HIGHER MATH

Integration and
its applications

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 Integration

Integration
Indefinite Integrals
Definition (primitive or Ant derivative)
A function ø (x) is called a primitive or an antiderivative
of a function f (x) if ø’ (x) = f (x)
Let ø (x) be a primitive of a function f (x) and let c be any
constant.
d
Then (ø(x) + c) = ø’ (x) = f (x) ⇒ ø (x) + c is also a
dx
primitive of f (x).
Thus, if a function f (x) possesses a primitive ø (x), then it
possesses infinitely many primitives which are contained
in the expression ø (x) + c, where c is any constant.
So, let f (x) be a function. Then the collection of all its
primitives is called the indefinite integral of f (x) and is
denoted by ∫ f (x) dx,
d
Thus (ø (x) + c) = f (x) ⇔∫ f (x) dx = ø (x) + c.
dx

Where ø (x) is primitive and c is an arbitrary constant

known as the constant of integration.

1
Here ∫is the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, x is the
variable of integration and dx is the element of
integration.
The process of finding an indefinite integral of a given
function is called integration of the function.
Some elementary integrals:
d
Since (ø (x)) = f (x) ⇔ ∫ f (x) dx = ø (x) + c, therefore
dx
this definition leads to the following basic results:
d  x n 1  xn  1
(i)    x n , n  1
dx  n  1  
 x n dx 
n 1
 C, n  1

(ii)
d
log x   1 
1
 x dx  log x  C
dx x

(iii)
d x
dx
 
e  ex 
 ex dx  ex  C

d  ax  ax
(iv)    ax 
 a x dx  C
dx  log e a  log a

d
(v) (sin x )  cos x 
 cos x dx  sin x  C
dx
d
(vi) ( cos x )  sin x 
 sin xdx   cos x  C
dx
d
(vii) (tan x )  sec2 x 
 sec2 xdx  tan x  C
dx

2
 d
(viii) ( cot x )  cos ec 2 x 
 cosec 2 x dx   cot x  C
dx
d
(ix) (sec x )  sec x tan x 
 sec x tan x dx  sec x  C
dx
d
(x) ( cos ecx)  cos ecx cot x 
 cosecx cot x dx   cosec x  C
dx
d
(xi) ( log cos x )  tan x 
 tan x dx   log cos x  C
dx
d
(xii) 
(log (sec x  tan x ))  sec x  sec x dx  log sec x  tan x  C
dx
d
(xiii) 
(log (cosecx  cot x )  cosecx  cosecxdx  log cosecx  cot x  C
dx
d
(xiv) (log sin x )  cot x   cot x dx  log sin x  C
dx

Definite integration.
If ∫ f (x) dx = g (x) + c, then

Properties of definite integrals

b
1. If f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a, b], then  f (x)
a
dx  0. If

f (x) > 0 for all points of [a, b]. Then af ( x ) dx  0.

b

3
 b b
2. If f (x) ≤ g (x) on [a, b], then a 
f ( x ) dx  g( x ) dx.
a

3. (f1(x) + f2(x)) dx = f1(x) dx + f2(x) dx

b b b
a 
a a

4. c f(x)dx = c a f(x) dx, c ∈ R

b b
 a

b b
5.  f (x)dx  
a a
f ( x ) dx

b b
6. a 
f ( x ) dx  f ( t )dt.
a

b a
7. a 
f ( x ) dx   f ( x )dx.
b

b c b
8.  f (x) dx   f (x )dx   f (x )dx.
a a c

b b
9. a
f ( x ) dx   f (a  b  x)dx,
a
in particular
b b
0 
f ( x ) dx  f (b  x )dx,
0

a/2

a a/2
10. 0
f ( x ) dx   0
f(x) + 0
f(a – x) dx in particular,

0 if f (a  x )  f ( x )
a 
 f ( x )dx   a / 2
0

 0 
2 f ( x )dx if f (a  x )  f ( x )

11. If f (-x) = f (x) (i.e., f is an even function), then

f ( x )dx  2 f ( x )dx .
a a
a 
0

4
12. If f (-x) = -f(x) (i.e., f is an odd function), then
a
a
f ( x ) dx  0.

Note: For, y = log  x  x 2  a 2 

 
1
y’ =
x2  a2

log( x  x 2  a 2 )
So, If I =  x2  a2
dx

 2 
Then, Put log  x  x  a   t
2
 

I =  t dt  t 2  C = [log  x  x 2  a 2  ]2/2 + c
1
2  
Applications of Integration:
Area of a plane figure: The area of the figure bounded by
the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) where (f (x) ≥
0), two straight lines x = a and x = b, and the x – axis, i.e.,
the area of a curvilinear trapezoid bounded by an arc of
the graph of the function y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, is computed
by the formula

5
 …………… (1)
b
s  f (x)dx
a
y = f2(x)

y = f1(x)

The area of the figure bounded by the graphs of two

continuous functions y = f1(x) and y = f2 (x), f1 (x) ≤ f2(x),
and two straight lines x = a and x = b is determined by
the formula
b
s  (f (x )  f (x )dx ……………… (2)
a
2 1

Sometimes it is required to use the formulae similar to

(1) and (2) but with respect to y, i.e., regarding x as a
function of y. In particular, the area bounded by the curve
x = f (y), the y –axis and the two lines, y = c and y = d is
d
given by s  cf ( y)dy.

The area of the figure bounded by the graphs of two

continuous functions x = f1 (y) and x = f2(y) (with f1(y) ≤
f2(y)), and the two straight lines y = c and y = d is given by

6
 d

s  f 2 ( y)  f1 ( y))dy
c

Substitution method: If the given integral is of the form,

 f ( x). f ' ( x).dx then we let f(x) = t such that f’(x).dx = dt
and the integral becomes  t dt .

By Parts: If the integral is in the form of 

f ( x ).g ( x).dx
, then
we let one of the functions as I and second one as II,
using ILATE (Inverse, Logarithm, Algebra, Trigonometry,
Exponential) rule. And the formulae used for the
integration of this form is
 d I  
 I . II dx  I  II .dx    dx . II .dx dx
Partial fractions: In partial fraction, we can factorize the
denominator and then decompose them into two
different fractions where the denominators are the
factors respectively and the numerator is calculated
suitably.
A B

x  a  
px  q dx  dx
 x  a x  bdx x  b 