Basic Electrical Technology

LECTURE **
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 1

What is an Electric Circuit?
Definition:
“An interconnection of simple electrical devices with at least one closed path in which current may flow”
• Consists of a source of electrical energy; elements that either transform, dissipate, or store this energy;
connecting wires.
• To prevent power overload, circuits often include fuse or circuit breaker.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 2

Circuit Elements
• Active Elements: Voltage & Current Sources
Active & Passive • Passive Elements: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

• Linear: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

Linear & Non-linear Elements • Nonlinear: Diode, LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Thermistor, transistor

• Unilateral: Diode, Transistor

Unilateral & Bilateral Elements • Bilateral (same property in both the directions): Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor

Lumped & Distributed • Lumped elements are simplified version of distributed elements

Our study is limited to lumped linear bilateral circuit elements

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 3

 Active Elements - Sources
Voltage Source VL
Ideal Voltage Source (DC) VL = VS
▪ Ideal Vs

o Maintains constant voltage irrespective of

+-
connected load
Vs
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 = 𝟎
IL
▪ Practical
o Terminal voltage changes based on the
Practical Voltage Source VL
connected load
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 ≠ 𝟎 Vs Rs
+- VL = VS – IL RS

IL

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 4

 Active Elements - Sources
Current Source
Ideal Current Source (DC) IL
IL = IS
▪ Ideal
o Maintains constant current irrespective of the load
connected
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 = ∞ Is
VL
▪ Practical
o Output current changes based on the connected
Practical Current Source IL
load
o Internal resistance, 𝐑 𝐬 < ∞
Is Rs IL = IS – VL /RS

VL

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 5

Source Transformation (A Network Reduction Technique)

Practical Voltage Source can be converted to Practical Current Source

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 6

Source Transformation

Practical Voltage Source Practical Current Source

+a
R +a
+ RL Is R RL
Vs -
-b 𝐕𝐬 -b
𝐈𝐬 =
𝐑

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 7

Source Transformation

Practical Voltage Source Practical Current Source

+a +a
R
+ RL Is R RL
Vs -
-b -b
𝐕𝐬 = 𝐑 × 𝐈𝐬

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 8

Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3

Find current in 6 KΩ resistor by converting current source to a voltage source.

Ans: 5 mA

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 9

Illustration 2 CO1, BTL3

The value of voltage ‘V’ is:

Ans: - 6.6 Volts

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Illustration 3 CO1, BTL3

Reduce the following circuit to a current source in parallel with a resistor across the
terminals A & B.

Ans. 1.33 A (from B to A) in parallel with 1.2 Ω

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 Illustration 4 CO1, BTL3

Determine current i1 through 5 Ω resistor by source transformation.

Ans: 1.143 A

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Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3

Find V0 using source transformation.

Ans: 20 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 13

Homework 1 CO1, BTL3

Solve using source transformation.

(Final reduction should be into a single voltage source in series with a resistance)

Ans: 1.143 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 14

Basic Electrical Technology
L EC T UR E **
• AC T I V E & PA SSI VE E L E M ENTS

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 15

Resistor
Energy Consuming Element

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 16

 Resistor
▪ Passive electric device that dissipates energy
▪ Resistance: Property that opposes the flow of current
o Symbol: R
o Unit: Ohms (Ω)
o Power Consumed = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
▪ Conductance
o Reciprocal of resistance
o Symbol: G
o Unit – Siemens (S)
▪ Resistivity or Specific Resistance
𝝆𝒍
o R= 𝝆 = resistivity l = length A = cross sectional area Unit: Ohm-meter
𝑨
o The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material
o It is temperature dependent
o The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity, denoted by σ

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Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Metallic conductors If temperature is increased resistance Positive temperature
(Example: Cu, Al) increases coefficient of resistance

Electrolytes, insulators (Example: glass, Resistance decreases with the increase Negative temperature
mica, rubber), and semiconductors in temperature coefficient of resistance

• At temperature T1, resistance is R1

• Temperature is increased from T1 to T2, resistance becomes R2
𝑅2 −𝑅1
• Then, α =
𝑅1 𝑇2 −𝑇1
• The constant α is known as temperature coefficient of resistance
• Unit: 1 / oC
• Defined as increase in resistance per unit original resistance per unit rise in temperature
• Resistivity of metallic conductors also increases with the rise in temperature and vice-versa

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 18

Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Typical Values of Electrical Resistivity (In Ohm-Meters)
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance / 0C (at 200 C)
at 20oC
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8 Aluminium 0.00429
Copper 1.7 x 10-8 Copper 0.00386
Gold 2.4 x 10-8 Gold 0.0034
Carbon (Graphite) 1 x 10-5 Carbon (Graphite) – 0 .0005
Iron 1.0 x 10-7 Iron 0.00651
Nickel 7 x 10-8 Nickel 0.00641
Silicon 6.4 x 102 Silicon – 0.07
Quartz 7 x 1017 Quartz

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 19

Resistor Value Determination
Ohm value and tolerance based on resistor color codes

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 20

Resistors
Series connection of Resistors Parallel connection of Resistors
I1
R 1
R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3 I2
R 2
I
I
V I3
R 3

I I

V
• Current (I) in the all the resistors remains same
• Voltage (V) is same
• V = V1 + V2 + V3
• I = I1 + I2 + I3
• R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3
1 1 1 1
• = + +
Req R1 R2 R3

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 21

Resistors – Voltage and Current Division

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Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3

Find voltage V1 and V2 as marked in the given circuit using voltage division rule.

