9

Braking System
9.1. Introduction to braking system. 9.2. Necessity of a braking system. 9.3. Functions of brakes.
9.4. Requirements of a good braking system,9.5., Classification of brakes. 9.6. Mechanical brakes-
Introduction--Internal expanding mechanical brake--Hand or parking brake--Disc brakes. 9.7.
Hydraulic brakes-Introduction-Hydraulic braking system-Advantages and disadvantages
Hydraulic brake fluid -Bleeding of hydraulic brakes-Hll holder Self-energizing brakes. 9.8.
Power brakes--Air brakes--Air-hydraulic brakes--Engine exhaust brake Vacuum brakes
Electric brakes. 9.9. Brake effectiveness. 9.10. Factors controlling the stop of an automobile.
9.11. Arangement of brakes in different vehicles. 9.12. Brake shoes and linings. 9.13. Brake
drum. 9.14. Brake shoe holding down arrangements. 9.15. Brake testers. 9.16. Brake service.
9.17. Trouble-shooting chart for hydraulic brake system. 9.18. Trouble-shooting chart for air
brakes. 9.19. Trouble-shooting chart for brake shoes and drums. 9.20. Comparative brake data
of some Indian vehicles-Short Answer Questions--Highlights-Objective Type Questions
Theoretical Questions.

9.1. INTRODUCTION TO BRAKING SYSTEM

This chapter deals with the construction and operation of the various types of braking sys
tems used in automotive vehicles.
Brakes areone of the most important control components of the vehicle. They contribute very
much in the running and control of the vehicle.On the efficiency of brakes depends the lives and
comfort not only of driver and passengers but other persons moving on the road. Furthermore it is a
fact that owing to recent improvements in the braking mechanism it has been possible to have
increased speeds of the modern carson the road.
The braking system used most frequently operates hydraulically, by pressure applied through
a liquid. These arethe foot-operated brakes that the driver normally uses toslow or stop the car.
They are called the service brakes". In addition all cars have a parking-brake system which is
mechanically operated by a separate foot or hand lever. On some trucks and buses, the braking
brake. Many boat
System is operated by air pressure (pneumatically). This type of brake is an air
and camping trailers have electric brakes.
Allthe braking systems depend upon friction between moving parts and stationary parts
for their stopping force.
Braking efficiency is the ratio between the retarding force (or force of friction between
the linings and the drum) and the weight of the vehicle. It is expressed as percentage.

9.2. NECESSITY OF A
BRAKING SYSTEM
tends to slow
In an automobile, if the pressure from accelerator pedal is removed, the vehicle
would stop
up because of wind resistance, drag of engine and road friction. These forces, of course,
the vehicle but in the present day traffic, this would be quite unpracticable and dangerous. The
559
560 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEEIM,

braking system prouides added friction to overcome motion and to slow up or to stop the
momentum or kinetic energy developed by the vehicle whenin motion is converted to
the friction of brake shoes and drumswhich is dissipated into the surrounding air.
heatuehienergy
cle. Thery
9.3. FUNCTIONS OF BRAKES
Brakes perform the following functions :
1. To stop the moving vehicle in the shortest possible time.
2. To help in controlling the speed of the vehicle and to reduce the speed at turnings and cek
crowded places.
To hold the vehicle in its stationary position, without the presence of the operator, after is
has been brought to a stop.
In a moving vehicle, the friction between brake drum and brake shoes (having linir
riveted to it) slows down the rotation of wheel or stops the vehicle.
9.4.
REGQUIREMENTS OFA GOOD BRAKING SYSTEM
The requirements of agood braking system are as follows:
1.The brakes should stop the vehicle within a
smooth and free from reasonable distance. The retardation shall he
jerk or shudder.
2. The braking system should be very reliable to
3. The braking system should not be
promote highest degree of safety on the road.
affected by water, heat, road grit or dust etc.
4. Pedal effort applied by the driver should not
be more so as not to strain the driver.
5. Brake should work equally good in
all weathers.
6. The wear and tear of the
material of the brake lining should be minimum for its longer life.
7. Due to the rubbing action of brake
heat is generated due to friction. The brake shoes alongwith lining against drum, large amount of
very quickly. design system should be capable of dissipating this
heat
8. Allthe components and levers of
mechanical stresses and strains which are the braking system should be strong enough to take the
9. No braking system can work at encountered during brake actuation.
Good, tyres are, therefore, a prime its best through worn out or
essential for incorrectly inflated tyres.
The capacity of a brake depends efficient braking.
() The unit pressure between the upon the following factors :
(iü) The coefficient of friction braking surfaces.
(ii) The peripheral velocity of the
between the braking surfaces.
(iu) The projected area of the
brake drum.
(u) The ability of the brake tofriction surfaces.
dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being
9.5.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES absorbed.
Brakes may be classified as follows:
1. Mechanical brakes.
2. Hydraulic brakes.
3. Power brakes.
() Air brakes
(üi) Vacuum brakes (ü) Air-hydraulic brakes
(iv) Electric brakes.
BRAKING SYSTEM

