UNIT 5 CHAPTER 8

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. Semiconductors- Semiconductors are solids having forbidden energy gap of the order of one electron
volt. Example: germanium and silicon. They are having covalent bonds in their crystal lattice. At room
temperature conduction band will be almost empty and as the temperature increases some of the
valence band electrons will cross the band gap and reach the conduction band. The holes so created in
the valence band and the electrons available in the conduction band makes the solid slightly conducting.
Extrinsic semiconductors- conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be modified by adding either
pentavalent impurity or trivalent impurity. Such semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductors They are semiconductor material in the elemental form or pure material.
The charge carriers are the electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. Their
number depends on temperature. At absolute zero of temperature conduction band is empty and as the
temperature increases some the electrons will released by breaking the covalent bond and will move
towards the conduction band.
1.1. Density of electrons
dn = Z ( E ) F ( E )dE is the number of electrons available in the energy range E and E+dE. Z(E)dE is the
density of states in the energy range E and E+dE and F(E) is the Fermi function gives the probability of a
state E is occupied by an electron. To calculate the number of electrons in the conduction band, the
above equation has to be integrated from Ec (energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction
band) to Et ( energy at top. It is taken as infinity)
4π
So Z ( E )dE = 3
(2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 E 1/ 2 dE
h
The energy range stars from the bottom of the conduction band so in the above equation E has to be
replaced with ‘E-Ec’. Also the Fermi level energy or Fermi energy lies at the centre of the forbidden
energy gap in the case of semiconductors. Ev corresponds to the energy at the top of valence band. For
all possible temperatures (E-EF) is much greater than ‘kT’. So F(E) can be written as
−1
E = EF E − EF E −E
F ( E ) = 1 + exp = exp− = exp F So we get the number of electrons
kT kT kT
∞ 1/ 2
4π EF − E
n= 3
( 2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 ( E − Ec ) exp dE
Ec
h kT
as 1/ 2
∞
4π E −E
n = 3 (2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 exp F ( E − Ec ) exp dE
h kT Ec
kT
To solve this integral we give the substitution
E − Ec = x......or.....E = Ec + x......dE = dx
∞ 1/ 2
4π E Ec + x
n = 3 (2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 exp F ( x) exp− dx
h kT 0
kT
∞ 1/ 2
4π E − Ec −x
n = 3 (2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 exp F ( x) exp dx
h kT 0
kT
 ∞
1 π
Using the standard integral x1 / 2 exp(−ax)dx = it can be shown that
0
2a a

so
∞ 1/ 2 1/ 2
−x π 4π E − Ec
( x) exp dx = ( kT )3 / 2 n= 3
(2m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 exp F
0
kT 2 h kT
2πm ∗ e kT 3 / 2 E − Ec
n = 2( 2
) exp F
h kT
1.2. Density of holes
dp = Z ( E )[1 − F ( E )]dE is the number of holes available in the energy range E and E+dE. Z(E)dE is
the density of states in the energy range E and E+dE and (1-F(E) )is the Fermi function gives the
probability of existence of a hole. To calculate the number of holes in the valence band, the above
equation has to be integrated from minus infinity (energy corresponding to the bottom of the valence
band) to Ev ( energy at top.)
4π
So Z ( E )dE = 3
(2m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
h
Fermi level or Fermi energy lies at the centre of the forbidden energy gap in the case of
semiconductors. Ev corresponds to the energy at the top of valence band and E has to be replaced with
(Ev-E). For all possible temperatures (E-EF) is much greater than ‘kT’. So F(E) can be written as
−1
E − EF E − EF
1 − F ( E ) = 1 − 1 + exp = exp So we get the number of holes as
kT kT
Ev 1/ 2
4π E − EF
p= 3
( 2m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 ( E v − E ) exp dE
−∞
h kT
Ev 1/ 2
4π − EF E
p = 3 (2m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 exp ( Ev − E ) exp dE
h kT −∞
kT
To solve this integral we give the substitution
Ev − E = x......or.....E = Ev − x......dE = −dx
∞ 1/ 2
4π E Ev − x
p = 3 (2m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 exp − F ( x) exp dx
h kT 0
kT
∞ 1/ 2
4π E − EF −x
p = 3 (2m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 exp v ( x) exp dx
h kT 0
kT
∞
1 π
Using the standard integral x1 / 2 exp(−ax)dx = it can be shown that
0
2a a

