EET 305

Mohd Rafi, Rev Mei 2011

1
The Load in
Power
System
EET 305
The Load in Power System
Define and explain basic load forecasting and load
characteristic.
Analyze and calculate power, power factor and
power factor correction.
2
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The load on a power station is not constant. It varies
from time to time.
The load curve is obtained by plotting the loads against
the time on a graph paper.
When it plotted from 24 hours of a day it is called daily
load curve and if the time considered is for one year
(8760 hours) then it is called annual load curve.
The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the
load factor.
The areas under the load curve represent the energy
generated in the period considered.
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Mohd Rafi, rev mei 2011
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The area under the curve divided by the total number of
hours gives the average load on the power station.
The peak curve load indicated by the load curve
represents the maximum demand on the power station.
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Example of Typical
Commercial Load Curve
Load Characteristic
Load Curve
The greatest problem for a power supply company is
varying load. The generation should be matched with the
load consistently.
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The base load power is
supplied by power plants
running continuously.
The Intermediated/Average
load prevails for some part of
the day.
The peak load prevails only
a few hours of the day
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
a) Demand
The demand of the installation or system is the load
at the receiving terminals averaged over a specified
time.
b) Demand Interval (At)
The period over which the load is averaged.
Selected t period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, or
even longer.
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Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
c) Maximum Demand
The maximum demand of an installation or system is
the greatest of all demands which have occurred
during the specified period of time.
d) Demand Factor (DF)
The ratio of the maximum demand of a system to a
total connected load of the system.
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Demand Connected Total
Demand Maximum
DF =
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
e) Diversified Demand / Coincident Demand
It is the demand of the composite group ( residential,
commercial, industrial, miscellaneous) , as a whole,
of somewhat unrelated loads ( loss in transmission &
distribution) over a specified period of time.
f) Utilization Factor (F
u
)
It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to
the rated capacity of the system.
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capacity system Rated
demand Maximum
F
u
=
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
g) Load Factor (F
LD
)
The load factor is defined as the ratio of the average
load to the maximum load during a given period.
The load factor is always less than one, because the
average load is less than maximum load.
The greater the load factor, the less will be the cost
per unit.
where: T=time, in days, weeks, months or years.
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T x Load Max/Peak
Served Unit
T x Load Max/Peak
xT Load Average
F
LD
= =
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
h) Plant Capacity Factor
It is defined the ratio of the total actual energy produced
or served over a designated period of time to the energy
that would have been produced or served if the plant or
unit had operated continously at maximum rating.
where:
E=Energy produced, kWh
C=Plant capacity/rating, kW
t=Total number of hours
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t x C
E
factor capacity Plant =
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
i) Plant Use Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the energy produced in given
time to the maximum possible energy that could have
been produced during the actual numbers of hours that
was in operation
where:
E=Energy produced, kWh
C=Plant capacity, kW
t
1
=The actual number of hours the plant was in
operation
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Mohd Rafi rev mei 2011
1
t x C
E
factor use Plant =
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
j) Diversity Factor , F
D
It is defined as the ratio of the sum of individual
maximum demands to maximum demand on power
station.
TCD is Total Connected Demand, DF is Demand Factor
D
g
= coincident max demand of group of n loads
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g
n
i
i i
g
n
i
i
g
n
D
D
DF x TCD
D
D
D
D ....... D D
demand max Coincident
demand max ividual Sum of ind
F