9.6. MECHANICAL BRAKES

9.6.1. Introduction
The brakes which are operated
cranks, etc. are known as mechanically by means of levers, linkages, pedals, canS, bet
The external mechanical brakes.
brake. Automobiles
contracting brake
contain service brakeswhich Is usually hand brake in automobiles is mechanical
Mechanical operated
brakes were emploved in olden davsmechanically.
ing system have taken its place. but now hydraulic and other types of brak
9,6.2. Internal Expanding
Fig. 9.1 shows an internal Mechanical Brake
expanding brake (mechanica).
Construction. It consists of two shoes S. and S. The outer surfaces of the shoes are lined
with some friction material, to increase the frictional
the metal. Each shoe is pivoted at one end about a fxed coefficients and to prevent wearing away of
fulerwm (0, and O,) and made to contact a
cam at the other end. When the cam rotates, the shoesare pushed
outwards against the rim of the
drum. The friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking
torque and consequently
speed of the drum reduces. Brake shoe retracting spring which connects both the
their loose end helps them in contracting after the brakes are brake shoes at
released.
Cam
Shoe

Rim of
Shoe the drum

000000
Retracting
S, S spring

o 0,
Brake
lining

Fulcrum

Fig. 9.1. Internal expanding brake.

Operation:
When the brake pedal is pressed down, its motion is transmitted to the cam through
various mechanical linkages. The motion of the cam tends to expand out the brake shoes.
This inward motion of the brake shoes will try toslow down the motion of the rotating
brake drum, Because the wheel is fixed to the brake drum, so automatically it will be
held to move further.
When brake pedal is released, the pedal will move up because of the tension of the return
cam is moved
spring. Aretracting spring draws the shoes away from the drum when the
with the drum.
to its initial position and hence the brake shoes are no longer in contact
which is now free to rotate.

9.6.3. Hand Brake (or Parking brake)

brakes operate independently of the
Hand brakes are usually the mechanical brakes. Theseduring
toot brakes, These are used for parking on slopes and emergency and are also called
 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING,
562

on the side of the driver's seat.

"secondary brakes". Hand brake is generally located On moSt of
vehicles hand brake applies only the rear brakes. tha
Fig 9.2 shows a schematic diagram of atypical hand brake.
pressing the
In order to apply the brakes the ratched is released first byThen the brakeratchet
handle, which causes the pawl to move up, disengaging the rotchet.
up, while further pulls the cable which in them operates the rear brakes mechanical]lv is lever relpuleaslee)
linkage Operating on the piston of the rear wheel cylinder, which is two halves. The ratchet
handle which had been pressed so far is released now, so that the pawl moves down the
and engages with the ratchet thus keeping the brakes applied.
tsprihnrgorughaelacteasioen
Brake
Hand compensator
brake
lever
Pivot
Rear
brakes
Ratchet
Primary
cable

Secondary
cables

Fig. 9.2. Hand brake.