∞ 1/ 2
−x π 1/ 2
( x) exp dx = (kT ) 3 / 2
0
kT 2
so
 1/ 2
4π ∗ 3/ 2 Ev − E F 3/ 2 π
p = 3 (2m h ) exp (kT )
h kT 2
2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2 E − EF
p = 2( 2
) exp v
h kT
1.3. Intrinsic carrier concentration
In intrinsic semiconductors n = p = ni called the intrinsic concentration
2 2πkT 3 E − Ec
ni = np = 4( 2
) (me mh ) 3 / 2 exp v ........if ......Ec − Ev = E g
h kT
2πkT 3 / 2 − Eg
ni = 2( 2
) (me mh ) 3 / 4 exp
h 2kT
1.4. Fermi level
n=p in an intrinsic semiconductor
2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2 Ev − E F 2πm ∗ e kT 3 / 2 E − Ec
2( 2
) exp = 2 ( 2
) exp F
h kT h kT
Ev − E F E − EF
(m ∗ h ) 3 / 2 exp = (m ∗ e ) 3 / 2 exp v
kT kT
3/ 2
2EF m∗h Ev + Ec
exp = exp
kT m∗e kT
Taking the log of both sides we get

3kT m E + Ec
EF = log h + v .......and ...mh = me
4 me 2
Ev + EC
EF =
2
1.5. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors
Conductivity σ = neµ e + peµ h where µ e ....and ....µ h are the mobility of the electrons and holes
respectively. Since n = p = ni ,......σ = ni ( µ e + µ h )
2πkT 3 / 2 − Eg
σ = ( µ e + µ h ) 2e ( 2
) (me mh ) 3 / 4 exp
h 2kT
Eg
σ = A exp−
2kT
Eg
Taking the log of either side we get logσ i = log A −
2kT
a graph is drawn between 1/T on the x-axis and log(σi ) on the y-axis. It shows that conductivity
increases with temperature.
1.6. Band gap
 Eg 1 Eg
σ = A exp− Therefore resistivity of the semiconductor ρ= exp
2kT A 2kT
Ra 1 Eg Ra L Eg
= exp .......sin ce...ρ = ...or...R = exp .
L A 2kT L aA 2kT
Eg
log R = log C +
2kT
Drawing graph of 1/T and logR ,
we get a straight line having slope
dy E g
= = log(R)T
dx 2k
dy
E g = 2k = 2k log(R)T
dx
2. Extrinsic semiconductors
N Type semiconductor – Pentavalent impurities like P, As or Sb is used for doping. The fifth electron of
the impurity atom remains free and its energy level is known as donor level and it is just below the
conduction band. So most of the donor level electrons are excited to the conduction band at room
temperature and constitute the majority carriers. Here holes are the minority carriers.
P-type semiconductors- Here trivalent impurities like Al, Ga, or ‘In’ is used for doping. The scarcity of one
electron in the covalent will act as a hole. The holes exist in the valence band and constitute the majority
carriers. Minority carriers are the thermally exited electrons in the conduction band.

2.1. Fermi level in N-type semiconductors

Let Nd be the donor concentration and Ed be the donor energy level. At very low temperatures all donor
levels are filled with electrons. As the temperature increases more donor electrons ionizes and density
of electrons in the conduction band increases. Density of electrons in the conduction band is given by
2πm ∗ e kT 3 / 2 E − Ec
n = 2( 2
) exp F
h kT
If we assume that EF lies more than a few kT above the donor level, then the density of ionized donors is
given by
Ed − E F
N d [1 − F ( E d )] ≅ N d exp At very low temperatures no thermal break down of covalent
kT
bonds takes place. then the number of electrons in the conduction band will be equal to the number of
ionized donor electrons.
 2πm ∗ e kT 3 / 2 E − Ec E − EF
2( 2
) exp F = N d exp d
h kT kT
Taking the log and rearranging we get