Ans: 8.333 V and 1.667 V

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Illustration 2 CO1, BTL3

Find voltage V5 as marked in the given circuit using voltage division rule.

Ans: 1.667 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 24

Illustration 3 CO1, BTL3

Find current Ix as marked in the given circuit using current division rule.

Ans: 4 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 25

Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3

Use voltage division to find vx in the circuit

Ans: 2 V

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Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3

Use current division to find ix in the circuit

Ans: 2 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 27

 Source: Delivering or absorbing power?
▪ A battery is discharging (delivering power/energy) if,
o Current coming out from positive (+) terminal

▪ A battery is charging (absorbing power/energy) if,

o Current flowing into positive (+) terminal
▪ When current flows through a resistor,
o Power is dissipated

10 V battery is discharging
5 V battery is charging

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 28

Homework 1 CO1, BTL3

Find the equivalent resistance of the networks across terminals A & B.

Ans: 2.5 Ω
Ans: 2 Ω

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 29

Basic Electrical Technology
LECTURE **
DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS – PASSIVE ELEMENTS: L AND C

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 30

Inductor
Energy Storage Element

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 31

Inductor
• Passive electric device that stores energy in its magnetic field when current flows through it.
Inductance (also known as Self-Inductance, Unit: Henry or H)
- The property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
- This property is due to the self-induced emf in the coil itself by the changing current.
- Self-inductance does not prevent the current from changing, it serves only to delay the change.
dϕ dϕ di di
e= −N = −N ∙ = −L
dt di dt dt
dϕ
L=N
di
- The greater the self-induced emf, the greater the self-inductance of the coil and hence larger is the opposition to
the changing current.
- Inductance of the coil depends upon: Shape and number of turns, relative permeability (μr ) of the material
surrounding the coil, and the speed at which the magnetic field changes
𝐝𝐢 𝐍𝟐 𝐍 𝟐 𝛍𝟎 𝛍𝐫 𝐀
(i) 𝐞 = 𝐋 (ii) N ϕ = L I (iii) L = =
𝐝𝐭 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐥

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 32

Inductor
Types of Inductors
Air-core inductor (fixed inductor) - Linear B-H curve, so L is the same no matter what current is in the
coil.
- Since 𝛍𝐫 of air is 1, the values of L obtained are very low
Iron-core inductor (variable inductor) - Ferromagnetic core
- Provides much higher value of L (as 𝛍𝐫 of ferromagnetic material is very
large)
- B-H curve is not linear, so inductance will vary with current.
Practical Inductor - All inductors are coil that have some winding resistance.

Practical Inductor

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 33

Inductor

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 34

 Energy Stored in an Inductor
▪ Instantaneous power,
𝐝𝐢
𝐩 = 𝐯𝐋 . 𝐢 = 𝐋 𝐢
𝐝𝐭

▪ Energy absorbed in ‘𝐝𝐭’ time is

𝐝𝐰 = 𝐋 𝐢 𝐝𝐢

▪ Energy absorbed by the magnetic field when current increases from 𝟎 to 𝐈 amperes, is
𝐈 𝟏
𝐖 = ‫𝟐 𝐈 𝐋 = 𝐢𝐝 𝐢 𝐋 𝟎׬‬
𝟐

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 35

Inductance and Saturation Current

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 36

Equivalent Inductance
Inductors in series
L
1 L
2 L
3

𝐋𝐞𝐪 = 𝐋𝟏 + 𝐋𝟐 + … … + 𝐋𝐧

L1

Inductors in Parallel L2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 L3
= + + …….+
𝐋𝐞𝐪 𝐋𝟏 𝐋𝟐 𝐋𝐧

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 37

Capacitor
Energy Storing Element

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 38

 Capacitors
▪ Passive electric device that stores energy in the electric field between a
pair of closely spaced conductors

▪ Capacitance: Property which opposes the rate of change of voltage

o Symbol: C
o Unit: Farad (F)

▪ The capacitive current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage across

it
𝐝𝐯𝐜
𝐢𝐜 = 𝐂
𝐝𝐭

▪ Charge stored in a capacitor whose plates are maintained at constant voltage:

𝐐 = 𝐂𝐕

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 39

 Terminologies
▪ Electric field strength,
𝐕
𝐄 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬/𝐦
𝐝

▪ Electric flux density,

𝐐
𝐃= 𝐂/𝐦𝟐
𝐀

▪ Permittivity of free space,

𝛆𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐅/𝐦
▪ Relative permittivity, 𝛆𝐫
▪ Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝐫 𝐀
𝐂=
𝐝

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 40

Equivalent Capacitance
Capacitors in Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ……+
𝐂𝐞𝐪 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝐧

Capacitors in Parallel
𝐂𝐞𝐪 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 + … . . + 𝐂𝐧

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 41

 Energy stored in a Capacitor
▪ Instantaneous power
𝐝𝐯𝐜
𝐩 = 𝐯𝐜 × 𝐢 = 𝐂 𝐯𝐜
𝐝𝐭

▪ Energy supplied during ‘𝐝𝐭’ time is:

𝐝𝐰 = 𝐂 𝐯𝐜 𝐝𝐯𝐜

▪ Energy stored in the electric field when potential rises from 𝟎 to 𝐕 volts is,
𝐕 𝟏
𝐖 = ‫𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐮𝐨𝐉 𝟐 𝐕𝐂 = 𝐜𝐯𝐝 𝐜𝐯 𝐂 𝟎׬‬
𝟐

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 42

Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Electrolytic Capacitor
- Used when large capacitor values are required
- Used generally in the DC power supply circuit
- Typical values ranges from 1 μF up to 47,000 μF

Mica Capacitor
- Mica is the dielectric material
- A stable, reliable, low loss capacitor of small value
- Used in high-frequency applications
- Typical values: under 100 nF

Paper Capacitor
- Typical values: Ranges from 0.001 to 2 μF
- Used in electronic noise filtering, signal processing applications, etc.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 43

Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Film Capacitor
- Thin plastic is used as dielectric material
- It is heat resistant and used in aerospace and military technology
- Typical values: ranging from 1 nF to 30 µF

Ceramic Capacitor
- Ceramic is used as dielectric material
- Applications: Power circuit breakers, induction furnaces,
also printed circuit boards in electronics
- Typical values: ranging from 1 nF to 1 µF

Non-Polarized Capacitor
- It can be of two types: plastic foil or electrolytic.
- Used in AC applications with signal or power supply
- Typical values ranges from 1 μF up to 47,000 μF

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 44

Types of Capacitors and their Applications
Ultracapacitor (Also known as Supercapacitor or Electrochemical Capacitor)
- Store energy electrostatically
- Much higher energy storage density (high-capacity capacitor) than a normal capacitor
- Can release energy much quicker than the battery and can be used many times over without degradation
- Possess high energy density, short charging cycle, and a wide range of operating temperatures
- Applications: Ranges from large-scale energy storage to small portable/wearable watches
- Has the potential to replace or augment battery and fuel cell systems in many areas of technology
- Rated in Farads - typically be found in the 100 F to 500 F range (individual cells)

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 45

Capacitor Vs Supercapacitor Vs Battery

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 46

Exercise 1 CO1, BTL3

The following voltage is applied to a capacitor of 50 μF. Determine the current for 0 – 1 ms duration.

A) -5A

B) 5 mA
C) 5A
D) 1A

dVc
Hint: ic = C
dt
Ans: 5 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 47

Exercise 2 CO1, BTL3

A 100 mH inductor is supplied with a voltage of 𝐯 𝐭 = 𝟐𝟓 𝐞−𝟓𝐭 𝐕. Determine the inductor current.

1 t
Hint: iL = ‫׬‬0 v dt
L

Ans: - 50 e –5t A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 48

Star - Delta and Delta - Star Transformation
Y − Δ and Δ − Y
A N E TWORK R E DU C TI ON T ECHN IQU E
LEC T UR E **

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 49

Star (Υ) & Delta (Δ) Connections
A
A

Ra

Rca Rab
Rc Rb Rbc
C B

C B
Star (Υ) Connection Delta (Δ) Connection

Link for the formula derivation:

https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/108105053/pdf/L-06(GDR)(ET)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 50

 Delta (Δ) – Star (Υ) Transformation
A Δ to Υ Transformation A

Rca Rab Ra

Rc Rb

B
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 B
C 𝐑𝐚 = = C
Rbc 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆

𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐚𝐛
𝐑𝐛 = =
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆

𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 𝐑 𝐛𝐜
𝐑𝐜 = =
𝐑 𝐚𝐛 + 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐜𝐚 σ 𝐑∆

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 51

 Star (Υ) - Delta (Δ) Transformation
Υ to Δ Transformation A
A

Rca Rab
Ra

Rc Rb
C B
B 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚 Rbc
C 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 = 𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐛 + =
𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐜

𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚

𝐑 𝐛𝐜 = 𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐜 + =
𝐑𝐚 𝐑𝐚

𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐜 𝐑𝐚𝐑𝐛 + 𝐑𝐛𝐑𝐜 + 𝐑𝐜𝐑𝐚

𝐑 𝐜𝐚 = 𝐑 𝐜 + 𝐑 𝐚 + =
𝐑𝐛 𝐑𝐛

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 52

 Balanced Star (Υ) –Delta (Δ)
A A

Ra Rca Rab

Rc Rb
C B
C B
Rbc

Balanced Υ Balanced Δ

𝐑𝐘 = 𝐑𝐚 = 𝐑𝐛 = 𝐑𝐜 𝐑 ∆ = 𝐑 𝐚𝐛 = 𝐑 𝐛𝐜 = 𝐑 𝐜𝐚

Converting Δ network into Υ and vice-versa often

𝐑∆ = 3 𝐑𝐘 simplifies the network and makes it possible to
apply series-parallel circuit techniques

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 53

Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3

Determine P10 Ω Starting Step:

Approach 1: E as Y point and Y to ∆ of RB, RC, RD

Self-Practice Approaches:
Approach 2: ∆ to Y of B-E-C setup
Approach 3: ∆ to Y of D-E-C setup
Approach 4: B as Y point and Y to ∆ of R A, RE, RC
Approach 5: D as Y point and Y to ∆ of R A, RE, RC

Ans: P5Ω = 2.71845 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 54

Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL3

Determine the source voltage Vs that delivers the 2 A in the circuit as shown

Ans: VS = 6.2 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 55

Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3

Determine equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B.

