface. The most common are
concentric, looping, or arching formations. Friction ridges patterns also enhance the ability of volar skin to resist
slippage. The pattern also enhances tactile sensitivity due to the increased friction.

Ridge Characteristics

Identification of fingerprint relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge
characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points with a reference print, usually
an inked impression of a suspects prints.

Ridge Function and Interpretation

1. Ridge – is the elevated portion of the skin which is black in a

fingerprint impression, a minute hill-like structure or
protuberances found on the epidermis of the skin containing
sweat pores.
2. Furrows –is the depression or white spaces between the ridges in a fingerprint
impression.
3. Pattern Area – is a part of a loop or whorl in which appears a core, deltas, and
ridges which we are concerned regarding the interpretation and classification.
It is present in all patterns but in plain and tented arches it is impossible to define as pattern area
of loops and whorls are enclosed by the type lines.

4. Type Line – are two innermost ridges which start parallel diverge and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area.
 BASIC AND COMPOSITE RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Bifurcation – A bifurcation is where the ridge path divides forming a Y shape with legs having the same
length. – it is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more branches.

2. Trifurcation – This ridge characteristics is almost the same with bifurcation however instead of splitting,
dividing into two ridges, the single ridge forks into three ridge branches.
3. Ridge ending – A ridge ending is one end of a long island. The island is long enough that the ends are not
easily recognized as being from the same island. Ridge ending is the terminal point of a ridge.

4. Enclosure (Eyelet) – it is a single ridge which split into two or more branches and at a certain point meet
again to form a single ridge. It is single ridge that bifurcates and then rejoins forming again into one ridge.
The difference between bifurcation and enclosure is that the former remains open while the later does not.

5. Ridge Dot – A ridge dot, one ridge unit, is the shortest of all island and the building block of the friction ridge.
Dot – it is a ridge possessing a single pore.

6. Ridge Bridge (Ridge Crossover) – a ridge that connects between two ridges running parallel with each other.
It forms like a bridge in a fingerprint impression.

7. Spur – is where the ridge path divides and one branch comes to an
end ( leg is shorter). The forking of a single ridge into two where
one branch is shorter compared to the other.

8. Incipient ridge – is an unusual type of ridge found in small percentage of patterns. They are short,
narrow, and badly formed ridges found between two well-formed and full-bodied ridges, which is frequently
interrupted.
9. Island (Short ridge) – an independent ridge that is not connected to other ridges, travels in a short
distance, and then suddenly terminates or ends.

10. Ridge Crossing – The crossing of two ridges forming an “X”.

11. Opposed Bifurcation – this consist of two bifurcation opposing against each other.

12. Double Bifurcation – This occurs when one of the two branches of the bifurcation splits and forks
forming another set of branches.

13. Recurving Ridge- it is a ridge that runs and gradually curves and turn backwards from which it
started. This is also known as looping ridge. In this type of ridge, a smooth flow of curving is
apparent eliminating any angle within the curve.
 A sufficient recurve will consist of the space between the shoulders of the looping ridge
which is free from any appendages. On the other hand, the shoulders will consist of the points at
which the recurving ridge turn inwards or curves

14. Appendage – It is a small or short ridge structure that attaches or connects in 90 degrees (right
angle). If an appendage touches or abuts outside the shoulders of the recurving ridge at a right angle,
it spoils the recurve.

15. Divergence - is the spreading apart of two lines which have been running parallel or nearby parallel.

16. Convergence – it is the meeting of two or more ridges at a certain point. The are two ridges that run and
meet at a single point creating a pointed and angular formation. The only difference between converging
ridge and recurving ridge is that the former contains angle while the later does not.
 CONVERGING RIDGE — This is a ridge formation whose closed end is angular and
serves as a point Of convergence, usually pointed.

17. Short Ridge – it is a ridge of a limited length with two or more pores.

TYPES OF LINE VERSUS PATTERN AREA

Type line – This may be defined as the two innermost ridges that start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area (Wheeler & Wilson, 2008). It serves as skeleton or boundaries of pattern in a
fingerprint.
Two ridges in the type of line may run continuously, abruptly, or may bifurcates. When these occur, the
following rules to apply

If a Type line end abruptly – the outside ridge next to broken shall be taken as a continuation.

If a Type Line Bifurcates – The outside branch shall be taken as its continuation.

A classifier must remember always that the two ridges in the Type line must parallel and after a distance
must diverge. Note that bifurcating ridges whose branches ends shortly can never qualify to be a type line
unless its opening is towards the core and the arms run parallel in a long distance

PATTERN AREA

It is the area surrounded by the Type Lines. It is where the core, delta, and ridges that are used for ridge
counting and ridge tracing can be found. In fingerprint taking, it is a priority to obtain clear, readable, and
legible print of the pattern area, for these are the requisites that pave way to the success of fingerprinting
comparison and classification.
 FORMATION OF DELTA AND CORE

Focal point within the pattern areas of loops and whorl are enclosed the focal points which are used to
classify them. These points are called delta and core.

1. Delta – it is a point on a ridge at or in front or outer terminus is a point on the ridge formation at
or directly in front and of nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.

Types of Deltas:
 A bifurcation
 An abrupt ending ridge
 A dot
 A short ridge
 A meeting of two ridges
 A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the
divergence of the Type line.

Rules in the Selection of Delta:

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation, which does not open towards the core.

2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is always
selected.

3. Where there are two or more possible deltas which conforms

to the definition, the one nearest to the core is chosen.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running

between the type lines towards the core, but at the nearer end
only.