Nd
2 E F − ( E d + Ec ) = kT log 3/ 2
2πm ∗ e kT
2
h2

E d + Ec kT Nd
EF = + log 3/ 2
2 2 2πm ∗ e kT
2
h2
E d + Ec
if ...T = 0.....E F =
2
At T=0K Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of donor level and the bottom of the conduction band.
2.2. Density of electrons in the conduction band
We have
2πm ∗ e kT 3 / 2 E − Ec
n = 2( 2
) exp F and in this equation substituting the value of EF from the previous
h kT
equation

E F − Ec E − Ec 1 Nd
exp = exp{[ d ] + log 3/ 2
}
kT 2kT 2 2πm ∗ e kT
2
h2

1/ 2
E − Ec Nd
= exp d
2kT 3 / 2 1/ 2
2πm ∗ e kT
2
h2
3/ 4
1/ 2 2πm ∗ e kT E d − Ec
Hence n = (2 N d ) exp
h2 2kT
It can be seen that the density of the electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the square root
of the donor concentration at moderately low temperatures. At higher temperatures intrinsic behavior
predominates.
2.3. Variation of Fermi level with temperature and donor concentration
 Ed + Ec kT Nd
EF = + log 3/ 2 With increase of
2 2 2πm∗e kT
2
h2
temperature EF increases slightly as indicated by the
equation. For a particular temperature all the donor electrons
are ionized and any further increase in temperature results in
generation of electron hole pairs by the breaking of covalent
bonds. At this point onwards the material behaves like an
intrinsic semiconductor. Fermi level gradually moves towards
the intrinsic Fermi level. The lowering of Fermi level EF to
intrinsic Fermi level Ei is slow with higher donor
concentration.
2.4. Fermi level in P –type semiconductors
The valence band moves towards the acceptor level and occupy the acceptor levels resulting holes in
the valence band. Density of holes in the valence band is given by
2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2 E − EF
p = 2( 2
) exp v
h kT
Since EF lies below the acceptor level the density of the ionized acceptors is given by
E F − Ea
N a F ( E a ) = N a exp
kT
Density of holes in the valence band is equal to the density of ionized acceptors
2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2 E − EF E − Ea
2( 2
) exp v = N a exp F
h kT kT
Ev + E a − 2 E F Na
ie... exp = 3/ 2
kT 2πm∗ h kT
2
h2
Taking log of the above equation we get
Ev + Ea kT Na
EF = − log 3/ 2
2 2 2πm ∗ h kT
2
h2
Ev + Ea
at....T = 0 K .....E F =
2
At zero Kelvin the Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and the top of the valence
band.
2.5. Density of holes in the valence band
Density of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2 E − EF
p = 2( 2
) exp v Substituting the value of EF from the previous equation we get
h kT
 Ev − E F E E + Ea 1 Na
exp = exp v − v + log
kT kT 2kT 2 2πm ∗ h kT 3 / 2
2 ( )
h2
1/ 2
E − Ea Na
= exp v
2kT 3 / 2 1/ 2
2πm ∗ h kT
2
h2
Hence
3/ 4
1/ 2 2πm ∗ h kT Ev − E a
p = (2 N a ) exp
h2 2kT
Density of holes in the valence band is proportional to the square root of the acceptor concentration at
moderately low temperatures. At higher temperature the intrinsic behavior predominates.
2.6. Variation of Fermi level with temperature and acceptor concentration
As the temperature increases more and more acceptor atoms get
ionized and at some definite temperature all the acceptor become
ionized. Further increase in temperature results in the breaking of
covalent bonds and creation of thermal electron- hole pairs and the
material start to behave like intrinsic semiconductor. The Fermi-level
gradually move towards intrinsic Fermi level. If the acceptor
concentration is high, the raising of the Fermi level to intrinsic level
will be slow.

