SUBJECT : BASIC ELECTRONICS

FACULTY NAME: REKHA RAJESH

 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ELECTRONICS

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 Definition of electronics

The word Electronics is derived from ELECTRON MECHANICS

Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study

of flow and control of electrons (electricity) and the study of
their behaviour and effects in vacuums, gases, and
semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons.
The main focus of electronics is the controlled flow of
electrons through a medium.
By controlling the flow of electrons, we can make them to
perform special tasks, such as power in induction motor or
heat in a resistive coil

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Electronics

Electronics have various branches

ANALOG ELECTRONICS

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

MICRO ELECTRONICS

NANO ELECTRONICS

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History & development of electronics

1st Generation
Electronics’ history began with the invention of vacuum diode
by J.A Fleming, in 1897. After that, a vacuum triode was
implemented by Lee De Forest to amplify electrical signals.
This led to the introduction of tetrode and pentode tubes that
dominated the world until the World War II.
Disadvantages
Higher operating voltages generally required.
High power consumption
Glass tubes are fragile, compared to
metal transistors.

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History & development of electronics

2nd Generation
The transistor era began with the junction transistor invention
in 1948 by William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter
Brattain.
The use of germanium and silicon semiconductor materials
made theses transistor gain popularity in different electronic
circuits.

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History & development of electronics

3rd Generation
Integrated circuits (ICs)
In the subsequent years the invention of the integrated
circuits (ICs) drastically changed the electronic circuits.
The entire electronic circuit got integrated on a single chip,
which resulted in low: cost, size and weight electronic devices.
The years 1958 to 1975 marked the introduction of IC with
enlarged capabilities with over several thousand components
on a single chip.

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History & development of electronics

4th Generation
These ICs were developed with Transistor-transistor logic (TTL), integrated
injection logic (I2L) and emitter coupled logic (ECL) technologies. Later
these digital ICs employed PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS fabrication design
technologies.

Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI): 1000 to 10000 Transistors per

Integrated Circuit or chip.

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI): 10000 to 1 million Transistors per
Integrated Circuit or chip.

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History & development of electronics
5th Generation
All these changes led to the introduction of microprocessor by
Intel.

Then analog integrated circuits were developed that introduced

an operational amplifier for an analog signal processing.

These analog circuits include analog multipliers, ADC and DAC

converters and analog filters. Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits
(ULSI): over 1 million Transistors per Integrated Circuit or Chip

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Concept of electric friction (resistance)

Resistance is a measure of how easily (or with what difficulty)

electrons will flow through the device.
Copper wire has a very low resistance, so a small voltage will
allow a large current to flow.
Likewise, the plastic insulation has a very high resistance, and
prevents current from flowing from one wire to those
adjacent.
Resistors have a defined resistance, so the current can be
calculated for any voltage.
Resistance: Unit is Ohms, Symbol is Ω .

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Concept of current
Current is the flow of electricity (electrons).
No current flows between the terminals of a battery or other
voltage supply unless a load is connected.
The magnitude of the current is determined by the available
voltage, and the resistance (or impedance) of the load and the
power source.
Current can be AC or DC, positive or negative, depending upon
the reference.
For electronics, current may also be measured in mA
(milliamps) - 1,000 mA is 1A. Nanoamps (nA) are also used in
some cases.
Current: Unit is Amperes (Amps), Symbol is I .

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Concept of voltage
Voltage is the "pressure" of electricity, or "electromotive
force" (E).
A 9V battery has a voltage of 9V DC, and may be positive or
negative depending on the terminal that is used as the
reference.
The mains has a voltage of 220, 240 or 110V depending
where you live , this is AC, and alternates between positive
and negative values.
Voltage is also commonly measured in millivolts (mV), and
1,000 mV is 1V. Microvolts (uV) and nanovolts (nV) are also
used.
Voltage: Unit is Volts, Symbol is V

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AC (Alternating Current)

AC: Alternating Current: The electrons flow in both directions in

a cyclic manner - first one way, then the other. ( AC) is an
electric current which periodically reverses direction and
changes its magnitude continuously with time.

The electric charge that periodically switches the direction back

and forth is known as Alternating current (AC)

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 DC( Direct Current)

DC: Direct Current: The electrons flow in one direction only.

A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude (amplitude) and
a definite direction associated with it.
For example, +12V represents 12 volts in the positive direction,
or -5V represents 5 volts in the negative direction.
• Direct current is produced by batteries, fuel cells, rectifiers etc.