Ans: 2.21 Ω

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Self-Practice 3 CO1, BTL3

Determine equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B.

Ans: 10 Ω

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Mesh Current Analysis
A NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
LECTURE **

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 58

Introduction
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
o In any closed circuit or mesh, the
Algebraic sum of electromotive forces (emf) + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

Loop
o Any closed path of electrical network
o Inside loops: a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b & a-b-c-a
o Outside loops: a-c-g-a & a-b-c-g-a

Mesh
o A loop which do not contain any other loop inside it.
Same as inside loops above.
o a-b-g-a, b-c-g-b & a-b-c-a

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 59

Mesh Current Analysis Method
Also known as Maxwell’s Mesh Current Method

Steps
o Transform all the current sources present in the circuit to voltage sources

o Mark different currents in all the independent meshes of the given network

o Write KVL equations for these independent meshes

o Solve for the currents

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 60

Mesh Current Analysis – Matrix Equivalent
(R 2 + R 4 ) − (R 4 ) −(R 2 ) I1 (V1 − V3 )
−(R 4 ) (R 3 + R 4 ) −(R 3 ) I2 = −V2
−(R 2 ) −(R 3 ) (R 1 + R 2 + R 3 ) I3 V3

Resistance matrix ∙ The vector of mesh currents

=
(The vector of the sum of source voltages around each mesh)

▪ Matrices can be formed by inspection and can be solved by Cramer's rule

▪ All self-resistances will always be positive and all mutual-resistances will always be negative
▪ No circuit branch can carry more than two currents
▪ Resistance matrix is symmetric
▪ Convert all practical current sources to equivalent voltage sources

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 61

Illustration 1 CO1, BTL3

a) Write matrix form of network equation and solve for currents by Cramer’s rule.
b) Find the power dissipated in the 10 Ω resistor.
c) Self Practice: Write KVL equations for independent meshes and solve for currents to find P10 Ω

Case 1: No requirement of source conversion

Ans: 1000 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 62

Illustration 2
Determine the power consumed by the 2 Ω resistor using mesh current analysis.
Case 2: Source conversion is required and can be done

Ans: 0.3283 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 63

Illustration 3 CO1, BTL4

Determine VXY and P6A

Case 3 A: When current source is present in the perimeter of any individual mesh

Ans: VXY = 1 V, P6A = 138 W (Supplied)

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 64

Illustration 4 (Supermesh) CO1, BTL4

Determine the power supplied by the 7 V and 7 A current source.

Case 3 B: When current source is present in the middle of any individual mesh

Ans: P7V = 63 W (supplied), P7A = 94.5 W (supplied)

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 65

Illustration 5 CO1, BTL3

Realize the network defined by mesh current equation

Case 4: Network realization from matrix form of equations.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 66

Self-Practice 1 CO1, BTL4

Find the power supplied by the 5 A current source. Also, determine the voltage between
the points M & N.

30  4V
N

20  40 
M

50 
1V 5A

2V

10 
Ans: P5 A = 556.5 W and VMN = 55.8 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 67

Self-Practice 2 CO1, BTL3

P3Ω ?

Ans: 4.889 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 68

Self-Practice 3 CO1, BTL3

Realize the network defined by mesh current equation

𝟕 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝒊𝟏 𝟏𝟎
−𝟏 𝟔 −𝟐 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟓
−𝟏 −𝟐 𝟒 𝒊𝟑 𝟎

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 69

Node Voltage Analysis
A NETWORK ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
LECTURE: **

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 70

Introduction
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
o At any node (or junction) in a circuit, the algebraic
sum of currents entering and leaving the node at
any instant of time must be equal to zero
o At any junction or node
Incoming currents = Outgoing current

Node
o A point in an electric circuit where 2 or more
elements are connected
Branch
o A conducting path/connection between two
adjoining nodes/junction points in a circuit
containing circuit elements.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 71

Node Voltage Analysis Method
o Also known as Nodal Analysis or Node to Datum Analysis
o Convert all the practical voltage sources to current sources
o Identify nodes in the circuit
o One of the nodes is taken as the reference (datum) node
o Assign a voltage to each of the remaining nodes
o Write KCL equations for all the nodes (excluding the
reference node)
o Solve for voltages

o Advantage: Minimum number of equations need to be

written to determine the unknown quantities.

o Particularly suitable for networks having many parallel

circuits with common ground connected such as electronic
circuits.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 72

Illustration 1: Nodal Analysis - Matrix Equivalent
V1 V −V V −V 11 1 1
KCL at Node 1: + 1 2+ 1 3 − 28 = 0 or V1 − V2 − V3 = 28 𝟏
2 2 10 10 2 10
KCL at Node 2:
V2 V −V
+ 2 1+ 2 3
V −V
=0 or −
1
V1 +
17
V2 −
1
V3 = 0 𝐆=
5 2 1 2 10 1 𝐑
V3 −V1 V −V V 1 1 27
KCL at Node 3: + 3 2+ 3 +2=0 or − V1 − V2 + V3 = −2
10 1 4 10 1 20
11 1 1
− − Case 1: No
10 2 10 𝑉1 28
1 17 1
𝑉2 = requirement
− − 0
2 10 1 𝑉3 −2 of source
1 1 27
− − conversion
10 1 20
1 1 1 1 1
+ + − −
2 2 10 2 10
1 1 1 1 1 𝑉1 28
− + + − 𝑉2 = 0
2 2 1 5 1 𝑉3 −2 V1 = 36 V
1 1 1 1 1 V2 = 20 V
− − + +
10 1 4 1 10 V2 = 16 V
ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 73
Nodal Analysis - Matrix Equivalent
G11 G12 G13 V1 I1
G21 G22 G23 V2 = I2
G31 G32 G33 V3 I3