2.7. Variation of carrier concentration with temperature

In intrinsic semiconductors carrier concentration varies with
temperature. In extrinsic semiconductors the variation can be
divided in to three regions. At zero Kelvin both conduction band
and valence band are free from charge carriers. With increase
of temperature the donor atoms get ionized and electrons in
the conduction band increases. This region is called impurity
range. During this process the Fermi level move towards the
donor level from the middle of Ec and Ev. Once all the donor
atoms are ionized the carrier concentration remains constant
over certain range of temperature. This region is called
exhaustion region and Fermi level crosses the donor level. Conductivity slightly decreases due to
decease in mobility of the electrons. Further increase of temperature of temperature takes the material
to the intrinsic range.
2.8. Conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor
At low temperatures the conductivity is very small . As the
temperature increases more and more impurity atoms get ionized
and the conductivity increases. Once the impurity is over it goes to
the exhaustion range where all the impurity atoms are ionized. Here
the conductivity slightly decreases due to decrease in mobility of the
carriers. Still higher temperatures the conductivity steeply increases due to the generation of large
number of thermally generated electron hole pairs.
3. Direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors
In certain semiconductors like gallium arsenide the maximum energy of the valence (energy spectrum
versus wave number graph) band occurs at the same value of ‘k’ where the minimum of conduction
band occurs. Such type semiconductors are known as direct band gap semiconductors. In
semiconductors like silicon the maximum of the valence band and the minimum of the conduction band
always do not occur at the same ‘k’ value. Such semiconductors are known as indirect band gap
semiconductors. In direct band semiconductors the transition efficiency is high. In direct band gap
semiconductors, it is possible to
tune the band gap and change
the optical properties by
forming their tertiary and
quaternary derivatives by
doping with impurities.
Optoelectronic conversion
efficiency is very high .They are
commonly used for fabrication
of ICs.

3.1. Semiconductor materials

Elemental semiconductors—silicon, germanium
Compound semiconductors
A compound semi conductor can be formed by combination of equal atomic fraction of the fifth and
third column or sixth and second column.
5th and 3rd column-GaP, GaAs, InP, GaSb, InAs
6th and 2nd column-MgO, MgSe, CdS, BeS, BeTe
All compound semiconductors are direct band gap semiconductors.
4. Equation of continuity
Carrier concentration in the body of a semiconductor is a
function of both time and distance. Consider a semiconductor
of area A and thickness ‘dx’ as shown in the figure. Let ‘p’ be
the average hole concentration in this volume. If ‘τp’ is the
average life time of the holes, the number of holes lost per unit
volume by recombination is ‘p/τp’

The rate of loss of charge due to recombination within the

p
volume under consideration= eAdx
τp
if ‘g’ is the rate of generation of thermal electron hole pairs, the increase of charge within the volume is
=eAdxg
If a current ‘I’ enters at he volume at ‘x’ and leaves at ‘x+dx’ , then the decreases of charge per second
from the volume is= dI
Due to these process the hole concentration changes in the semiconductor. Rate of change of hole
dp
concentration per second within the volume= eAdx
dt
Due to the law of conservation of charge the change in hole concentration must be equal to
change of concentration=generation – loss
dp p
eAdx = eAdxg − eAdx − dI
dt τp
Since the hole current is the sum of the diffusion current and drift current
dp
I = − AeD p + Apeµ h E where E is the field intensity in the volume. When no external field is
dx
applied, the hole density attains a constant value ‘p0’ and under these conditions dI=0 and dp/dt=0 then
p0
g=
τp
combining the above three equations we get
dp p − p0 d2p d ( pE )
=− + Dp 2 − µh
dt τp dx dx
This equation is known as the conservation of charge or continuity equation. Since ‘p’ is function of both
‘t’ and ‘x’ partial derivative has to be used.
∂p p − p0 ∂2 p ∂ ( pE )
=− + Dp 2 − µh
∂t τp ∂x ∂x
For holes in an n-type material
∂p n p − p0 n ∂ 2 pn ∂( pn E )
=− n + Dp 2
− µh
∂t τp ∂x ∂x
For electrons in a p-type material
∂n p np − np0 ∂ 2np ∂ (n p E )
=− − Dp 2
+ µh
∂t τp ∂x ∂x
Mean life time is the time taken by the carrier concentration to fall 1/e of its initial value. Diffusion
length is given by L p = D pτ p The diffusion for holes can be defined as the distance into the
semiconductor at which the hole concentration falls into 1/e of its initial value.
5. Hall Effect