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Voltage Source and Current Source
A Source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or
some other form of energy into electrical energy.
Voltage Source
Current Source

The current and voltage sources are further categorized

as an ideal source or practical source.
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Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at
any instant of time is constant and is independent of the
current drawn from it.
Such a voltage source is called an Ideal Voltage Source and
have zero internal resistance.
Sources having some amount of internal resistances are
known as Practical Voltage Source.
Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and
it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.
The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source,
the more closer it is to an Ideal Source.

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Ideal Voltage source representation

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Practical Voltage source representation

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Current Source

The current sources are further categorized as Ideal and

Practical current source.
An ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element
which supplies the same current to any load resistance
connected across its terminals. The current supplied by the
current source is independent of the voltage of source
terminals. It has infinite resistance.
A practical current source is represented as an ideal current
source connected with the resistance in parallel.

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Ideal Current source Representation

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Practical Current source Representation

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Amplitude

Amplitude: Amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum vertical

distance reached, in either direction from the centre line of
the wave.

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cycle

• Cycle: It is the complete event starting with a rise from zero

energy to a maximum amplitude, its return to zero, the rise
to a maximum in the opposite direction, and then its return
to zero.

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Time Period (T):
• Time Period (T): It is the length of time in seconds
that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start to
finish.
• It is the time taken to complete one cycle.

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 Frequency
Frequency: The number of cycles per second. Unit is
Hertz (Hz)
It is the number of times the waveform repeats itself
within a one second.
The frequency of power supply in India is 50 Hertz.

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Frequency

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Relation between Frequency and time period

Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period,

f = 1/T and T = 1/ f

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A Sine Wave Waveform

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Peak to peak value
The peak to peak value is the vertical distance
between the top and bottom of the wave.
It will be measured in volts on a voltage waveform,
and may be labelled VPP or VPK.PK.
In a current waveform it would be labelled IPP or
IPK.PK

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RMS value
The RMS or ROOT MEAN SQUARED VALUE is the value of the equivalent
direct (non-varying) voltage or current which would provide the same
energy to a circuit as the sine wave measured.
For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will shine with the
same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply.
For a sine wave, the rms value is 0.707 times the peak value

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Pulse Wave Waveform

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Rectangular Waveform

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Triangular Waveform

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Sawtooth Waveforms

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 Open circuit and short circuits

a) Open circuit means the wires are cut off so there will be no
current flow, but there is voltage.
b) Closed circuit means the wires are connected so there will
be flow of current, but there is no voltage.
c) Short circuit also refers closed circuit

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 Ohm’s law

It state that the current (I) flowing in the circuit is directly

proportional to the applied Voltage (V) and is inversely
proportional to the resistance(R),
provided the temperature remains constant.

I = V/R
V = IR or R = V/I.

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Ohm’s law

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Ohm’s law

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39
Ohm’s law

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Ohm’s law

A voltage source of 6.0V is connected to a purely resistive

lamp and a current of 2.0 amperes flows. All the wires are
resistance-free. What is the resistance of the lamp?
V=6V I=2A
R=V/I =6/2 = 3
R =3 Ω

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 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS -RESISTORS

Resistors are made in many forms but all belong to either of three groups.
a. Fixed resistor
b. Variable resistor
c. Surface mounted Resistor (SMD)
Fixed Resistor: The value (resistance) of the resistor is fixed.
Example: 1 Ohm, 5 Ohm, 1 K Ohm etc

Symbol

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RESISTORS

b. Variable Resistor: The value of resistor can be varied using a knob.

Symbol (variable)

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RESISTORS
c. Surface mounted resistors (SMD): SMD resistors are rectangular in
shape. Chip resistors have
metallised areas at either end of the body and this enables them to make
contact with the printed circuit board through the solder. These are
mounted and soldered on the boards.

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Type of Resistors

Carbon composition.
Carbon film.
Metal oxide film.
Metal film.
Variable resistor.
Thermistor.
Light dependent resistor.

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Types of fixed resistors

a. Carbon Composition Resistors:

These resistors are cylindrical rods which are a mixture of carbon
granules and powdered ceramic.
Since the rod is coated with an insulated material, there are chances of
damage due to excessive heat caused by soldering.

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Types of fixed resistors

b. Carbon film resistors:

This resistor is formed by depositing a carbon film layer on
an insulating material.
Helical cuts are then made through the carbon film to trace a
long and helical resistive path.

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Types of fixed resistors

Metal Film resistor:

These resistors are made from small rods of ceramic coated
with metal (such as a nickel alloy).
The value of resistance is controlled by the thickness of the
coating layer.