(Conductance or Admittance matrix) * (Vector of node voltages)

= (Vector of source currents entering each node)

• Conductance matrix is symmetric

• Convert all practical voltage sources to equivalent current sources

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 74

Illustration 2
Using nodal analysis find P10 Ω
Case 2: Source conversion is required and can be done

Ans: 1000 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 75

Illustration 3 (Supernode)
Find nodal voltages V1 and V2
Case 3: When source conversion is not possible.
SUPERNODE: It is the presence of a voltage source between two nodes

Ans: V1 = 2/3 V and V2 = - 1/3 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 76

Illustration 4
Determine the power supplied by the two sources using node voltage method.

Ans:
V1 = 10 V, V2 = 9.2 V, V3 = 4.2 V
P10 V = 18.5 W (supplied), P5 V = 3.75 W (supplied)

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 77

Illustration 5
Realize the network defined by node voltage equation

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 78

Self-Practice 1
Using nodal analysis find ix and iy

Ans:
ix= 1.304 A, iy = - 2.478 A
Node voltages: 1.304 V and 3.478 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 79

Self-Practice 2
Determine the power consumed by 5 Ω resistor by node voltage analysis. All resistances
are in Ohms.

Ans: P 5 Ω = 2.8125 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 80

Network Theorems
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
LEC T UR E * *

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 81

Terminologies Used
➢ Linear element: V-I characteristics are linear. Example: R, L, and C

➢ Non-linear element: V-I characteristics are non-linear. Example: Diode

➢ Bi-lateral element: Property does not change with the direction of operation. Example: R, L, and C

➢ Unilateral element: Property changes with the direction of operation. Example: Diode

➢ Linear Circuit: Circuit with linear elements only.

➢ Bi-lateral circuit: Circuit with bi-lateral elements only.

➢ Response: The output of the network. Example: Currents and voltages at various points in a circuit

➢ Excitation: The independent sources in the circuit. Example: Current and voltage sources

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 82

Superposition Theorem
• In any linear, bi-lateral network, the total response is the sum of partial responses.

• In any linear, bilateral, resistive network, with more than one generator (current sources and
voltage sources), the current through or voltage across any element of the circuit is the algebraic
sum of individual currents or voltages caused by the separate independent sources acting alone,
with all other independent sources being replaced by their internal resistances (ideal voltage
sources being replaced by a short circuit and ideal current sources being replaced by open
circuit).

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 83

 Procedure to Apply Superposition Theorem
1. Draw the circuit with passive elements only.

2. Place one of the sources in its position.

3. Replace the other sources with their internal resistances.

a. Ideal voltage source by a short circuit

b. Ideal current source by an open circuit

4. Find the response using one of the methods, i.e., network reduction, mesh current, node voltage
methods, star-delta, etc.

5. Repeat the procedure for all the sources.

6. Add the responses due to individual sources.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 84

Illustration 1
Apply the Superposition theorem to calculate the amount of current through the load resistor.

Self-Practice: Verify the result using 1) Mesh analysis, and 2) Nodal analysis

Ans: 6.623 mA

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 85

Illustration 2
In the circuit, find IR3 using the Superposition method.
Self-Practice: Verify the result using Nodal analysis

Ans:
Due to source VS: 2 mA
Due to source IS1: 11 mA
Due to source IS2: - 4 mA
Total: 9 mA

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 86

Illustration 3
Find VL in the circuit using the Superposition principle.

Answer:
Due to source 2 V: 1 V
Due to source 5 A: - 1.25 V
Due to source 5.33 A: 1.3325 V
Total: 1.0825 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 87

Limitations of superposition Theorem
• Doesn’t work for power computation which involves
o product of voltage and current,
o the square of current or
o the square of the voltage
which are non-linear mathematical operations

• The superposition principle can be used to find the power dissipated in a resistor provided
computation of power is performed after finding the actual current through or voltage across the
resistor. It is not permissible to find the power by adding all the power dissipation computed when
each source is acting along.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 88

Self-Practice 1
Use Superposition theorem to calculate V3Ω

Ans: 18 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 89

Self-Practice 2
Applying Superposition principle, find VR2

Answer:
Due to source VS1: 50 V
Due to source VS2: 5 V
Due to source IS: 18 V
Total: 73 V

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 90

Self-Practice 3
Solve Illustration 2 of node voltage analysis (Illustration 1 of mesh current analysis) using
Superposition principle.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 91

Network Theorems
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
LEC T UR E * *

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 92

Why Thevenin's Theorem
• In many applications, a network may contain a variable
component or element while other elements in the circuit
are kept constant.
• If the solution for current or voltage or power in any
component of the network is desired, in such cases the
whole circuit need to be analyzed each time with the change
in component value.
• In order to avoid such repeated computation, it is desirable
to introduce a method that will not have to be repeated for
each value of the variable component.
• For the circuit shown,
• Mesh current method needs 3 equations to be solved
• Node voltage method requires 2 equations to be solved

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 93

Definition of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Any circuit consisting of linear, bilateral resistances and
sources (current sources and voltage sources) can be
replaced by a single voltage source (called Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage, V Th) in series with one resistance (called
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTh) across the terminals
of interest.