When a conductor carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced
in the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as hall effect and the voltage so developed is known as hall voltage.
On a p-type semiconductor if electric and magnetic field are applied at right angles to each other, in a
mutually perpendicular direction holes will experience a force from right to left as shown in the figure.
For the same arrangement on an n-type semiconductor results in the accumulation of electrons on face
one as shown in the figure.
Let B be the magnetic field applied at right angles to an n –type semiconductor carrying current and if
‘v’ be the velocity of electrons, the force experienced by the electrons is given by=Bev. The direction of
this force is normal to both the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of flow of current as
shown in the figure. This causes negative charge
to accumulate on one face of the conductor. This creates a potential difference and an electric field. This
field acts on the electrons in a direction opposite to that of force Bev. At equilibrium
eE H = Bev.......or.......E H = Bv
J
We have J = nev.......hence......v =
ne
BJ 1
Using this hall voltage E H = In terms of hall coefficient RH = we egt
ne ne
E
E H = RH BJ ......and .......RH = H
BJ
E 1
For n – type material hall coefficient RH = − H = −
BJ ne
EH 1
For p – type material hall coefficient RH = = where p is density of holes.
BJ pe
5.1. Determination of the hall coefficient
if ‘b’ is the width of the semiconductor across which the hall voltage is measured
E H VH
E H = VH / b.......hence.....RH = = ......or......VH = RH BJb
BJ BJb
If ‘t’ is the thickness of the semiconductor material , then its cross section is ‘bt’ and current density
I R IB V t
J= .....hence.....VH = H .........and .......RH = H
bt t IB
Direction of the hall voltage will be opposite for n-type and p-type semiconductors. In the experimental
set up a semiconductor slab of thickness ‘t’ and width ‘b’ is connected to a battery such a way that a
current I ampere flows through it. The slab is placed in a magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic
field B is perpendicular to the direction of current. Then a hall voltage is developed in the slab as shown
in the figure.
σn
For an n –type material conductivity σ n = neµ e .......hence.....µ e = − = −σ n RH
ne
Similarly for a p –type material µ h = σ p RH
5.2. Applications of Hall effect
1) Determination of the type of the semiconductor
1
2) Calculation of the carrier concentration n =
eRH
σn
3) Determination of mobility µe = − = −σ n RH
ne
 VH t
4) Measurement of magnetic flux density B =
IRH
6. Exercise questions.
1) Derive an expression for the density of holes in the valence band
of an intrinsic semiconductor ?
2) Derive an expression for the density of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semi
conductor ?
3) Derive an expression for intrinsic carrier concentration and also obtain an expression for Fermi level
in an intrinsic semi conductor?
4) Derive an expression for conductivity of an intrinsic semi conductor and show its variation with
temperature? Also obtain an expression for band gap ?
5) Draw the band structure of both n-type and p-type semiconductors ?
6) Obtain an expression for Fermi level and carrier concentration in an n –type semiconductor and Show
the variation of Fermi level with temperature and donor concentration?
7) Obtain an expression for Fermi level and carrier concentration in a p –type semiconductor and Show
the variation of Fermi level with temperature and acceptor concentration?
8) Derive equation of continuity for an extrinsic semiconductor?
Define Hall effect and obtain an expression for Hall coefficient? what are its important applications?
7. Problems
1) The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in germanium is 2.37x1019/m3. If the electron and
hole mobility are 0.38 and 0.18m2V-1s-1 respectively. Calculate the resistivity of the semiconductor
1
σ i = ni e( µ e + µ h ).......and .....ρ =
σ
19 −3
ni = 2.37 × 10 m
µ e = 0.38......and ......µ h = 0.18
σ = 2.37 × 1019 ×1.6 × 10 −19 × (0.38 + 0.18) = 2.1235Ω −1m −1
1
resistivity....ρ = = 0.471Ωm.
2.1235
2) For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12eV, determine the position of the Fermi level at 300K if
m*e=0.12m0, and m*h=0.28m0.
Eg 3kT m∗ h
EF = + ln ∗
2 4 me
1.12 3 × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 300 0.28m0
= + −19
ln = 0.576eV
2 4 ×1.6 × 10 0.12m0
3) For an intrinsic semiconductor with band gap Eg=0.7eV , calculate the concentration of intrinsic
charge carriers at 300k assuming that m*h=m*e=m0 (electron rest mass)
3/ 2
2πmkT − Eg
ni = 2 exp
h2 2kT
3/ 2
2 × 3.14 × 9.1× 10 −31 × 1.38 × 10 − 23 × 300 − 0.7 × 1.6 × 10 −19
=2 exp
(6.626 × 10 −34 ) 2 2 ×1.38 × 10 − 23 × 300
= 2 × (5.388880016 × 1016 ) 3 / 2 × exp(−13.527) = 33.49 × 1018 / m 3
 4) Find the resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor rod of 1 cm length 1mm width and 1mm thick at
300K. ni=2.5x1019/m3, µe=0.39 and µh=0.19
Conductivity
l
σ = ni e( µ h + µ e ).........and .......R =
σA
19 −19
σ = 2.5 ×10 ×1.6 ×10 (0.19 + 0.39) = 2.32
0.01
R= −6
= 4.31×10 3 Ω
2.32 × 10
5) Resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5ohm-m at 20 celsius and 2 ohm-m at 32 degree celsius
calculate the enrgy band gap?
dy
E g = 2k
dx
dy = log σ 1 − log σ 2 = 0.3522
1 1 0.3522 1
dx = − = 1.34 × 10 −4........so........Eg = 2 × 1.38 ×10 −23 × −4
× = 0.453eV
T1 T2 1.34 ×10 1.6 ×10 −19
6) If the effective mass of holes in a semiconductor is four times that of electrons . at what temperature
would the Fermi level be shifted by 10% from the middle of the forbidden energy gap Eg=1eV
EC + EV 3kT m∗h
EF = = ln ∗ ........and ......E g = 1eV = 1.6 × 10 −19 J
2 4 me
EF=(EV+0.5) eV at T=0K Then
EC + EV
EV + 0.5 = .....at....T = 0 K ..........(1)
2
Let at temperature T Fermi level shift by 10% ie 0.1eV Then
EC + EV 3kT m∗ h
EV + 0.6 = + ln 4.............(2).......sin ce.... ∗ = 4
2 4 me
Subtracting (1) from (2)
3kT 4 × 1.6 × 10 −19
0.1eV = ln 4........or.........T = = 1116K
4 3 × 1.38 × 10 −23 × ln 4
7) A semiconductor plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10mm, and length 100mm is placed in a magnetic
field of 0.5 Wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If 10-2A current flows along its length , calculate
the Hall voltage developed Given Rh=3.66x10-4m3/coulomb
RH IB 3.66 × 10 −4 × 10 −2 × 0.5
VH = = −3
= 1.83 × 10 −3V
t 10

