Electromagnetic Induction

Induced EMF

 An EMF will be induced in a conductor if there is relative movement between the

conductor and the magnetic field
 It will also be induced if the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic field
 For an electrical conductor moving in a fixed magnetic field
o The conductor (e.g wire) cuts through the fields lines
o This induces an EMF in the wire

Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce an EMF

When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing an EMF

 For a fixed conductor in a changing magnetic filed

o As the magnet moved through the conductor (e.g. a coil), the field lines cut
through the turns on the conductor (each individual wire)
o This induces an EMF in the coil
 A magnet moved towards a wire creates a changing magnetic field and induces a current
in the wire

 A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced EMF
 If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the
conductor
o This can be detected by an ammeter

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Worked example

A coil of wire is connected to a sensitive voltmeter. When a magnet is pushed into the coil
the needle on the voltmeter will deflect to the right as shown in the diagram below.

What will happen to the pointer on the

voltmeter when the magnet is stationary in the centre of the coil?

A The needle will deflect to the left

B The needle will deflect to the right

C There will be no deflection of the needle

D The needle will deflect to the left and then to the right
ANSWER: C


o C is correct because there the magnet is stationary
o This means there is no relative movement between the coil and the magnetic
field, therefore there are no magnetic field lines being cut
o If the magnetic field lines are not being cut then there will not be a potential
difference induced


o A, B & D are incorrect because a deflection on the voltmeter would indicate
that a potential difference has been induced
o This could only happen if there was relative movement between the coil and
the magnetic field

Lenz's Law

EXTENDED

 Lenz Law states:

The direction of an induced potential difference always opposes the change that
produces it

 This means that any magnetic field created by the potential difference will act so that
it tries to stop the wire or magnet from moving

Demonstrating Lenz's Law

 If a magnet is pushed north end first into a coil of wire then the end of the coil closest
to the magnet will become a north pole
 Explanation
o Due to the generator effect, a potential difference will be induced in the coil
o The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
o The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pushed into the coil
o Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a north pole
o This means it will repel the north pole of the magnet
 Magnet being pushed into a coil of wire

 If a magnet is now pulled away from the coil of wire then the end of the coil closest to
the magnet will become a south pole
 Explanation:
o Due to the generator effect, a potential difference will be induced in the coil
o The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
o The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pulled away from the
coil
o Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a south pole
o This means it will attract the north pole of the magnet

Magnet being pulled away from a coil of wire

Right-Hand Dynamo Rule

EXTENDED

 When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced EMF can
be worked out by using the Right-Hand Dynamo rule

The Right-Hand Dynamo rule can be used to deduce the direction of the induced EMF
  To use the rule:

First Finger = Field:


o Start by pointing the first finger (on the right hand) in the direction of the field

Thumb = Motion:


o Next, point the thumb in the direction that the wire is moving in

Second = Current:


o The Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or,
strictly speaking, the EMF)

 The direction of the induced EMF always opposes the change that produces it
o This means that any magnetic field created by the EMF will act so that it tries
to stop the wire or magnet from moving

Demonstrating Induction

Demonstrating Induction

 An EMF can be induced either when:

o A conductor, such as a wire, cuts through a magnetic field
o The direction of a magnetic field through a coil changes
 Electromagnetic induction is used in:
o Electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
o Transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
 This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated with a magnet and a coil

Experiment 1: Moving a magnet through a coil

 When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and
out of the coil to induce an EMF

A bar magnet is moved through a coil connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:

 When the bar magnet is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
o When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, there is no cutting
of magnetic field lines, so, there is no EMF induced
 When the bar magnet begins to move inside the coil, there is a reading on the
voltmeter
o As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines ‘cut through’ the coil
o This induces an EMF within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on
the voltmeter
 When the bar magnet is taken back out of the coil, an e.m.f is induced in the opposite
direction (a result of Lenz's law)
o As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes
o The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
 Increasing the speed of the magnet induces an e.m.f with a higher magnitude
 The direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such that it
opposes the change that produces it
o This is Lenz's law