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Types of fixed resistors

d.Wire wound resistor:

Another type of resistor, called a Wire wound Resistor, is
made by winding a thin metal alloy wire (Nichrome) or
similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a
spiral helix similar to the film resistor above.

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Variable resistor:

Presets and potentiometers are commonly used types of

variable resistors.

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Color coding of fixed resistors

Most of the resistors are too small in size to have numbers printed
on them. Therefore, a system of color coding is used to indicate
their values.
The resistance value may be indicated using 3 bands, 4 bands, 5
bands or 6 colour bands.

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Color coding of fixed resistors

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BBROYGreat Brittan Very Good Wife

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Color coding of fixed resistors

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Color coding of fixed resistors

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YELLOW,VIOLET,RED,SILVER
47X100OHM
4700 OHM
4.7KOHM

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Resistance in series

The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end

There is only one path for the current to flow. Therefore the
same amount of current (I) flows through all the resistances
(R1, R2, R3) connected in series.
If we say that V1, V2 and V3 are the voltage drops across the
resistance R1, R2 and R3, then
Total voltage V = V1 + V2 + V3.

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Resistance in series,

If R is total resistance in the circuit, applying ohms law we

get
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 ----- Current I is same in all three
resistances
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Here the total resistance is equal to sum of individual
resistances

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Resistors in parallel combination
Resistors are said to be connected together in
“Parallel” when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other
resistor or resistors.
In a parallel resistor network the circuit current can
take more than one path as there are multiple paths
for the current.

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Resistors in parallel combination
Since there are multiple paths for the supply current to
flow through, the current may not be the same
through all the branches in the parallel network.
However, the voltage drop across all of the resistors in
a parallel resistive network is the same.
Then, Resistors in Parallel have a Common Voltage
across them and this is true for all parallel connected
elements.

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Resistors in parallel combination

voltage across resistor R1 equals the voltage across resistor R2

which equals the voltage across R3 and which equals the supply
voltage. Therefore, for a parallel resistor network this is given
as:

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Resistors in parallel combination

Assume total current drawn from source is IT. Let current flowing in each
path be I1, I2 and I3
Then IT = I1 + I2 + I3
Applying Ohms law I = V/R

In parallel connection

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Resistors in series and parallel combination-
simple problems

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Resistors in series

The current flowing in a circuit containing four resistors

connected in series is I = 1.0 A. The potential drops across the
first, second and third and 4th resistors are, respectively: V = 5
V, V = 8 V ,V = 6V and V = 7 V. Find the total resistance

I =1A
VR1 = 5V
5= 1XR1
R1=5/1 =5OHM
R2 = 8OHM
R3 =6OHM
R4 =7OHM
R = R1+R2+R3+R4
R = 5+8+6+7 = 26 OHM
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Resistors in series and parallel

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ELECTRONIC COMPONENT -CAPACITOR

The capacitor is a component which has the ability or

“capacity” to store energy in the form of an electrical charge
producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its
plates, similar to a small rechargeable battery.
The capacitor was originally known as a condenser.
Capacitance is a measure of capacitor’s ability to store
charge.
It is measured in farad (F) and represented as ‘C’.

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Capacitor

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Principle of Capacitance

Construction of capacitor
A capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive
(metal) plates which are not connected or touching each
other.
They are electrically separated either by air or by some form
of a good insulating material such as waxed paper, mica,
ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors.
The insulating layer between a capacitors plates is commonly
called the Dielectric.

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Di-electric strength , effect of dielectric material
on capacitance of a capacitor and types

Due to this insulating layer, Direct Current (DC)(constant current

flowing in only one direction)
cannot flow through the capacitor as it blocks it.
Instead capacitor gets charged to a voltage across the
plates in the form of an electrical charge.

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Di-electric strength , effect of dielectric material
on capacitance of a capacitor and types

When a capacitor is connected to an alternating

current or AC circuit, the flow of the current appears
to pass straight through the capacitor with little or no
resistance.
A capacitor offers low impedance (resistance) to AC,
but very high impedance (resistance) to DC.
Therefore capacitors are used
To couple alternating current from one circuit to
another.
To block the DC current from reaching the next circuit.
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Di-electric strength , effect of dielectric material
on capacitance of a capacitor and types

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Di-electric strength , effect of dielectric material on
capacitance of a capacitor and types

When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor, the

positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one
plate while a corresponding and opposite negative (-
ve) charge accumulates on the other plate.
For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one
plate a charge of the same sign will depart from the -
ve plate.
The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the
capacitors Charging Current

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Di-electric strength , effect of dielectric material on
capacitance of a capacitor and types
which continues to flow until the voltage across both plates
(and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc.
At this point the capacitor is said to be “fully charged” with
electrons.
By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the
charge on the plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage
V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor
C = Q/V
The quantity of charge on the plates as:
Q=CxV

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Types of Capacitor

1. Paper capacitor: In paper capacitor, paper is used as

dielectric

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Types of Capacitor

2. Ceramic capacitor :A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value

capacitor where the ceramic material acts as the dielectric.