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 Formation of P-N Junction.
This is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N Junction formed either in Ge or Si crystal.
When a P-type material is intimately joined to N-Type, a P-N junction is formed. And this joining will
be done by different processes. Those are
1. Grown Junction Diode:
When an extrinsic semiconductor is grown from melt, during the middle of the growth
process impurities of opposite kind are added to the melt so that the opposite type of crystal grows
further.
For example, when an n-type Si crystal is grown with pentavalent phosphorus atoms, the
growth process is stopped temporarily and sufficient trivalent boran impurity atoms are added to
the melt . This results in growth of p-type thereafter.
2.Fused/ Alloyed Junction method
In this method, both p-type and n-type materials are kept in contact and fused together by
proper heat treatment to form the junction.
For example, a small dot of p-type material (indium) is pressed on a thin wafer of n –type
germanium. During few minutes of heat treatment, Indium atoms fuse into the surface of
germanium and produce p-region inside germanium. This p-type region along with n –type
geramanium wafer forms a p-n junction.
3.Diffused Junction type
Diffused junctions are formed by impurity diffusion method. The process is done either
through gas or solid diffusion.
In solid diffusion process, a p-type impurity is painted on a n-type substrate and both are
heated. Now p-type impurity atoms are diffuse into n-type substrate for short distance and form p-n
junction.