An e.m.f is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil

 Factors that will increase the induced EMF are:

o Moving the magnet faster through the coil
o Adding more turns to the coil
o Increasing the strength of the bar magnet

Experiment 2: Moving a wire through a magnet

  When a long wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets, an
EMF is induced
 The pattern of a magnetic field in a wire can be investigated using this set up
o Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with

A wire is moved between two magnets connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:

 When the wire is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
o When the wire is held still inside, or outside, the magnets, the rate of change
of flux is zero, so, there is no EMF induced
 As the wire is moved through between the magnets, an EMF is induced within the
wire, shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter
o As the wire moves, it ‘cuts through’ the magnetic field lines of the magnet,
generating a change in magnetic flux

 When the wire is taken back out of the magnet, an EMF is induced in the opposite
direction
o As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current changes
o The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
 As before, the direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is
such that it opposes the change that produces it
 Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f are:
o Increasing the length of the wire
o Moving the wire between the magnets faster
o Increasing the strength of the magnets

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Factors Affecting EM Induction

 The magnitude (size) of the induced EMF is determined by:

o The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
o The number of turns on the coils of wire
o The size of the coils
 o The strength of the magnetic field

 The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:

o The orientation of the poles of the magnet

1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:


o Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines
are cut
o This will increase the induced potential difference

2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:


o Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the
potential difference induced
o This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total
potential difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the
magnetic field lines

3. The size of the coils:


o Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential
difference induced
o This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines

4. The strength of the magnetic field:


o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential
difference induced

5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:


o Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved

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Exam Tip

When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:

 Make sure you state:

o “Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
o This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
 Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
 o “A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
o This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger

Simple A.C Generators

EXTENDED

 The generator effect can be used to generate a.c in an alternator

 A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to slip rings

 A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field

 The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on two
metal slip rings
o The slip rings and brushes provide a connection between the coil and the
meter
 When the coil turns in one direction:
o The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
o This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and an EMF,
and therefore current, is induced in the coil
 The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit repeatedly
changes direction as the coil spins
o This is because the induced EMF in the coil repeatedly changes its direction
o This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction
 The induced EMF and the current alternate because they repeatedly change
direction

Exam Tip
Motors and generators look very similar, but they do very different things.

When tackling a question on either of them, make sure you are writing about the right one! A
motor takes in electricity and turns it into motion. A generator takes in motion and
generates electricity.

You might be expected to give explanations of how these two things happen - make sure that
you understand their subtle differences!

Graphs for A.C. Generators

EXTENDED

 The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as
the coil rotates
 The size of the induced EMF depends on the number of field lines it cuts
o The induced EMF is greatest (maximum value) when the coil is horizontal, or
parallel with the field lines, as in this position it cuts through the field at the
fastest rate
o The EMF is smallest (0) when the coil is vertical, or perpendicular with the
field lines as in this position it will not be cutting through field lines

Alternating EMF showing the position of the magnet relative to the coil

 When the magnet is in position 1 the magnetic field lines of the magnet do not cut
the coil
o This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 2 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to
the coil
o This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 3 the magnetic field lines of the magnet do not cut
the coil
o This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
 When the magnet is in position 4 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to
the coil
 o This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
o As the poles of the magnet are reversed compared to position 2 the induced
EMF will also be in the opposite direction compared to position 2
o This means that the graph will show a negative trace

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Exam Tip

Make sure you can remember how the induced EMF relates to the number of field lines cut
by the coil:

 When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines

o When the number of field lines cut is at its maximum
o Induced EMF = 0
 When the plane of the coil is parallel to the field lines
o When the number of field lines cut = 0
o Induced e.m.f is at its maximum

The A.C output from an alternator leads to a current which is both in the positive and
negative region of the graph