• Thevenin’s equivalent voltage, V Th, is the open-circuit voltage

across the terminals of interest.
• Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTh, is the net resistance
across the terminals of interest with all sources being replaced
by their internal resistances (ideal voltage sources should be
short-circuited and ideal current sources should be open-
circuited).

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 94

Procedure of Thevenin’s Theorem
Suppose: Find IL through RL
Step 1: Disconnect load resistance, RL
o Remove the load
o Keep the terminals open-circuited as shown below.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 95

Procedure of Thevenin’s Theorem
Step 2: Find Thevenin’s voltage, V Th
• Apply mesh current or node voltage or any network
reduction technique
• Find the voltage across the open-circuited terminals.

Step 3: Find Thevenin’s resistance, RTh

• Keep the load terminals open.
• Replace all the sources with their internal resistances.
• Ideal voltage sources should be short-circuited (just replace them with plain wire)
• Ideal current sources should be open-circuited (just remove them)
• Find the equivalent resistance across open-circuited load terminals.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 96

Illustration 1
Using Thevenin’s theorem find the power dissipated in 10 Ω resistor.

Ans: V TH = 141.797 V, RTh = 4.179 Ω, P10Ω = 1000 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 97

Illustration 2
Determine current I0 using Thevenin’s theorem.

Ans: V TH = - 30.8022 V, RTh = 6.6 Ω , I0 = - 2.44 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 98

Illustration 3
Determine the current IL through the resistor RL = 6 Ω using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Ans: VTH = 21 V, RTh = 4 Ω , IL = 2.1 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 99

Self-Practice 1
Determine the current through the resistor RL = R2 = 1 Ω using Thevenin’s theorem.

Ans: V TH = 1 V, RTh = 1.555 Ω , IL = 0.39 A

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 100

Network Theorems
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
LEC T UR E: * *

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 101

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• In any linear, bilateral dc circuit, maximum power will be transferred from a source to load
when the load resistance is made equal to the internal resistance of the supply (source) as
viewed from the load terminals with load removed and all emf sources replaced by their
internal resistances.
OR
• The maximum power is obtained from a linear circuit at a given pair of terminals when
terminals are loaded by the Thevenin’s resistance (RTh) of the circuit.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 102

Proof
Consider the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a network
VTh
IL =
RTh +RL
2
VTh
PL = RL
RTh +RL

• For a given source generated voltage V Th and RTh are constant

• Therefore, power delivered to load RL depends upon RL
dP
RTh
For PL to be maximum, L =0 A
dRL
which yields, 𝐑 𝐋 = 𝐑 𝐓𝐡 IL
Load resistance = Internal resistance of source VTh RL
Maximum Power,
2
VTh V2Th B
PL−max = R Th =
RTh +RTh 4RTh

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 103

Illustration 1
Obtain maximum amount of power transfer in R from the source.

Ans: VTh = 14.706 V, RTh = 1.765 Ω, PMax = 30.637 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 104

Illustration 2
Determine the maximum power transfer to R in the circuit shown.

Ans: V Th = – 45 V, RTh = 7.667 Ω, PMax = 66.03 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 105

Illustration 3
What percent of maximum power (possible maximum power) is delivered to RL in the figure when
RL = 2RTh?

Ans: 88.89 % of Pmax

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 106

Note
• This theorem states how to choose (so as to maximize power transfer) the load
resistance, once the source resistance is given, not the opposite.
• It does not say how to choose the source resistance, once the load resistance is given.
• Given a certain load resistance, the source resistance that maximizes the power transfer
is always zero, regardless of the value of the load resistance.
• Applications: Electronics and communication networks – the goal is either to receive or
transmit maximum power (though at reduced efficiency). Here, the power involved is only
a few milliwatts or microwatts.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 107

Self-Practice 1
The variable resistor R in the figure below is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum power from
the circuit.
(a) Calculate the value of R for maximum power.
(b) Determine the maximum power absorbed by R.

Ans:
R = 25 Ω
V2Th 282
Pmax = = = 7.84 W
4RL 4×25

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 108

Self-Practice 2
Determine the value of load resistance to be connected across terminals A & B such that
maximum power is transferred to the load. Also find the maximum power.

Ans: RL= 4 Ω, V Th= 3.333 V, PMax= 0.6943 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 109

Self-Practice 3
Find the maximum power in RL which is variable in the circuit.