Open Circuit P-n Junction

In an n-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are negative charge carriers or electrons.
In a p-type semiconductor, majority carriers are holes or positive charges. When they are joined, in
the region of contact, a concentration gradient occurs between p-type and n-type materials. This
results in electrons moving from n side to p side and holes moving from p side to n side through the
junction (call it as “initial movement“). When an electron leaves the n-side region, it leaves behind
an ionised donor (a positive charge ) at the n-side. Similarly when a hole is diffused to n-side, it
leaves behind an ionised acceptor (a negative charge) at the p-side. This movement of electrons
from n-side to p-side (n–>p) and the movement of holes from p-side to n-side is called (p–>n)
“diffusion” and it results in a current named as “diffusion current“.
 Due to diffusion, some of the holes from P-side cross over to N-side where they combone
woth electrons and become neutral. Similarly some of the electrons form N-side cross over to P-side
where they combine with holes and become neutral. Thus a region is formed which is known as
depletion layer or charged free region or space charge region because there is no charge available
for conduction. The diffusion of holes and electrons continues till a potential barrier is developed in
space charge region which prevents further diffusion or neutralization. The potential barrier can be
increased or decreased by applying an external voltage.
Juntion Voltage: When the depletion layer is formed, there are negative immobile ions in P-type
semiconductor and positive immobile ions in N-type semiconductor. Now due to charge separation,
a voltage VB is developed across the junction under equilibrium condition. This voltage is known as
junction voltage. This potential barrier VB setup in this manner gives rise to electric field and this
electric field prevents the respective majority carriers from crossing the barrier region.
Energy Band structure of an Open –Ckt P-N Junction
Consider that a P-N junction is formed by placing P and N-type materials in intimate contact
on an atomic scale. The energy diagrams of both the regions undergo relative shift to make the
Fermi level constant throughout the specimen. The equalization of Fermi levels in P and N materials
of P-N Junction is analogus to the equalization of levels of water in two containers on being joined
together. If this were not true, electrons on one side of the junction would have an average energy
greater than those on other side and this causes transfer of electrons and energy until the Fermilevel
on the two sides equalize.
It is known that Fermi level EF is closer to the conduction band edge E Cn in N-type and closer
to the valence band edge EVp in P-type material. So the conduction band edge ECp in P-type material
cannot be at the same level as ECn and similarly that valence band edge EVp in P-material cannot be
same level as EVn in N –material.
When P-N junction is forms, conduction band edge ECp in P-material is higher than ECn in N-
type material and similarly valence band edge EVp in P –material is higher than in valence band edge
EVn in N –material. The diagramatic representation of energy band diagram is shown in below.
 Zenar Diode
A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in forward biased condition.
When forward biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, it allows large amount of
electric current and blocks only a small amount of electric current. Hence, a forward biased p-n
junction diode offer only a small resistance to the electric current.
When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, it blocks large amount
of electric current and allows only a small amount of electric current. Hence, a reverse biased p-n
junction diode offer large resistance to the electric current.
If reverse biased voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is highly increased, a sudden
rise in current occurs. At this point, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the electric
current. This sudden rise in electric current causes a junction breakdown called zener or
avalanche breakdown. The voltage at which zener breakdown occurs is called zener voltage and
the sudden increase in current is called zener current.
A normal p-n junction diode does not operate in breakdown region because the excess
current permanently damages the diode. Normal p-n junction diodes are not designed to operate
in reverse breakdown region. Therefore, a normal p-n junction diode does not operate in reverse
breakdown region.
What is zener diode?
A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased condition. When
forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode it allows large amount of electric current
and blocks only a small amount of electric current.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very
thin depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n
junction diodes.
Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but also
allows electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than the
zener voltage. Zener diode is always connected in reverse direction because it is specifically
designed to work in reverse direction.
Breakdown in zener diode
There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and
zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown
The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high reverse
voltage. When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free
electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities.