Magnetic Effect of a Current

Magnetic Field Around Wires & Solenoids

 When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced

around the wire
o A conducting wire is any wire that has current flowing through it
 The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
 o The compasses would produce a magnetic field lines pattern that would like
look the following

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

 The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles

o A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
 As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
o This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
 The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic
field

The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire

 Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the
direction of the magnetic field
 Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced

 If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
 Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength
of the magnetic field
o This means the field lines will become closer together

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Magnetic Field Around a Solenoid

 When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of
the coil, passing through the centre of it

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

 To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to
form a solenoid
 The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
 Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

 The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform

 One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side
behaves like the south pole
o To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed
from the end
o If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is the south
pole
o If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the
north pole
 If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
 If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic field
produced around or through the solenoid

Poles of a Solenoid

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Magnetic Effects of Changing Current

EXTENDED

 A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core

 The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the
coils
o The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a
much stronger magnet overall

 The magnetic field produced by the electromagnet can be switched on and off
o When the current is flowing there will be a magnetic field produced around
the electromagnet
o When the current is switched off there will be no magnetic field produced
around the electromagnet

An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

 Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic field
produced by the iron core

Factors Affecting Magnetic Field Strength

 The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
o Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
o Increasing the number of coils
o Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils

 The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by:

o Increasing the current will increase the magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
o Decreasing the current will decrease the magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet

Exam Tip

When trying to figure out how an electromagnetic device works:

 Look for a coil / solenoid - this is going to act as an electromagnet

 Look for a piece of iron - this will be attracted to the solenoid
Applications of the Magnetic Effect

 Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including:

o Relay circuits (utilised in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes etc)
o Loudspeakers & headphones

Relay Circuits

 Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits

 Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
 A relay circuit consists of:
o An electrical circuit containing an electromagnet
o A second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the first
circuit

When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2,
closing it enables a current to flow in Circuit 2

 When a current flows through Circuit 1, a magnetic field is induced around the coil
o The magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the
contacts in Circuit 2
o This allows a current to flow in Circuit 2

 When no current flows through Circuit 1, the magnetic force stops

o The electromagnet stops attracting the switch
o The current in Circuit 2 stops flowing

 Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:

o When the electromagnet is switched on it will attract magnetic materials
o When the electromagnet is switched off it will drop the magnetic materials

 Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:

 Animation: Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm
strikes the bell and drops repeatedly to produce the ringing effect

 When the button K is pressed:

o A current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field
o This attracted the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
o The movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
o This stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature
returns to its previous position
o This re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again

Loudspeakers & Headphones

 Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound

o They work due to the motor effect

 A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a

permanent magnet

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

 An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

o This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
  As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will
be constantly changing
 The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the
permanent magnet
 The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
o The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s
left-hand rule

 As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil
will constantly change direction
o This makes the coil oscillate

 The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate

o This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

Investigating the Field Around a Wire

Investigating the Field Around a Wire

 The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids can be
investigated using:
o A thick wire
o A solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
o Cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
o Cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire to fit
through)
o Clamp stand
o Iron filings or a compass

 Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic needle on
the board
 Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings

When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite direction showing
that the direction of the field reverses when the current reverses
Experiment 1: Plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and secure it to
the clamp stand
o Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and
ammeter on either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the needle once
it settles
o Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the field at different
points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process
above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the card
4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a smooth curve –
this will be the magnetic field line
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines

Using iron filings:

1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake the card
until the filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire

Experiment 2: Plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop it
through a hole on the other side of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp stand
o Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard
 2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and
ammeter on either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1

o Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid is
essentially many circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop can be
extended to give the pattern around a solenoid

Using iron filings and a solenoid:

1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through pre-made
holes in a piece of card
2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings settle in the
pattern of the magnetic field around the solenoid

4.4.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

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Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

 A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field

o When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will experience
a force
 A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current through it is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
o A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic
field
o When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which
makes it move
 A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it

 Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper rod) are by
reversing:
o The direction of the current
o The direction of the magnetic field

Exam Tip

This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'the motor effect'. The direction of the force is
determined by Fleming's left-hand rule.

