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Engineering Drawing II (preview)

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 CHAPTER

CONVENTIONAL PRACTICES FOR

ORTHOGRAPHIC AND SECTIONAL VIEWS
Orthographic as well as sectional views of any object are prepared to describe the object clearly.
In some cases actual projection of the object will not explain the object in convincing way.
Similarly, in some cases completion of actual projection will take significant time and effort but
does not increase the information provided by the drawing effectively. In such cases some
convectional practices can be followed such that it reduces the time and effort to complete the
drawing without affecting the information that can be conveyed by the drawing.
This chapter presents the standard convectional practices that are used while preparing
orthographic and sectional views.

1.1 Conventional Practices in Orthographic Views

1.1.1 Half View and Partial View
Whenever there is not sufficient space to complete a particular view of a symmetrical object
with the consistent scale, then only a half portion or a partial portion of the symmetrical view
can be drawn. As an example, consider a diametrically symmetrical object shown in Figure 1.1
(a). To explain the features of the object, its front view and half portion or partial portion of the
top view as shown in Figure 1.1 (b) can be used. Although its front view is also symmetrical, it
is not appropriate to draw its half front view because it does not save the space required for the
drawing.

(a): Diametrically Symmetrical Object (b): Half Top View (c): Partial Top View
Figure 1.1

1.1.2 Aligned View

Whenever an object consists of arms or ribs aligned at some angles then its true projection does
not give true shape as well as true distance of the contours contained on the arms or ribs. In such
cases, views of the are drawn by aligning these ribs or arms on a position such that they appear
at true distance as shown in Figure 1.2.
2 Engineering Drawing - II
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain why conventional practices should be followed to prepare orthographic views
and sectional views.
2. Explain the uses of following types of section: revolved section, removed section and
auxiliary section.
3. Explain the exceptional rule of sectioning.

EXERCISES
1. Draw front view and side view of the object shown in Figure P1.1. Use convention for
the radially arranged holes.
2. Draw front view and top view of the object shown in Figure P1.2. Use convention for the
radially arranged holes.

Figure P1.1

12 Engineering Drawing - II
 CHAPTER

PICTORIAL DRAWING I: ISOMETRIC

DRAWING
Engineering drawing is a means of communication. Communications done through engineering
drawing can be classified into two types: communication among technical person and
communication between technical and non-technical person.
Communication among technical person is done through multi view drawings. Multi view
drawings may consist of a number of orthographic views, sectional views and auxiliary views as
per requirement according to the complexity of the object being described. Details of any object
regarding its shape, size, material, surface finish, fabrication processes can be efficiently
explained by the orthographic views.
Sometimes engineers and technicians should also communicate about some objects, components
or structure to the people who do not have knowledge about the drawing. For example a
designer has to convince his senior administrative persons regarding the outlook of the device
that he has designed. Similarly, a civil engineer designing a building has to communicate with
his client by showing how the building he is going to design will look like. Such communication
is done though the pictorial projection.
Pictorial projection gives information of any object by a single view but sometimes it take more
time and effort to make a pictorial projection than the multi view drawings of the same object.
Pictorial projections are usually in distorted from and therefore true distances cannot be
measured form them and it is usually difficult to provide complete dimensions on the pictorial
view also.
Despite these demerits, pictorial projections are extensively used to give idea about outlook as
well as spatial position of the object. In some cases, they are used to supplement and clarify
machine and structural details that would be difficult to visualize through multi view drawing.
Pictorial projections classified into three types: axonometric projection, oblique projection and
perspective projection. Outlook of the same object produced by these three projection methods
are shown in Figure 2.1.

(a) Axonometric Projection (b) Oblique Projection (c) Perspective Projection

Figure 2.1: Types of Pictorial Projection

18 Engineering Drawing - II
 EX
XERCIS ES
1. to 68. Draw
w an isometrric drawing of
o the object with
w given o
orthographic views.