3. Mica capacitor: Silver mica capacitor is a capacitor that uses

the name mica as the dielectric

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Types of Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor whose
positive plate is made up of metal. The +ve and –ve terminals
are marked on the capacitor.
The voltage on the positive terminal must always be greater
than the voltage on the negative terminal.

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Capacitors in Parallel

Capacitors are said to be connected together “in

parallel” when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other
capacitor or capacitors.

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Capacitors in Parallel

The voltage (Vc) connected across all the capacitors

that are connected in parallel is THE SAME. Then,
Capacitors in Parallel have a “common voltage”
supply across them giving:
VC1 = VC2 = VC3 = VAB = 12V
When capacitors are connected together in parallel
voltage will be same but charge will be different
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3
CV = C1V+C2V+C3V

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Capacitors in Parallel

When capacitors are connected together in parallel

the total or equivalent capacitance, CT in the circuit
is equal to the sum of all the individual capacitors
added together.

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Capacitors in series

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 Capacitors in series
Capacitors are said to be connected together “in
series” when they are effectively "daisy chained"
together in a single line.
For series connected capacitors, the charging current
(IC ) flowing through the capacitors is THE SAME for
all capacitors as it only has one path to follow.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3
The voltage drop across each capacitor will be
different depending upon the values of the individual
capacitances.

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Capacitors in series

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84
Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors
and insulators

Energy bands
In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit
have definite energy associated with it.
But in case of solids all the atoms are close to each
other, so the energy levels of outermost orbit
electrons are affected by the neighbouring atoms.
The electrons in same orbit exhibit different energy
levels. The grouping of this different energy levels is
called energy band.

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5.1 Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and
insulators

There are number of energy bands in solids but three of

them are very important. These three energy bands are
important to understand the behaviour of solids. These
energy bands are
Valence band
Conduction band
Forbidden band or forbidden gap
Within any material electrons exist in either Valence
band or conduction band.
No electron exists in forbidden band.

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5.1 Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors
and insulators

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5.1 Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors
and insulators

The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is

called valence band.
The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound
to the nucleus of atom.
The range of energies possessed by free electrons is called
conduction band.
When external energy (voltage) is applied the electrons
from the valence band jumps to the conduction band and
become free electrons.

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5.1 Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors
and insulators

Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than

the electrons in valence band.
Valence band and conduction band are separated by an
energy gap in which no electrons normally exist. This gap is
called forbidden gap.
Much larger amount of energy must be applied to extract an
electron from the valence band.

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5.1 Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors
and insulators

Based on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are classified as

conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

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5.2 Conduction in conductors

Conductors
Conductors are those substances, which allow electric current
to pass through them.
Example: Copper, Al, salt solutions, etc.
In terms of energy bands, conductors are those substances in
which there is no forbidden gap.
Valence and conduction band are overlapped.
For this reason, very large number of electrons is available for
conduction even at extremely low energy.
Thus, conduction is possible even by a very weak electric
field.

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5.2 Conduction in conductors and
semiconductors

Insulators
Insulators are those substances, which do not allow electric
current to pass through them.
Example: Rubber, glass, wood etc.
In terms of energy bands, insulators are those substances in
which the forbidden gap is very large.
Thus valence and conduction band are widely separated as
shown in fig. Therefore insulators do not conduct electricity
even with the application of a large electric field or by heating
or at very high temperatures.

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5.2 Conduction in conductors and
semiconductors

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity
lies in between that of a conductor and Insulator.
Example: Silicon, Germanium, Selenium etc.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those
substances in which the forbidden gap is narrow.
Thus valence and conduction bands are moderately
separated.

