Le Thi Thu Hong, MA

▪ Linear idea development

▪ Manner of exemplification
▪ Theme-Rheme re-arrangement
▪ Employment of cohesive devices
- As textual Themes
- As non-textual Themes
▪ Linking facilitation
- Linking scope
- Linking distance
- Linking explicitness
▪ Coherence vs. cohesion
• Cohesion
- Cohesion refers to the linguistic links between sentences, which demonstrate
the relationship between ideas contained in these sentences.
* A paragraph that is made up of sentences that are well-linked is said to be
cohesive.
* Cohesion ensures smooth written text flow and allows the reader to follow the
development of ideas more easily.
- Underlying coherence vs surface cohesion
Any country-music-lover knows “Ring of fire” as the most famous hit of Jonhny
Cash’s career – a country music star of the 60s.
→ coherent but not cohesive.
▪ Underlying semantic coherence is realized through surface
cohesive markers in different ways by different languages.
→An English essay composed by a Vietnamese speaker may
seem coherent and easy to follow to other ESL Vietnamese
fellows but not so to native speakers of English.
▪ Cohesive devices: surface markers of cohesion
▪ 5 basic types:
- reference
- substitution
- ellipsis
- conjunction
- lexical cohesion
1. Reference:
- established through naming of participants, places and things
- most commonly expressed by pronouns and demonstratives.
1.1 endophoric: point to a referent located within text
anaphoric: the referent mentioned at an earlier point
e.g., The dog ate the bird and it died.
* cataphoric: the referent subsequently provided
- e.g., Because his drink was cold, David ordered another cup of tea.
1.2. exophoric: point to a referent lying outside text in the context of situation.
e.g., the Queen, the VTV3
- the writer assumes that readers are aware of the referent. → problematic?
2. Substitution:
- replace an element with another but not by means of a personal pronoun
- e.g., “Do you have a boyfriend? – Nope. – Do you want one?”
- E.g., “Do you like her? – I do.”
3. Ellipsis:
- involve deletion of a repeated element
- e.g., He wrote a letter and [he is deleted] sent it home on the same day.
* Notes: substitution and ellipsis may cause misunderstanding.
* Notes: substitution and ellipsis may cause misunderstanding.
Consider the following text.
Consumption of energy derived from natural gas and coal
is similar over the period. From 20q and 15q respectively
in 1980, gas showed an initial fall and coal [a gradual
increase.] OR [did a gradual increase]?
→… and coal a gradual increase – ellipsis
4. Conjunction:
- express logical relations between parts of a text
- e.g., Although they’re expensive, they last forever and never go out of
style.
Vs. They’re expensive, but they last forever and never go out of style.
→Subordination vs. coordination
→Subordinators vs. coordinators
5. Lexical cohesion:
- Maintain cohesion through subclassification, antonymy/synonymy/repetition
and part/whole relationship.
- E.g., Cats appear to be affected with allergic bronchitis more frequently than
dogs. Animals are usually affected as young to middle aged adults.
vs. Cats appears to be affected with allergic bronchitis more frequently than
umbrellas.
- E.g., Looks are for the young. The older should know that our mates are not an
award that one can display on their arm.
vs. Looks are for the young. The unemployed should know that…
▪ Note:
- Also involves culture-related assumptions, e.g. “Hanoi people”
vs “Saigon people”
- Technically, lexical cohesion tends to create more Motivated
new theme patterns.
→ If you tend to use lexical cohesion, make sure your ideas are
linearly arranged and readers have access to underlying
assumptions.
- Identify cohesive device problems of text passages composed
by Vietnamese ESL students.
+ Identify cohesive device problems
* identify the semantic relation between parts of text.
* Explain why the cohesive device in question does not work in the
context at hand.
+ Suggest solutions
* In many cases, simple replacement of a problematic cohesive device
is not enough.
▪ I strongly believe that teenagers when still attending university
should not get a job. In contrast, they should focus on studying
to enhance their knowledge.
▪ I strongly believe that teenagers when still attending university
should not get a job. In contrast, they should focus on studying
to enhance their knowledge.
→I strongly believe that school-attending teenagers should not
get a job. Rather, they should focus on studying to enhance their
knowledge.
* Rather | Instead vs. Alternatively
▪ I strongly believe that teenagers when still attending university should not
get a job. In contrast, they should focus on studying to enhance their
knowledge.
- When vs. while
• The two have yet to meet, but may do so when | while | whilst in New York.
• When he closed the door, she took off clothes.
vs. While he closed the door, she took off clothes.
→After vs. simultaneously
• When I woke up this morning, it was raining.
• While it was raining, I was watching TV.
→Specific point vs. progression
• How about: ____ I took on my first temporary job, I had been unemployed for ten
months.
→When
• The first two are free, while | whereas the third costs an arm and a leg
• I’ll think about it when it’s time to write the final report.
▪ Vietnam’s services seem barely passable to foreign tourists, who have
enjoyed other better services in Asian countries, such as Singapore and
Thailand.
▪ Vietnam’s services seem barely passable to foreign tourists, who have
enjoyed other better services in Asian countries, such as Singapore and
Thailand.
→ Vietnam’s services seem barely passable to foreign tourists, who
have enjoyed other better services in other Asian countries, such as
Singapore and Thailand.
▪ Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) sees language as a collection of discrete items put together.
Language acquisition becomes a matter of conditioning. However, after years in vogue, ALM is
challenged by a new approach, namely, the communicative method.
▪ Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) sees language as a collection of discrete items put together.
Language acquisition becomes a matter of conditioning. However, after years in Vogue, ALM is
challenged by a new approach, namely, the communicative method.
→After years in vouge, ALM, however, is challenged by...
→Conjunction position is important.

→Any implicit ideas between the last sentence and the preceding text?
→A bridge idea/sentence is needed:
- Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) sees language as a collection of discrete items
put together. Language acquisition becomes a matter of conditioning. Since
this method has been proven ineffective by research, after years in vouge,
ALM, however, is challenged by a new approach, namely, the communicative
method.
▪ Grade does matter a lot. Specifically, the competitive spirit, deeply ingrained in students, who
compete with each other for high marks, may both drive them to work harder and stress them
out at the same time. I remember one girl bursting into tears when she failed to attain her
desired grade. Another suffered from stress before every single test even though she was a
capable and smart student. However, marks are not an absolute criterion of students’ levels.
▪ Grade does matter a lot. Specifically, … student. However, marks are not an absolute criterion of
students’ levels.
- The issue of LINKING DISTANCE
• A → …long distance… → B
→Solution
• A → …long distance… A’ (=A) → B
After the long distance, (start a new paragraph if needed and) repeat the linked item
by paraphrasing
• Grade does matter a lot. Specifically, … student. No matter how important they
are to students, marks, however, should not be used as an absolute criterion of
students’ levels.
▪ Dogs deserve to be our best friends instead of food.
▪ Dogs deserve to be our best friends instead of food.
vs. Dogs instead of food deserve to be our best friends .
→Lexical cohesion problems
- Dogs deserve to be treated as our best friends, and hence, not
killed for food.