= =
= =
+ + +
=
=
1 1 2 1
Load Characteristic
Terms and Definitions
k) Loss Factor , F
LS
It is defined as the ratio of the average power loss to
the peak load power loss during a specified period of
time.
Coincidence factor, Fc =1/FD
l) Load Diversity, LD
It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of
two or more individual loads and the peak of the
combined load.
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load peak at loss Power
loss power Average
F
LS
=
g
n
i
i
D D LD
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=1
Load Characteristic
Example 1
A generating station had a maximum load of 20,000 kW
and the units generated being 61,500,000 kWh for the
year.
Calculate load factor.
Solution Example 1
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% 35
100
24 365 20000
000 , 500 , 61
) ( ) (
) (
=
=
=
x
hours x days x
kWh
h T x kW load Max
kWh Served Unit
F
LD
Load Characteristic
Example 2
A power station has two 60MW units each running for
7500 hours in a year and one 30MW unit running for
4500 hours in a year. The energy produced per year is
750x10
6
kWh.
Determine:
(a) Plant load factor
(b) Plant capacity factor
(c) Plant use factor.
Assume maximum demand to be 80% of the plant
capacity.
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Load Characteristic
Solution Example 2
a) Plant load factor
b) Plant capacity factor
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71 0
8 0 10 150 8760
10 750
8760
10 750
6
6
6
.
. x W x x h
kWh x
demand Maximum
load Average
F
h
kWh x
load Average
150MW 30 2x60 plant power the of Capacity
LD
= = =
=
= + =
57 0
8760 10 150
10 750
8760
3
6
.
x x
x
x plant of Capacity
generated Energy
factor capacity Plant = = =
Load Characteristic
Solution Example 2
c) Plant use factor
Energy that can be generated by two 60MW units and
one 30MW unit
=2 units x 60MW x 7500h + 30MW x 4500h
=103.5x10
4
MWh=1035x10
6
kWh
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72 0
10 1035
10 750
6
6
.
kWh x
kWh x
factor use Plant = =
Load Characteristic
Example 3
Assume the annual peak load of a primary feeder is
2000kW, at which the power loss i.e., total copper, or
I
2
R, loss is 80kW per three phase. Assuming an annual
loss factor of 0.15.
Determine:
(a) The average annual power loss
(b) The total annual energy loss due to the copper losses
of the feeder circuits.
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Load Characteristic
Solution Example 3
a) Average annual power loss
Average power loss = Power loss at peak load x F
LS
= 80 kW x 0.15
=12 kW
b) Total annual energy loss
TAEL
CU
= Average power loss x 8760 h
=12 kW x 8760 h
=105,120 kWh
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Example of Transformer Sizing
An application has been made to the utility to connect a commercial
complex to the nearest distribution transformer. The distribution
transformer is rated 310 kVA and the current maximum demand on this
transformer is 250 kVA. The transformer is 20 years old and considering
hot summer, it is suggested not to load it beyond 90% capacity. The load of
the commercial complex are:
A gas station consisting of three unleaded petrol pumps, a diesel pump,
and a LNG pump. Each pump is rated at 5 hp and has an efficiency of 0.9. A
general purpose shop with installed load of 5 kW. A Fish and Chip shop
with a connected load of 4 kW. Six street lights each rated at 100 W. The
diversity factor of the pumps is 1.8. The demand factor of the general
purpose shop is estimated to be 0.7. The Fish and Chip shop has a demand
factor of 0.8. The diversity factor for the whole load is estimated to be 1.2.
Calculate the the coincident maximum demand of the whole complex. Is it
possible for this load to be connected to the existing distribution
transformer?
20
21
Load Forecasting
Introduction
Load forecasting plays an important role in power system
planning, operation and control
Forecasting means estimating active load at various load
buses ahead of actual load occurrence.
Planning and operational applications of load forecasting
requires a certain lead time also called forecasting
intervals.
A good forecast reflecting current and future trends,
tempered with good judgment, is the key to all planning,
indeed to financial success.
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Load Forecasting
Factors Affecting Load Forecast
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Load Forecasting
Nature of Forecast
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Nature of Forecast Lead time Application
Very Short Term A few seconds to
several minutes
Generation, distribution
schedules, contingency analysis
for system security
Short Term Half an hour to a
few hours
Allocation of spinning reserve;
operational planning and unit
commitment; maintenance
scheduling
Medium Term A few days to a few
weeks
Planning for seasonal peak-
winter, summer
Long Term A few months to a
few years
Planning generation growth
Load Forecasting
Forecasting Methodology
Forecasting techniques may be divided into three broad
classes. Techniques may be based on extrapolation or on
correlation or on a combination of both.
Extrapolation
Extrapolation techniques involve fitting trend curves to
basic historical data adjusted to reflect the growth trend
itself.
Correlation
Correlation techniques of forecasting relate system loads to
various demographic and economic factor.
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Load Growth
Introduction
In planning to accommodate future electric energy needs,
it is necessary that an estimate of the rate at which those
needs will grow.
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Examples of a typical
energy requirement
projection for a certain
country
Load Growth
Growth Rates
Suppose a certain quantity M grows at a rate that is
proportional to the amount of M that is present.
It gives
Where a is the constant of proportionality, known as the
per-unit growth rate. The above equation may be written
as
Where M
0
is the value of M at t=0.
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aM
dt
dM
=
at
e M M
0
=
Load Growth
Growth Rates
At any two values of time, t
1
and t
2
, the inverse ratio of
the corresponding quantities M
1
and M
2
is
Based on above equation, the doubling time t
d
may be
obtain such that M
2
= 2M
1
and t
2
- t
1
= t
d
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) t t ( a
e
M
M
1 2
2
1