Left Hand Rule

EXTENDED

 The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on the
direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field
 All three will be perpendicular to each other
o This means that sometimes the force could appear to be acting either into or
out of the page
 The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand
rule:
 Fleming's left-hand rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic field
and current

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Worked example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed into the
magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there will be a downwards
force acting on the wire.

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field


o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.

Step 2: Determine the direction of the current


o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points
in the direction of the Current

Step 3: Determine the direction of the force

 
o The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
o Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

Exam Tip

Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and current
is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.

Feel free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just don't make it too distracting for
other students!

Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field

EXTENDED

 When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if

the wire is perpendicular
o This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron
flowing through the wire
 Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can
exert a force on the particle, causing it to deflect
o The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the
magnetic field lines
o The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
 In the case of a electron in a magnetic field the second finger points in the opposite
direction to the direction of motion
o Conventional current is said to flow opposite to the direction of flow of
electrons
o The finger represents current
o An alternative is to use the right hand to work out directions for charged
particles
When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the
field

 If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

o It will experience the maximum force
 If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
o It will experience no force
 If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
o It will experience a small force

Exam Tip

Remember that the direction of current is the direction of positive charged. Therefore, if a
particle has a negative charge (such as an electron), then the second finger (current) must
point in the opposite direction to its direction of travel.

The left-hand rule can be applied to any charged particles, but in the IGCSE exam questions
are likely to stick to electrons.

The DC Motor

 The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
 The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate)
positioned in a uniform magnetic field:
 A simple d.c. electric motor

 This causes the coil to rotate since it experiences a turning effect

 The turning effect is increased by increasing:
o The number of turns on the coil
o The current
o The strength of the magnetic field

Operation of a DC Motor

EXTENDED

 When the current is flowing in the coil at 90o to the direction of the magnetic
field:
o The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
o The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field
produced by the magnets
o This results in a force being exerted on the coil
o The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-
hand rule
o As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the
force produced from the magnetic field will push one side of the
coil up and the other side of the coil down

 This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the
vertical position
o In the vertical position momentum keeps the coil turning until the
magnetic force takes over again

 The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil

o This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing every half
turn
o This keeps the current leaving the motor in the same direction (d.c)
 Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which
the forces are acting
o As a result, the coil will continue to rotate

Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current
  The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil
every half turn
o This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is
flowing

Factors Affecting the D.C Motor

 The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:

o Increasing the current
o Use a stronger magnet
 The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
o Reversing the direction of the current
o Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of
the magnet
 The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
o Increasing the current in the coil
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
o Adding more turns to the coil

Worked example

A d.c motor is set up as shown below.

Deter
mine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.
Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines


o These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the
magnet
Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils


o Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative
terminal

Step 3: Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of the force on
each side of the coil


o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the
(magnetic) Field
o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger
points in the direction of the Current
o The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the
force)
Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation


o The coil will be turning clockwise

Exam Tip

It is important to remember all the steps that causes the rotation of the coil in a d.c.
motor.

Use Fleming's left-hand rule to convince yourself of the direction of the forces on
each side of the coil. These should be in opposite directions because the direction of
the current through them is in opposite directions.
 Transformer

 A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or

decrease the potential difference of an alternating current (voltage
transformations)
o This is achieved using the generator effect

 A basic transformer consists of:

o A primary coil
o A secondary coil
o A soft iron core

 Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Structure of a transformer

Operation of a Transformer

EXTENDED

 An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

 The current is continually changing direction
o This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the
primary coil

 The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes
through it
 As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary
coil
o This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a
potential difference

 As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference induced

will be alternating
o The alternating potential difference will have the same frequency as
the alternating current supplied to the primary coil
 If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating
current to flow
 Step-up & Step-down Transformers

 A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil

o The primary coil is the first coil
o The second coil is the second coil
 A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source
o A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on
the primary coil (Ns > Np)