RULES IN CORE LOCATION

Core – it is the approximate center of the fingerprint impression. It will be necessary to concern
ourselves with the core of the loop type only.
RULES GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF THE CORE OF A LOOP

1) The Core is placed upon the innermost sufficient recurve. A sufficient recurve is the part of the
recurving ridge between the shoulders of loop that is free of any appendage abutting upon the outside
of the recurve at right angles ( Hawthorne, 2009).

2) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulder of
the loop, the Core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

3) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains uneven number of rods, rising as high as the shoulder,
the Core is place upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.

4) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains even number of rods rising as high as the shoulders,
the Core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods. The two rods being treated
as though they were connected by recurving ridge.
 Interlocking Loops

Having two loops side by side at the center

These cases the two loops are considered as one. When the shoulder line X - - - X is drawn it is found
to cross exactly at the point of intersection of the two loops. The two loops are considered one, with one rod
the core being placed at C.

Sample Fingerprint the location of core and delta

Type of Prints

1. Exemplar - "known prints" - fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject.

2. Latent - means chance or accidental impression left by the friction ridge skin on a surface regardless of
whether it is visible or invisible at the time of deposition. Although the word latent means hidden or invisible
 in modern usage for forensic science.
3.Patent - chance friction ridge impressions which are obvious to the human eye and which have been
caused by the transfer of foreign material from a finger into a surface.
4. Plastic Print - is a friction ridge impression left in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail.
5. Electronic Recording - example, a man selling stolen watches sending images of them on a mobile phone
and those images included parts of his hands in enough detail for police to be able to identify fingerprint
patterns

Notes:
 Plantar - refers to feet and toes.
 Palmar - refers to finger and palm.

FINGERPRINT TAKING

Can you force a person to be fingerprinted?

Yes, if the person is under legal arrest, he can be forced to be fingerprinted. A person under arrest who
refuses to be fingerprinted may be prosecuted by disobedience to the agency of person in authority, defined
and penalized by Art. 151 of the Revised Penal Code.

Equipment in taking Fingerprints

1. Fingerprint ink roller = 6” x 2” in diameter
2. Card holder
3. Inking plate or glass slab = 6” x 2”
4. Fingerprint ink
5. Hand and Slab roller cleaner
6. Fingerprint card
7. Fingerprint table = 38” x 40” high

Ways and Procedures in Taking Fingerprint Impression

Fingerprinting - it is the process of recording fingerprint using fingerprint ink.

Two Types of Fingerprint Impression:

1. Rolled impression - requires that thumb be rolled towards and fingers away from the center of
the subject’s body. It is made by rolling the first joint of the finger from edge to edge. The
 purpose of the rolled impression is to obtain a clear examination not only on the focal points but
on the ridge characteristics also.

2. Plain Impression, - requires that the fingers be taken or printed simultaneously, then the thumb
without rolling. This is made by impression the inked fingers to the fingerprint card without
rolling. This is done after the rolled impression is obtained in the fingerprint card. In the lower
portion of the card are two blocks intended for the right and left fingers. In inking the fingers in
the slab, do not apply too much ink on the fingers and avoid applying too much pressure in
pressing. You must remember that getting the legible and clear impression is topmost goal in
fingerprint taking. The purpose of the plain impression is to confirm or check whether rolled
impressions are in correct placement in the fingerprint blocks.

Equipment
1. Fingerprint Roller (6” long, 2” in diameter)
2. Fingerprint ink
3. Card Holder
4. Glass slab or inking plate
5. Table size 38” to 40” high
6. Cleaning Materials
 Points to be Considered in Taking Legible Fingerprints

1. Cleanliness of equipment (ink slab, ink roller, card holder).

2. The right kind and correct amount of ink.

3. Proper distribution of ink on the glass slab or inking plate.

4. The distance of the subject from the inking plate or the fingerprint card.
5. The advice of the operator to the subject is to relax and never to aid the operation.

6. The pressure exerted must be slight and even and rolling should be continuous movement
including the lifting.

7. The nail of the fingers should be at right angle to the glass slab or to the card before starting the
rolling. Always roll the finger until the other side of the nail is reached.
8. The inking and printing must always reach below the first joint of the finger.

9. The thumb should be rolled towards the subject’s body while all other fingers away from the
subject’s body.
10. While the rolling the fingers, the subject’s hand should be held/controlled properly to prevent
twisting and slipping of the fingers.

11. Add the small amount of ink if necessary and distribute properly the ink using the roller by rolling
over the ink on the inking plate.
12. Place the subject’s palm on the inking plate then press, use the ink roller to completely cover the
entire palm with the ink. Do the same with the other palm.

13. Record the palm at the other side of the card carefully, position the palm following the arrow sign
as provided in the space for the palms, then press the palm unto the card using firm, even pressure
with the fingers slightly spread. Again, do the same with the other palm.
14. Record the side of the palm by positioning the palm 45 degrees slanting towards to the
subject’s body, then press.
 15. Proper alignment.

Improper not in the center of the box Improper not properly rolled

REFERENCES

Cuenco, B.C., Alpeche, B.V., Teve, M.L., 2019., Forensic Science Personal Identification Techniques”,
Wiseman’s Books Trading, INC., Unit 302, 3rd Flooor, Dm, Builidng #32 Visayas Ave.
Depayaso, V.P., 2018., The Basics of fingerprint Palmprint Footprint: Second Edition”, Wiseman’s Books
Trading, INC., Unit 302, 3rd Flooor, Dm, Builidng #32 Visayas Ave.

Revisa, W.A., ChaveZ, C.B., Magbojos, R.R., Serion, E.B., 2015., “ Workbook on Personal Identification”,
ChapterHouse Publishing Incorporated., Novaliches Quezon City