=
a
.
a
ln
t
d
693 0 2
= =
Load Growth
Growth Rates
Power system planners also need to know how much
power will be demanded.
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Mohd Rafi rev Mei 2011
The approximation equation
in this curve
Where P
0
is the peak power at
t =0, b is the per unit growth
bt
e P P
0
=
Examples of the peak power demand
for a certain country over several years.
Load Growth
Growth Rates
The area under this curve over a given period is a
measure of the energy Q consumed during that period.
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If the per unit growth rate has not
changed, then the energy
consumed in one doubling period
equals the energy consumed for
the entire time prior to that
doubling.
Load Growth
Growth Rates
Evaluating the energy Q
1
consumed up to t
1
and the
energy Q
2
consumed during the doubling time t
d
= t
2
- t
1
T
d
= (ln 2/b), therefore Q
2
becomes
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1
0 0
2
1 1
1 2 Q e
b
P
e ) (
b
P
Q
bt bt
= = =
1
2
1
1
1
1
0
0 2
0
0 1
bt bt bt
t
t
bt bt
t
e ) e (
b
P
dt e P Q
e
b
P
dt e P Q
d
= =
= =
}
}

Load Growth
Example 1
Suppose that the consumption of the energy in a certain
country has a growth rate of 4 percent per year.
In how many years will the energy consumption be
tripled?
Solution Example 1
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years .
.
ln
t
t . ln or e then
Q
Q
t .
47 27
04 0
3
04 0 3 3 3
04 0
1
2
= =
= = =
Load Growth
Example 2
In certain country the energy consumption is expected to
be double in 10 years.
Calculate the growth rate in percent.
Solution Example 2
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Mohd Rafi rev Mei 2011
% . x
.
a
t
ln
a
d
93 6 100
10
693 0
2
= =
=
Load Growth
Example 3
Assume that one of the distribution transformer of the
Riverside substation supplies three primary feeders. The
30-min annual max demands per feeder as listed as
following table, together with the power factor (PF) at the
time of annual peak load. Assume a diversity factor of
1.15 among the three feeder for both real power (P) and
reactive power (Q).
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Mohd Rafi rev Mei 2011
Feeder Demand (kW) PF
1 1800 0.95
2 2000 0.85
3 2200 0.90
Load Growth
Example 3
a) Calculate the 30-min annual max demand on the substation
transformer in kW and in kVar
b) Find the load diversity in KW
c) Select a suitable substation transformer size if zero load growth is
expected and if the company policy permits as much as 25 % short
time overload on the distribution substation transformer. Use the
suitable standard 3-phase as follow
2500/3125 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
3750/4687 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
5000/6250 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
7500/9375 KVA self-cooled/forced air cooled
35
EET 305 Power System Fundamental - Mohd Rafi (SoESE)
Load Growth
Example 3
d) Now assume that the substation load will increase at a
constant percentage rate per year and will double in 10
years. If the 7500/9375 KVA rated transformer is
installed, in how many years will be loaded to its fans-
on rating. Assume the load growth equation is
P
n
=P
0
(1+g)
n
where: P
n
=Load at the end of the n
th
year
P
0
=Initial Load
g=Annual growth rate
n=Numbers of years
36
EET 305 Power System Fundamental - Mohd Rafi (SoESE)
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
a) Given the diversity factor F
D
= 1.15
Therefore, Annual maximum demand D
g,kW
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15 1
2200 2000 1800
2 1
.
D
kW kW kW
D
D ....... D D
demand max Coincident
demand max ividual Sum of ind
F
g g
n
D
=
+ +
=
+ + +
=
=
kW .
.
kW
.
) kW kW kW (
D
kW , g
39 5217
15 1
6000
15 1
2200 2000 1800
= =
+ +
=
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
a) D
g
=5217.39kW ( in KW), in KVA, then find the power
factor angle
The total Reactive Power (Q)
38
kVar . ) . )(tan (
) . )(tan ( ) . )(tan ( tan x P Q
i
i
i
79 2896 84 25 2200
79 31 2000 2 18 1800
3
1
= +
+ = =