Figure P2.1
P F
Figure P2.2 Figu
ure P2.3

Figure P2.4
P F
Figure P2.5 Figu
ure P2.6

60 Engineering
g Drawing - III
 CHAPTER

PICTORIAL DRAWING II: OBLIQUE

DRAWING
3.1 Oblique Projec
ction
Anothher common n form of picttorial represeentation is an
n oblique pro ojection. In oblique
o projeection,
an obbject is placeed such that one of its faces
f is paralllel to the prrojection plaane and projection
lines are parallel to each otheer but inclineed to the proojection plan ne. Due to su uch conditionns, all
three orthogonal faces
f of the object
o becom
me visible as shown in Fiigure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Oblique Projection

P

3.2 Oblique Drawing

In obblique projecction, the face which is kept paralleel to the pro ojection planne appears inn true
shapee whereas othero orthoggonal faces appear in distorted fo orm. If true distances of all
orthoogonal axes are transferrred directly along the ob blique pictorrial axes to obtain a picctorial
view,, then it is caalled an obliq
que drawing.. The obliquee axis inclineed to the facee which appeears in
true shape
s is calleed a receding g axis. The inclination
i of receding axxis is usually 00, 450
y taken as 30
0
or 600 as shown in n Figure 3.22.

(a) Obliique Axes sh

howing Righ
ht face of th
he Object

76 Engineering
g Drawing - III
 REVIEW
W QUES
STIONS
S
1. Define obliique projectiion.
2. Differentiaate between cavalier
c obliq
que drawing and cabinet oblique draw
wing.
3. List the genneral rules fo
or placing an
n object for oblique
o drawiing.

EX
XERCIS ES
1. to 38. Draw
w an oblique drawing of the object with given orth
hographic viiews.

Figure P3.1
P F
Figure P3.2 Figu
ure P3.3

Figure 3.4
4 Figure P3.5

P
Pictorial Draw
wing II: Obliq
que Drawing 89
 CHAPTER

PICTORIAL DRAWING III: PERSPECTIVE

PROJECTION
4.1 Perspective Projection
Perspective projection is a type of pictorial projection which is less used by engineers but used
extensively by architects. It shows the realistic view of any object as observed by the human
eyes or captured as a photograph by a camera. Architects and building designers usually use it
to show the realistic view of the designed buildings. The main difference between the
perspective and other projections is that, in perspective projection all projection lines converge
to a point from which the object is being observed.

4.2 Terminologies Used in Perspective Projection

Terminologies used in perspective projection are shown in shown in Figure 4.1 and defined
below.

Figure 4.1: Terminologies of Perspective Projection

Station Point (SP)
The point from which an object is observed is called a station point (SP). Station point is the
location of eye of the observer.
Ground Plane (GP)
The horizontal plane on which the base of the object rests is called a ground plane (GP).
Picture Plane (PP)
The plane in which the object is projected is called a picture plane (PP).

98 Engineering Drawing - II
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define perspective projection.
2. Define the following terms: Station point, Ground plane, Picture plane, Horizon plane,
Ground line, Horizon line, Axis of vision, Center of vision, Piercing points, Vanishing
point.
3. Differentiate between parallel and angular perspective projection.
4. List the general rules for fixing a station point for a perspective projection.

EXERCISES
1. Draw parallel perspective for the objects with given orthographic views.

Figure P4.1(a) Figure P4.1(b) Figure P4.1(c)

Figure P4.1(d) Figure P4.1(e)

Pictorial Drawing III: Perspective Projection 137

 CHAPTER

LIMIT DIMENSIONING AND MACHINING

SYMBOLS
5.1 Limit-Fit System
Size of any mechanical component is specified through a design process and is fabricated by
any appropriate process. However in real practice fabrication of any component to the exact size
precisely is very difficult is very difficult and costly because it needs
highly skilled man power
frequent replacements and adjustments of the cutting tools, and
highly precise measuring instruments.
Due to these reasons, there may be certain acceptable variations in the size of any component as
long as it satisfies its functional objective a reliable manner. This permissible or acceptable
variation in size of any component is called tolerance. Higher tolerance means the lesser
precision and the lower tolerance means the higher precision. The precision required for any
component also depends upon the application. For example, the precision required for a part of
an aero-plane will be very high although it may be costly but the precision required for a part of
a frame of a table will be very less.