Ans: V Th = 8 V, RL= RTh= 49 Ω, PMax = 0.3265 W

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 110

Basic Electrical Technology
DC TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 111

DC Transient Analysis
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF R –L CI RCUIT
LEC T UR E * *

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 112

Closing and Breaking an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown.
• When the switch is closed, the current increases gradually and takes some time
to reach the final value.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is increasing at the rate of di/dt
• Then,
𝐝𝐢
𝐕 = 𝐯𝐑 + 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐢
• After some time di/dt becomes zero and so does the self-induced emf 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐋 𝐝𝐭
• At this stage, the current attains the final fixed value (maximum) I given by:
𝐕
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑 + 𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐈 =
𝐑
• Thus, when a dc circuit containing inductance is switched on, the current takes some time to reach the final value,
𝐕
𝐈=
𝐑
• Similarly, when an inductive circuit is opened, the current does not jump to zero but falls gradually.
• In either case, the delay in change depends upon the values of L and R.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 113

Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown.
𝐕
• When the switch is closed, the current rises from zero to final value, 𝐈 = 𝐑 in
small time t.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is increasing at the rate of di/dt
• Then,
di
V = vR + vL = iR + L
dt
di di dt
V − iR = L or =
dt V − iR L
−R R
di = − dt
V − iR L
Integrating both sides, we get,
R
log e V − iR = − t + K
L
To find K, we have i = 0 at t = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 114

Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
R
Therefore, log e V − iR = − L t + log e V

V − iR R V − iR −Rt
log e = − t or = e ൗL
V L V
𝐕 −𝐑𝐭 −𝐑𝐭ൗ
𝐢= 𝟏 − 𝐞 ൗ𝐋 𝐨𝐫 𝐢 = 𝐈 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐋
𝐑
−𝐑𝐭ൗ
Voltage across the inductance: 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐕 𝐞 𝐋

Thus, the rise of current follows an exponential law.

V
• Theoretically, the current will reach its final value I = R in an infinite time. However,
practically it reaches this value in a short time.
• Initial rate of rise of current is:
di
(the instant the switch is closed, i = 0 and hence V = L dt)
𝐝𝐢 𝐕
= A/s
𝐝𝐭 𝐋

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 115

Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit

𝐋
Time Constant (𝛕) = seconds
𝐑
𝐋
- The quantity 𝐑 is called the time constant of the circuit and affects the rise of current in the circuit.
- It has the dimensions of time so that the exponent of e (i.e., −RtΤL ) is a number.
L −𝐑𝐭ൗ
- If time interval, t = τ or , then, 𝐢 = 𝐈 𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝐈
R
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the current to reach 0.632 (or 63.2%) of its final
steady state value.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 116

Growth (Rise) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Time constant can also be defined as the time taken by the current through the inductor to reach its
final steady-state value, had the initial rate of rise been maintained constant.
𝐋
𝛕=
𝐑

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 117

 Decay (Fall) of Current in an Inductive Circuit
• Consider an inductive circuit shown. When the switch is thrown to Position a, the
𝐕
current in the circuit starts rising and attains the final value 𝐈 = 𝐑 in small time t
as discussed previously.
• If now switch is thrown to Position b, the current in R-L circuit does not cease
immediately but gradually reduces to zero.
• Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is decreasing at the rate of di/dt, then,
𝐝𝐢
𝟎 = 𝐯𝐑 + 𝐯𝐋 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋
𝐝𝐭
𝑑𝑖 R
or = − t
𝑖 L
Integrating both sides, we get,
R
log e i = − t + K
L
𝐕
To find K, we have 𝐢 = 𝐈 (= 𝐑) at t = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐈
−R
Therefore, log e i = t + log e I
L
−𝐑𝐭ൗ −𝐑𝐭ൗ
𝐢=𝐈 𝐞 𝐋 Also, 𝐯𝐋 = −𝐕 𝐞 𝐋

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 118

Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit
𝐋
Time Constant (𝛕) = seconds
𝐑
𝐕
Time taken by the current to fall to 0.37 (or 37%) of its final steady value 𝐈 = 𝐑 while decaying.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 119

Illustration 1
In the given network, initially the switch S was at position 1 and then shifted to position 2 at t = 15 ms.
a) Determine the inductor current i (t) and the voltage across inductor vL (t) at t = 12 ms and t = 20 ms
b) Determine the time taken by inductor current to reach the value 2.5 A
c) Sketch the inductor current i (t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 25 ms Ans: (a) 12 ms: i (t) = 4.3233 A, VL(t) = 27.067 V
15 ms: i (t) = 4.5896 A, VL(t) = 16.417 V
20 ms: i (t) = 3.02563 A, VL(t) = - 10.82275 V
25 ms: i (t) = 1.9946 A
(b) t = 4.1588 ms (Rise)

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 120

Illustration 2
An R-L series circuit is designed for a steady current of 250 mA. A current of 120 mA flows in the circuit at
an instant 0.1 s after connecting the supply voltage. Calculate i) the time constant of the circuit ii) the time
from closing the circuit at which the circuit current has reached 200 mA.

Ans: i) Time constant = 0.1529 s ii) t= 0.2461 s

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 121

Illustration 3
For the initially relaxed circuit shown, the switch is closed on to position S1 at time t = 0 and changed to
position S2 at time t = 0.5 ms. Obtain the equation for inductor current and sketch the transients for both
intervals.

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 122

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 123
DC Transient Analysis
TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF R –C CI RCUIT
LEC T UR E * *

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 124

Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
• When the switch is closed, the capacitor starts charging up and a charging current flows in the circuit.
• The charging current is maximum at the instant of switching and decreases gradually as the voltage
across the capacitor increases.
• When the capacitor is charged to applied voltage V, the charging current becomes zero.