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Temperature co-efficient and its classifications

The temperature coefficient is the relative change of resistance

when the temperature varies.
It is of two types-positive temperature co-efficient and
negative temperature co-efficient
Positive temperature co-efficient
Resistance value increases as the temperature increases. E.g.:
Conductor
As the temperature increases the vibrations of the atoms of the
conductor become more vigorous.
As a result resistance of the conductor increases.
Hence they have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

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Temperature co-efficient and its classifications

Negative temperature co-efficient

Resistance value decreases as the temperature increases.
E.g.: Semiconductor
In Semiconductors when temperature increases, more
electrons jump to conduction band from valance bond.
Hence resistance decreases.
Semiconductors are classified into two types
a. Intrinsic semiconductors
b. Extrinsic semiconductors

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Intrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as Intrinsic

Semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, germanium.
Both silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence
electrons).
Each atom forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the
electrons of neighbouring atom.
At low temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bound
to the nucleus.
Hence no free electrons are available for conduction. The
semiconductor therefore behaves as an Insulator at absolute
zero temperature

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Intrinsic Semiconductor

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Intrinsic Semiconductor

At Room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain

enough thermal energy to break up the covalent bonds.
This breaking up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free and
is available for conduction.
When an electron escapes from a covalent bond and becomes
free electron a vacancy is created in a covalent bond.
Such a vacancy is called Hole. It carries positive charge

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Doping

Doping is mixing semiconductor with a CHOICED impurity in

a MEASURED quantity.
In other words, the process of adding impurity to
pure semiconductor is called doping.
The product formed after doping is called doped
semiconductors or extrinsic semiconductors.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the
number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor
crystal.

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Doping

If a pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is

added to the semiconductor, large number of free electrons
are produced in the semiconductor.
Eg: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), or Antimony (Sb)
Addition of trivalent impurity (having 3 valence electrons)
creates a large number of holes in the semiconductor.
E.g.: Boron (B), Gallium(Ga),Indium(In),Aluminum(Al)

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Extrinsic semiconductor

When an impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor

its conductivity changes.
This process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is
called Doping and the impure semiconductor is called
Extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are
doped with specific impurities.
Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic
semiconductors are further classified as n-type and p-type
semiconductor.

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Extrinsic semiconductors-N-type

When a small amount of pentavalent (atom with 5 electrons

in the outermost orbit) impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor it is called as n-type semiconductor.

102
Extrinsic semiconductors-N-type

Addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of

free electrons in a semiconductor crystal.
Pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony and
Phosphorus etc.
Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are
known as Donor impurities because they donate or
provide free electrons to the semiconductor
crystal.

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Extrinsic semiconductors-N-type

silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and

phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.
When phosphorus is added as impurity to silicon,
the 4 valence electrons of silicon make covalent
bond with 4 valence electrons of phosphorus.
The 5th Valence electron finds no place in the
covalent bond thus, it becomes free and travels to
the conduction band

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Extrinsic semiconductors-N-type

Due to thermal energy, still hole electron pairs as in pure

semiconductor are generated.
But the number of free electrons are very large in number
when compared to holes, due to impurity added, so in an n-
type semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers
and holes are minority charge carriers.
Since the current conduction is predominantly by free
electrons (negatively charges), it is called as n-type
semiconductor

105
Extrinsic Semiconductor P-Type

When a small amount of trivalent (atom with 3 electrons in

the outermost orbit) impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor it is called p-type semiconductor.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor P-Type

A pure silicon crystal with an impurity Aluminum added to

it.
silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and Aluminum has 3
electrons.
When Aluminium is added as impurity to silicon, the 3
valence electrons of Aluminium make 3 covalent bonds with
3 valence Electrons of silicon.
The 4th valence electrons of silicon cannot make a covalent
bond with that of Aluminum because of short of one
electron.
This absence of electron is called a hole.

107
Extrinsic Semiconductor P-Type

A small amount of Aluminium provides millions of holes

which is very large compared to the number of electrons.
Therefore, in a p-type semiconductor holes are majority
carriers and electrons are minority carriers.
Impurities which produce p- type semiconductors are
known as acceptor impurities because the holes created can
accept the electrons in the semiconductor crystal.
The current conduction is predominantly by hole (positive
charges) it is called as p-type semiconductor

108
Semiconductors

109
Majority and Minority carriers

An n-type material has a large number of free electrons and

small number of holes.
These free electrons are considered as majority carriers since
the majority portion of current in n-type is by the flow of free
electrons and the holes are the minority carriers.

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Majority and Minority carriers

A p-type material has a large number of holes and small

number of free electrons.
These holes are considered as majority carriers since the
majority portion of current in p-type is by the flow of holes
and the free electrons are the minority carriers.

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