5.1.1 Basic Terminologies of Limit-Fit System

Basic terminologies used in limit-fit system are shown in Figure 5.1 and defined below.

Figure 5.1: Terminologies of Limit Fit System

Basic Size
It is the size obtained by the designer by design calculations for the safe functioning of a
component. Tolerances are assigned with reference to this size. Basic size is same for both the
hole and the shaft which are to be assembled.
Actual Size
It is the size of the manufactured component. It should lie between the two limits of size if the
component is to be accepted.
144 Engineering Drawing - II
 EXERCISES
1. Determine the tolerance for the components with the following basic size using empirical
relation.(a) 55 for 6(b) 75 for 14.

2. A stepped shaft shown in Figure P5.2 is produced by machining of cylindrical piece on a

central lathe. Recommend suitable tolerances for diameters.

Figure P5.2

3. Determine the tolerance on hole, tolerance on shaft and allowance of mating parts with
the following sizes. Also mention the type of fit.

(a) Hole: 50.025 mm and 50.000 mm; Shaft: 50.059 mm and 50.043 mm

(b) Hole: 60.030 mm and 60.000 mm; Shaft: 60.050 mm and 60.020 mm.

4. Determine the upper and lower limits of a component specified by

(a) 45 6 (b) 75 7 (c) 30 8 (d) 50 8 (e) 50 9

(f) 60 7 (g) 55 6

5. For the following fits

(a) 30 7 6 (b) 40 7 9 (c) 50 7 7 (d) 45 6 7 (e) 35 7 6

Determine:

(i) Upper and lower limits of the hole

(ii) Upper and lower limits of the shaft

(iii) Allowance

(iv) Type of fit

(v) Basis of fit system.

182 Engineering Drawing - II

 CHAPTER

SCREWED FASTENERS
6.1 Introduction
A machine or a structure consists of a number of different parts assembled by means of different
joints or fasteners. Such joints may vary in shape and size, depending on their usage, from
ordinary nails and glue to screw, bolt, nut, rivet, key, pin, etc. Joints used in such machines or
structures can be classified into two types: temporary joint or permanent joint. A joint is said to
a temporary joint if it can be assembled or disassembled as required whereas it is said to be a
permanent joint if it cannot be dissembled easily. Threaded fasteners, cotter and pin, pipe joints
etc are the examples of temporary joints. Welded and riveted joints are the examples of
permanent joints.

6.2 Screw Thread Nomenclature

A screw thread is obtained by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface. The
groove cut on an outer cylindrical surface is called an external thread and the groove cut on the
inner hollow cylindrical surface is an internal thread. When the external thread engages with the
corresponding internal thread, it forms a screwed fastener.
Threads are also used for power transmission and lifting of the load. Common examples of such
applications are power screw and screw jack.
Basic terms associated with a threaded joint are shown in Figure 6.1 and defined below:

Figure 6.1: Screw Thread Nomenclature

Major diameter
The largest diameter of a screw thread, touching the crests on an external thread or the roots of
an internal thread is called major diameter. It is also called nominal diameter.

188 Engineering Drawing - II

6.8.3 Washer
A washer is a thin cylindrical piece of with a hole to receive the bolt. It is used to give a perfect
position for the nut and to distribute the tightening force uniformly to the parts under the joint. It
also prevents the nut from damaging the metal surface under the joint. Figure 6.22 shows a
washer, with the commonly used proportions.

Figure 6.22: Washer

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a mechanical joint. List the types of mechanical joints.
2. Define the following terms related to screw thread: Major diameter, Minor diameter,
Pitch diameter, Pitch, Lead, Flank, Crest, Root, Helix angle and Thread Angle.
3. List common thread profiles and also write down their applications.
4. Differentiate between single start and multi start threads; right hand and left hand threads.
5. What are three common methods of thread representation?