The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms and knock off more
electrons. These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated. As a result,
electric current in the diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in electric current may
permanently destroys the normal diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed
because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
Zener breakdown
The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their narrow
depletion region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow
depletion region generates strong electric field.

When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field
in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence
electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion region will
breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance electrons which break bonding with parent
atom will become free electrons. This free electrons carry electric current from one place to
another place. At zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the
electric current.
• Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage whereas avalanche breakdown occurs at
high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in zener diodes because they have very thin depletion region.
• Breakdown region is the normal operating region for a zener diode.
• Zener breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) less than 6V.
Symbol of zener diode
The symbol of zener diode is shown in below figure. Zener diode consists of two terminals:
cathode and anode.

In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and cathode to anode.
The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode, but with bend edges on
the vertical bar.
VI characteristics of zener diode
The VI characteristics of a zener diode is shown in the below figure. When forward biased
voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However, when reverse biased
voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in different manner.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage
current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When reverse biased voltage applied to the
zener diode reaches zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this
point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. Because of this
sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called zener breakdown. However, zener diode
exhibits a controlled breakdown that does damage the device.
The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is depends on the amount of doping applied. If
the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand,
if the diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages.
Advantages of zener diode
• Power dissipation capacity is very high
• High accuracy
• Small size
• Low cost
Applications of zener diode
• It is normally used as voltage reference
• Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
• Zener diodes are used in switching operations
• Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
• Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits
BJT {Bipolar Junction Transistor} construction and operating principle
A bipolar junction transistor is simply a sandwitch of one type of semiconductor material
between two layers of the other type. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors:
1.N-P-N transistor
2.P-N-P transistor
When a layer of P-type material is sandwitched between two layers of N-type material, the
transistor is known as N-P-N transistor. it is shown in fig.1. Similarly, when a layer of N-type material
is sandwiched between two layers of P-type material , the transistor is known as P-N-P transistor. it
is shown in Fig.2

A transistor has the following sections

1.Emitter :The main function of this region is to supply majority charge carriers (either
electrons/holes) to the base and hence it is more heavily doped in comparision to other regions.
2.Base: This is very lightly doped and is very thin as compared to emitter or collector so that
it may pass most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.
3.Collector: The main fuction of this region is to collect majority charge carriers through the
base. This is moderately doped.
In the figure the arrowhead symbol represents the direction of current. i.e in the case of
NPN transistor it is from base to emitter whereas in PNP transistor it is from emitter to base. The
junction between emitter and base called as emitter diode. similarly, the junction between base and
collector called as collector diode.
Transistor biasing
The transistor biasing is shown in fig.2. The emitter-base junction is always forward biased
while the collector base junction is always reverse-biased.
Operation of PNP transistor
The operation of PNP transsitor is as follows: The holes of P-region
P region (emitter) are always
repelled by the positive terminal of battery VEE towards the base. The potential barrier at emitter
junction is reduced as it is forward bias and hence the holes cross this junction and penetrate into N
region. This constitute the emitter current. The width of base region is very thin and it is lightly
doped and hence only two to five percent of the holes recombine with the free electrons of N-
region. This
is constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes are able to drift across the base and
enter the collector region. They are swept up by the negative collector voltage VCC. This constitutes
the collector current IC.

As each hole reaches the collector electrode, an electron is emitted from the negative
terminal of battery and neutralizes the hole. Now a covalent bond near the emitter electrode breaks
down. The liberated electron enters
nters the positive terminal of battery VEB while the hole immediately
moves towards the emitter junction. This process is repeated again and again.
Operation of NPN transistor
Fig.3 shows the npn transistor with forward bias to the emitter-base
emitter base junction and reverse bias
to the collector-base junction.

The forward bias cause the electrons in the n-type

n type emitter to flow towards the base. This
constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type
type base, they tend
to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore,only a few
electrons i.e less than 5% combine with holes to constitute base current IB.
The remainder i.e more than 95% cross over into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC. In this way almost entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.
The emitter current is the sum of collector and base current.
IE = IB + IC
So the current conduction in NPN transistor is carried out by electrons.