=
u
PF Angle
0.95 18.2
0.85 31.79
0.90 25.84
kVar .
.
kVar .
D
kVar , g
95 2518
15 1
79 2896
= =
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
a) Therefore D
g
D
g
=(P
2
+Q
2
)
1/2
=S
= ( 5217
2
+2518.82
2
)
1/2
= 5793.60 KVA
b) The load diversity (LD) is
39
kW kW kW D D LD
g
n
i
i
783 5217 6000
1
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
c) The transformer size capacity if permits of 25% short
time overload
The maximum demand is 5793.60 KVA
The most suitable distribution transformer is 3750/4687
KVA self-cooled/ forced air cooled
40
Tx Size 25% overload Remarks
2500/3125 KVA 3125x1.25=3906.25 Under size
3750/4687 KVA 4687x1.25=5858.75 Nearest
5000/6250 KVA 6250x1.25=7812.5 Over size
7500/9375 KVA 9375x1.25=11718.75 Over size
Load Growth
Solution Example 3
d) The term fans-on means the forced air cooled rating.
The increase annual growth rate (g) per year,
given P
n
=P
0
(1+g)
n
hence (1+g)
10
=2 , 1+ g =1.07177
g = 0.07177%/year
Therefore, (1.07177)
n
x 5793.60 KVA = 9375 KVA
Or
If the 7500/9375 KVA rated transformer is installed, it
will be loaded to its fan-on rating in about 7 years.
41
Years or .
. ln
. ln
n 7 944 6
07177 1
6182 1
= =
Costumer Billing
Introduction
Customer billing is done by taking the difference in
readings of the meter at two successive times, usually at
an interval of 1 month.
The difference in readings indicates the amount of
electricity, in kilowatt hours, consumed by the customer
in that period.
The amount is multiplied by the appropriate rate or the
series of rates and the adjustment factor, and the bill is
sent to the customer.
42
Costumer Billing
43
Sample of
Electricity Bill
Costumer Billing
Tariff
Electricity Tariff can be define as a list of fixed rate
electricity prices which has been approved by a government.
In Malaysia the tariff for electricity are divided into 7
categories as follow:
1) Domestic
2) Commercial
3) Industrial
4) Mining
5) Street Lighting
6) Specific Agriculture
7) Top up & Stand By
44
Costumer Billing
Tariff
Examples of Electricity Tariff in Malaysia
45
Costumer Billing
Example 1
Assume that the customer A, use the following and
typical , domestic tariff rate schedule.
46
Costumer Billing
Example 1(cont)
a) Assume that an average month is 730h and find the
monthly load factor
b) Find the reasonable size of continuous KVA rating of the
distribution transformer
c) Calculate the monthly bill
d) What size of capacitor (in kVar) would rise the PF of the
customer to 0.9
47
Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
a) Customer A, F
LD
b) Continuous KVA rating
The continuous suitable rating for the distribution
transformer is 10 KVA
48
205 0
730 8
1200
.
h x kW
kWh
T x load Peak
served Unit
F
LD
= = =
kVA .
.
kW
Cos
P
S
A
A
41 9
85 0
8
= = =
u
Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
c) The monthly bill
First 200kWh = 200kWh x 21.8 sen/kWh = RM43.6
Next800kWh = 800 kWh x 28.9 sen/kWh =RM 231.2
Over 1000kWh = 200 kWh x 31.2 sen/kWh = RM 62.4
The total monthly Bill= RM 337.20
d) Size of capacitor
Current PF=0.85, the kVarh value is
49
kVarh . ) . Cos ( xSin
.
kWh
69 743 85 0
85 0
1200
1
=

Costumer Billing
Solution Example 1
d) Size of capacitor (cont.)
At PF=0.9, the kVarh value is
Therefore, the capacitor size required is
50
kVarh . ) . Cos ( xSin
.
kWh
19 581 9 0
9 0
1200
1
=