EXERCISES
1. Draw the following thread profiles with a pitch of 4 . You can use any suitable scale.
(a) Metric thread (b) BSW thread
(c) V thread (d) Square thread
(e) Buttress thread (f) ACME thread
(g) Worm thread (h) Knuckle thread
2. Draw three orthographic views of a hexagonal nut for a nominal diameter of 30 .
3. Draw three orthographic views of a hexagonal head bolt for a nominal diameter of
20 .
4. Draw three orthographic views of a square nut for a nominal diameter of 20 .
5. Draw three orthographic views of a square head bolt for a nominal diameter of 30 .
6. Draw a bolted joint to conventional ratios as shown in Figure P6.6. Take = 20 ,
= 20 and = 30 .

Screwed Fasteners 209

 CHAPTER

RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS

7.1 Introduction
Riveted and welded joints are permanent fastenings used in many applications. Riveted joints
are most commonly used to join steel sheets in boilers, storage tanks, etc. Rivets are also used to
join rolled steel sections in structural works, such as bridge and roof trusses.
Welding is also an effective method of making permanent joints between two or more metal
parts. Cast iron, steel and its alloys, brass and copper are the metals that can be welded easily.
Production of leak proof joints which can withstand high pressures and temperatures are made
with welding.
In comparison to riveting, welding is cheaper, stronger and simpler to execute at site with
considerable freedom in design. Therefore, welding is widely used in structural fabrication in
place of riveting.

7.2 Riveted Joints

7.2.1 Rivet and Riveting
A rivet consists of a head, a cylindrical body called shank and a slightly tapered tail as shown in
Figure 7.1. A rivet is specified by the diameter of its shank. The length of the tail, from which
another head is formed during riveting, is usually 1.25 times the diameter of the rivet.

Figure 7.1: Parts of a Rivet

Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminum alloys are some of the materials commonly used
for rivets. The choice of a particular material depends upon the place of application.
To make a riveted joint, the plates to be joined are drilled with holes of size slightly more than
the shank diameter of the rivet. Then a rivet is placed in the hole drilled through the two parts to
be joined. Then the tail part of the rivet is made into a rivet head by applying pressure either in
cold or hot condition.
When a leak-proof joint is required, the edges are further hammered. The edges are made from
90° to 80° by hammering with a fullering tool called fullering. Similar a caulking tool whose
shape is that of a blunt chisel is also used to make a leak-proof joint and the process is called
caulking.

212 Engineering Drawing - II

 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between welded joint and riveted joint.
2. What are the common forms of rivet heads?
3. Differentiate between: (a) lap joint and butt joint; (b) chain riveting and zig-zag riveting.
4. Define the following terms associated with riveted joint: Pitch, Margin, Row pitch,
Diagonal pitch.
5. Explain different types of welded joints.
6. List basic and supplementary weld symbols.
7. Sketch a symbol used to specify the welded joints on a drawing.
8. What are the meanings of arrow side and other side on a welded joint?

EXERCISES
1. Draw top view and sectional front view of the following riveted joints:
(a) Single riveted chain lap joint with the plate thickness of 9 .
(b) Triple riveted chain lap joint with plate thickness of 12 .
(c) Double riveted zig-zag lap joint with plate thickness of 16 .
(d) Triple riveted zig-zag lap joint with plate thickness of 16 .
(e) Double riveted single strap chain butt joint with the plate thickness of 14 .
(f) Triple riveted single strap chain butt joint with the plate thickness of 12 .
(g) Single riveted double strap chain butt joint with the plate thickness of 10 .
(h) Triple riveted double strap chain butt joint with the plate thickness of 9 .
(i) Double riveted single strap zig-zag butt joint with the plate thickness of 12 .
(j) Triple riveted single strap zig-zag butt joint with the plate thickness of 14 .
(k) Double riveted double strap zig-zag butt joint with the plate thickness of 16 .
2. A component shown in Figure P7.2 is fabricated by welding a prismatic piece with a
square hole, two wedges with a rectangular base plate. Show orthographic views of the
welded joint with welding symbols. Joints for the wedges are to be made with fillet welds
of throat size 5 mm and the prismatic piece is to be welded all around by a fillet of throat
6 mm with concave contour surface.