1. At switching instant
• The entire voltage V is dropped across R and the charging current is maximum
• Voltage across capacitor = 0
• Charge on capacitor = 0
𝐕
• Initial charging current, 𝐈𝐦 =
𝐑
2. At any instant
• After having closed the switch, the charging current starts decreasing and the voltage across the capacitor
gradually increases.
• Let at any instant during charging:
i = charging current v = pd across C q = charge on capacitor = Cv

ELE 1071 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, MIT MANIPAL 125

Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
(a) Voltage across capacitor
According to KVL, V = v + iR
dv dq d(Cv) Cdv
V = v + CR i= = =
dt dt dt dt
dv dt
− =−
V−v RC
𝐭
Integrating both sides, 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕 − 𝐯 = − +𝐊
𝐑𝐂
Initial condition: At the instant of closing the switch, t = 0 and v = 0, which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕
t V−v t
Therefore, log e V − v = − + log e V or log e =−
RC V RC
𝐭
𝐯 = 𝐕 𝟏 − 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
- This is the expression for variation of voltage across the capacitor w.r.t time.
𝐭
- As t increases, the term 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂 gets smaller and voltage (v) across capacitor gets larger

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 Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
(b) Charge on capacitor
q = charge at any time t Q = final charge
q Q
Therefore, 𝑣 = and 𝑉 =
C 𝐶
q Q t 𝐭
= 1 − e− ൗRC or 𝐪 = 𝐐 𝟏 − 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
C C
(c) Charging Current
t
We have, V − v = iR and also V − v = Ve− ൗRC
t 𝐕 −𝐭ൗ 𝐭
Therefore, iR = Ve− ൗRC or 𝐢 = 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 or 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐞− ൗ𝐑𝐂
𝐑
(d) Rate of rise of voltage across capacitor
dv
We have, V − v = CR dt
dv
At the instant the switch is closed, v = 0, therefore, V = CR
dt
𝐝𝐯 𝐕
Hence initial rate of rise of voltage across capacitor is: = volts
𝐝𝐭 𝐂𝐑

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Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
Time Constant (𝛕) = RC seconds
- The quantity RC is called the time constant of the circuit and affects the charging (or discharging) time.
- It has the dimensions of time so that the exponent of e (i.e., −tΤRC ) is a number.
−𝒕Τ
- If time interval, 𝐭 = 𝛕 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐂 , then, 𝐯 = 𝐕 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐 𝐕
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the capacitor voltage to reach 0.632 (or
63.2 %) of its final steady state value, V
𝐭
- If time interval, 𝐭 = 𝛕 𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐂 , then, 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐞− Τ𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝐈𝐦
- Hence, time constant can be defined as the time required for the charging current to fall to 0.37 (or 37
%) of its initial maximum value, 𝐈𝐦

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Charging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
Time Constant (𝛕) may also be defined as the time required for the capacitor voltage to rise to its final
steady-state value V if it continued rising at its initial rate (V/RC).

vc

ic

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 Discharging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
• Consider capacitor charged to a pd of V volts (through Position a of switch). When t=0 R
the switch is thrown to Position b, the voltage across the capacitor starts a
decreasing . b +
𝐕 V i C vc
• The discharge current rises instantaneously to a value of 𝐈𝐦 = and then decays
𝐑
gradually to zero.

• Let at any instant during discharging:

i = discharging current v = pd across C q = charge on capacitor = C v
dv dv d𝑡
By KVL, 0 = v + RC or =−
dt 𝑣 RC
t
Integrating both sides, we get log e v = − + K
RC
Initial condition: At the instant of closing the switch, t = 0 and v = V which gives 𝐊 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐕
t 𝑣 t
Therefore, log e v = − + log e V or log e = −
RC 𝑉 RC
−𝐭ൗ −𝐭ൗ −𝐭ൗ
𝐯=𝐕 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 Similarly, 𝐪=𝐐 𝐞 𝐑𝐂 and 𝐢 = −𝐈𝐦 𝐞 𝐑𝐂
Negative sign indicates that the discharging current flows in the opposite direction of charging current.

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Discharging of a Capacitor Through a Resistor

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Illustration 1
An 8 μF capacitor is connected in series with a 0.5 MΩ resistor, across a 200 V dc supply through a
switch. At t = 0 s, the switch is turned on. Calculate
i. Time constant of the circuit
ii. Initial charging current.
iii. Time taken for the potential difference across the capacitor to grow to 160 V.
iv. Current & potential difference across the capacitor 4.0 seconds after the switch is turned on.

Ans: (i) 4 s, (ii) 400 μA , (iii) 6.44 s (iv) 126.42 V & 147.15 μA

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Illustration 2
For the circuit shown, the switch S is closed at t = 0 s. Determine how long will it take, after the
switch is closed, for the total current drawn from the supply to reach 25 mA.

Ans: t = 73.5 ms

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Illustration 3
In the network shown below, the switch is closed to Position 1 at t = 0, and then moved to 2 after one
time constant, at t = 250 μs. Obtain the current for t > 0 and also sketch it.

40 e−4000t mA 0<t<τ
Ans: i = ൝
−105.28 e−4000(t−0.00025) mA t>τ

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