kVar .
h
kVarh ) . . (
22 0
730
19 581 69 743
=

Power Factor Surcharge

Percent of
surcharge from
the current bill
Condition
1.5%
For every 0.01 less than
0.85 power factor
3%
For every 0.01 less than
0.75 power factor
51
52
Power Factor
Definition of Power Factor
Power factor is the ratio between actual (true) load power
(kW) and the apparent load power (kVA)
It is a measure of how effectively the current is being
converted into useful work output and more particularly
is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on
the efficiency of the supply.
53
) KVA ( power load Apparent
) kW ( power load Actual
pf =
Power Factor
Fundamental of Basic Electricity - The Power Triangle
54
P - kW
Q - kVar
S - kVA
KVA
kW
Factor Power
Q P S
=
+ =
2 2
Power Factor
Equipment Causing Poor Power Factor
Lightly loaded induction motor. Examples of this type of
equipment and their approximate power factor are:
70% power factor or better: Air conditioners, pumps,
center less grinders, cold header, up setter, fans or
blower
60% to 70% power factor: Induction furnaces,
standard stamping machines and weaving machines
60% power factor and below: Single-stroke presses,
automated machine tools, finish grinders, welders
55
Power Factor
Reactive Power Problem (Motor)
Example that a motor is rated at 10,000W at 0.8 power
factor. The resistance is 5ohm. At 415V, the motor will
require the following amount of current:
I=10000/(3x0.8x415)=17.39A
Losses when pf =0.8 : I
2
R=(17.39)
2
(5)=1,512W
The same motor rated at 0.65 power factor will require:
I=10000/(3x0.65x415)=21.403A
Losses when pf=0.65 : I
2
R=(21.403)
2
(5)=2290.4W
56
Power Factor
Reactive Power Problem (Transformer)
Example that 11/0.433 kV 1000kVA transformer has
maximum loading of 800KW and power factor of 0.45
What is the % loading of the transformer?
PF=KW/KVA=0.45
KVA(Load) = kW/PF=800/0.45=1777
%Tx Load = kVA(Load) / Tx Capacity
= (1777 / 1000 ) x 100 = 177%
57
Power Factor
Reactive Power Problem (Transformer)
Example that 11/0.433 kV 1000kVA transformer has
maximum loading of 800KW and power factor of 0.9
What is the % loading of the transformer?
PF=KW/KVA=0.9
KVA(Load) = kW/PF=800/0.9=888.88
%Tx Load = kVA(Load) / Tx Capacity
= (888.88 / 1000 ) x 100 = 88.88%
58
Power Factor
Reactive Power Problem (Transformer)
Condition 1
PF=0.45
TX Size=1000kVA
Load KVA=1777 KVA
%TX Load=177%
Condition 2
PF=0.9
TX Size=1000kVA
Load KVA=888 KVA
%TX Load=88%
59
Power Factor
Minimum Power Factor
Customers are advise to maintain power factor at
minimum of 0.85
60
Power Factor
Power Factor Improvement
61
Example Of Power Flow Diagram Of Industrial Plant
Power Factor
Power Factor Improvement
62
Power Triangle To Illustrate Power Factor Correction
Power Factor
Power Factor Improvement
The amount of reactive compensation supplied by the
capacitor bank is
Apparent power consumed by the load before adding
capacitors
Apparent power supplied by the source after adding
capacitors
63
1 1
1
u Cos
P
PF
P
S
LOAD LOAD
= =
2 2
2
u Cos
P
PF
P
S
LOAD LOAD
= =
2 1
Q Q Q
CAP
=
Power Factor
Power Factor Improvement
Where PF
1
, and PF
2
are the actual load power factor and
desired system power factors, respectively.
64
2
2
1
2 2
1 1 LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
P
PF
P
P S Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
2
2 2
2 2 LOAD
LOAD
LOAD
P
PF
P
P S Q
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
PF PF
x P Q
LOAD CAP
Power Factor
Example 1
An industrial plant has an active power demand of
500kW at a power factor of 0.76 lagging. Determine the
reactive power rating of the capacitor bank required to
improve the power factor to the following:
a) 0.8 lagging
b) 0.9 lagging
c) Unity
Assume the capacitor steps are available in 50 kVar
increments
65
Power Factor
Solution Example 1
66
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
PF PF
x P Q
LOAD CAP
kVar kVar .
. .
x kW Q ) a
CAP
50 6 52 1
80 0
1
1
76 0
1
500
2 2
~ =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
kVar kVar .
. .
x kW Q ) b
CAP
200 4 185 1
90 0
1
1
76 0
1
500
2 2
~ =
(
(

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.
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|

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.
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.
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=
kVar kVar .
.
x kW Q ) c
CAP
400 6 427 1
1
1
1
76 0
1
500
2 2
~ =
(
(

|
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.
|

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=
Power Factor
Example 2
Assume that a 700 kVA load has a 65% power factor. It is
desired to improve the power factor to 92%.Using the
power factor correction table (Table 1).
Determine the following:
a) The correction factor required
b) The capacitor size required
c) What would be the resulting power factor if the next
higher standard capacitor size is used. Assume the
capacitor steps are available in 50 kVar increments
67
Power Factor
Solution Example 2
a) From correction factor table (Table 1), the correction
factor required can be found as 0.743
b) The 700 KVA load at 65% power factor is
P
L
=S
L
x cos u W
=700k x 0.65 W
=455 kW
The capacitor size necessary to improve the power factor
from 65 to 92% can be found as
Capacitor size = P
L
x (Correction Factor)
=(455)(0.743)
=338.065 kVar
68
Power Factor
Solution Example 2
c) Assume that the next higher standard capacitor size (or
rating) is selected to be 350 kVar. Therefore the resulting
new correction factor can be found from
From the table by using interpolation method, based on
original power factor (65%) and new correction factor
(0.769), refer to Table 1.
The new corrected % PF = (92)(0.1613)+(93)(0.8387)
= 92.8387 % =0.928
69
769 0
455
350
.
kW
kVar
P
Rating Capacitor Standard
Factor Correction New
L
= =
=
70