Riveted and Welded Joints 231

 CHAPTER

STANDARD SYMBOLS OF DIFFERENT

ENGINEERING FIELDS
It has been mentioned in many places in this book that some components of different
engineering fields are represented on drawing by the standard symbols. This is done because
representation of such components in the symbolic forms provide all necessary information and
can be prepared with less time and effort. Graphical symbols for common components of
different engineering fields are given below.

8.1 Common Symbols of Civil Engineering

Standard graphical symbols of different fields of civil engineering are given below.
8.1.1 Symbol for Common Civil Works
Standard graphical symbols common civil works are listed in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Symbol for Civil Works and Structures
S.N. Feature Symbol S.N. Feature Symbol

1. City or town or 2. House

3. Building of any kind 4. School

5. Temple 6. Church

Unimproved
7. Mosque 8.
highway

9. Improved highway 10. Trail

11. Single track 12. Double track

13. Electric railroad 14. Ferry

234 Engineering Drawing - II

 Telephone-telegraph
75. 76. Diode with filament
line

77. Diode 78. Zener diode

79. Tunnel diode 80. Schottky diode

81. Laser diode 82. Photo diode

Light emitting diode Silicon controlled

83. 84.
(LED) rectifier

85. NPN Transistor 86. PNP Transistor

87. Phototransistor 88. Full wave rectifier

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why symbols are used in engineering drawing?

EXERCISES
1. Draw symbols of any ten common natural surfaces features (streams, lakes, etc) and six
common development features (roads, buildings, etc).
2. Draw symbols of any ten common plumbing work features.
3. Draw symbols of any ten common electrical work features.
4. Draw symbols of any ten common electronics work features.

244 Engineering Drawing - II

 CHAPTER

WORKING DRAWINGS
9.1 Introduction
A machine or a structure consists of a number parts joined together in relation to each other. A
working drawing provides complete information and instructions for manufacturing of each
component of a machine. Working drawing prepared in a country may be sent to any other part
of the world for fabrication and hence working drawings should be prepared by following the
standard conventions.

Working drawings can be classified into two types: detail drawing and assembly drawing. Detail
drawings provide complete information of each part of a machine whereas an assembly drawing
provided information regarding proper positions of the parts for the proper functioning of the
machine.

9.2 Detail Drawing

Any detail drawing consists of information regarding shape, size, tolerances, manufacturing
process, etc of each part of a machine.

9.2.1 Shape Description

Shape of any part is described generally by a number of orthographic views. The number of
views depends upon the natural of the object. For example, for a simple cylindrical object, a
single view may be sufficient but for other objects two or more views may be required.
Similarly, for some objects, sectional views, auxiliary views or enlarged views may also be
necessary.

9.2.2 Size Description

Size of any part is specified by the proper dimensioning. Dimensioning should be provided such
that any calculation is not required. Tolerances on size, form and position tolerances of each
part should also be specified.

9.2.3 Other Specifications

Information related to materials, heat treatment, surface finish, etc can also pe added to the part
drawing. If these features are common to all parts, then they can be placed near the tittle block
whereas if these features are different for different parts theses should be placed any suitable
location near the part drawing.

246 Engineering Drawing - II

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EXERCISES
1. Make a complete set of detail drawings for a double clamp shown in Figure P9.1.

Figure P9.1
2. Make a complete set of detail drawings for a C-clamp shown in Figure P9.2.
3. Figure P9.3shows the details of an anti-vibration mount. Draw the front view with
section and top view of the assembly.
4. Figure P9.4shows the details of a universal coupling. Draw the front view with section
and side view of the assembly.
5. Figure P9.5shows the details of an Oldham coupling. Draw the front view with section
and side view of the assembly. Take = 20 and size of key hole as 8 × 3.
6. Draw the front view with section and top view of the assembly with the detail drawing
shown in Figure P9.6.
7. Figure P9.7shows the details of a wheel support. Draw the front view with section and
top view of the assembly. Refer the exploded view shown in Figure 9.1.

256 Engineering Drawing - II