 A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power

source
o A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than
on the primary coil (Ns < Np)

Transformer Calculations

 The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on:

o The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
o The input potential difference (voltage)

 It can be calculated using the equation:

 This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

 Where
o Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
o Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
o np = number of turns on primary coil
o ns = number of turns on secondary coil

 The equation above can be flipped upside down to give:

 The equations above show that:

o The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary
coils of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns on
each coil
 Worked example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil.
The input potential difference across the primary coil is 500 V.

a) Calculate the output potential difference

b) State what type of transformer this is

Answer

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

 Number of turns in primary coil, = 20

 Number of turns in secondary coil, = 800
 Voltage in primary coil, = 500 V

Step 2: Write the equation linking the output potential difference () to the
known quantities

 There will be less rearranging to do if is on the top of the fraction

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make the subject

Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

Part (b)

The secondary voltage is larger than the primary, therefore this is a step-up
transformer
Exam Tip

When you are using the transformer equation make sure you have used the same
letter (p or s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s)
in the denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.

There will be less rearranging to do in a calculation if the variable which you are
trying to find is on the numerator (top line) of the fraction.
The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer should be
referred to as turns and not coils.
Transformer Efficiency

EXTENDED

 An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient

o Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due
to the law of conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power
output

 If a transformer is 100% efficient:

Input power = Output power

 The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P=V×I

 Where:
o P = power in Watts (W)
o V = potential difference in volts (V)
o I = current in amps (A)

 Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:

Vp × I p = Vs × I s

 Where:
o Vp = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
o Ip = current through primary coil in Amps (A)
o Vs = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)
o Is = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)

 The equation above could also be written as:

Ps = Vp × I p

 Where:
o Ps = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)

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Worked example

A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the

230 V needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.
Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the
mains supply.
Step 1: List the known quantities


o Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V
o Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
o Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A

Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn from
the supply, Ip

Vp × I p = Vs × I s

Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 × Ip = 230 × 5

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find Ip

Step 5: Calculate a value for Ip and include the correct unit

Ip = 10 A

High-Voltage Transmission

 Transformers have a number of roles:

o They are used to increase the potential difference of electricity before it
is transmitted across the national grid
o They are used to lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines
to the lower voltages used in houses
o They are used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages
used by many electronic devices

Advantages of High Voltage Transmission

 When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the

wires heats them, resulting in energy loss
 To transmit the same amount of power as the input power the potential
difference at which the electricity is transmitted should be increased
o This will result in a smaller current being transmitted through the
power lines
o This is because P = IV, so if V increases, I must decrease to transmit
the same power
  A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being
produced in the wire
o This will reduce the energy loss in the power lines

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence

power loss in the cables

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Calculating Power Losses

EXTENDED

 When a current passes through a wire, the current creates a heating effect
which means the wires warm up
 This means they lose electrical energy as heat which reduced
the efficiency of the transformer
o This is due to electrical resistance which is present in all wires
 The power (energy per second) lost in the wire is given by the following
equation

P = I2R

 Where:
o P = power in watts (W)
o I = current in amps (A)
o R = resistance in ohms (Ω)

 Since the power is the energy lost per second, the total energy lost in a
time t will be:

E=P×t

 Where:
o E = energy in joules (J)
o t = time in seconds (s)
 A step-up transformer may be used to increase the voltage of a power supply
from the power station to the transmission wires
 The number of turns and voltage for the transformer is related by the following
equation:

 Where:
o Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
o Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
o np = number of turns on the primary coil
o ns = number of turns on the secondary coil

 A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil, Ns, than on the
primary coil, Np
 Since a transformer cannot output more power than is put into
it, increasing the voltage must result in the current being lowered

IpVp = IsVs

 Where:
o Ip = current in the primary coil in amps (A)
o Is = current in the secondary coil in amps (A)

 Lower current results in less power and energy loss in the cables
o This makes the transfer of electrical energy through the wires
more efficient