9.6.4. Disc Brakes
These brakes are
and the brake shoes are differentby from drum brakes in that the drum is
replaced by a
of the disc. These pads are replaced a caliper which
supports a pair of friction pads, onecircular plate
forced inward by the operating force and so on each side
Fig. 9.3 shows a disc brake with
fixed caliper. retard the disc.
Construction. A disc brake
iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and aconsists of a cast Fluid from lines
ing called caliper. The caliper is stationary hous
connected
tionary part of the vehicle (such as stub axle to some sta
casing) and is cast in two parts, each or axle
ton. In between the each piston and containing a pis Caliper
the disc, there is a
friction pad held in position by
plates etc. Passages are drilled retaining pins, spring
in the caliper for
fluid to enter or leave each the
are also connected to one housing. These passages
another
cylindercontains a rubber sealing ring for bleeding, Each
inder and the piston. between the cv]
Working. On the application of brakes, hydrau Activating
piston with
Disc
lically actuated pistons move the friction friction shaft
tact with the disc, pads into con
on the later. When applying equal and opposite forces
the brakes are released, the Revolving
sealing rings act as return rubber
springS and retract the disc
tons and the friction pads away nis.
from the disc.
Special types of dise brakes include the
ing caliper type and the sliding caliper type. swing.
Fig. 9.3. Discbrake with
fixed calipe
 BRAKING SYSTEM
563
The advantages and
Advantages : disadvantages of disc brakes compared with drum brakes are as follows :
(i) Lighter thandrum brakes
() Better cooling (since the
(iii) Offer better resistance to braking
fade
surface is exposed directly to air).
(ip) Uniform pressure distribution (since disc
() Brake pads can be easily replaced. brakes have no self-servo effect).
(ni) These brakes are self
Disadvantages :
adjusting by design.
() Costlier than drum brakes,
(i) For stopping the vehicle higher pedal
pressure is required.
(ii) There is no servo action in these brakes.
(iv) It is difficult to install an adequate parking
attachment.
The major drawback of a"nmechanical brake system "is that it is very difficult to get simul
taneous brake action on all the four wheels. Also lengths of various rods and cables vary
and this causes unequal braking action.

9.7. HYDRAULIC BRAKES

9.7.1. Introduction
Brakes which are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are known as hydraulic brakes.
In ahydraulic system, when the brakes are applied, the pressure in increased sufficiently in
the system to produce equal and uniform backing action on all the four wheels. The hvdraulic brakes
function on the principle of Pascal's law which reads as follows :
"Pressure applied to a liquid is transmitted equally in all directions."
9.7.2. Hydraulic Braking System
four wheels
The hydraulic braking system consists of four wheel cylinders, one at each of the connected
cylinder, which is
of the vehicle as shown in Fig. 9.4. The system also consists of one master
Wheel Wheel
Brake fluid
cylinder cylinder

Brake
pedal
Master
cylinder
Wheel Rear wheels
Wheel cylinder brake drums
L4
Front wheels cylinder
brake drums

Retracting
spring
Break lining
Break shoe
Fig. 9.4. Hydraulic brake syste.
will move out
contains two pistons, whichoperntion,
Each wheel cylinder the
steel tubing. not in
to thewheel cylinders bybe applied through brake fluid. When the brakes are
When the pressure will
 cyl1ndrical braka
564
Eoch wheel brake
consists of
it.
a
There are two brake drum
shoes
with brake fluid revolves with
SyStem is filled inner side ofthe whooland withit.
ounted on the not
rotate
down the brake pedal
inside each of the brake drum
but
be
do
annlied. the driver
presses
the fluid in the master
he pis
in the entire
Whenhydraulic
the brakes
0ced intothe master
are to
system. This pressure
cvlinder, thus
is the
increasing

wheel
pressure

cylinder
of
conductedinstantaneously to the whenl oyindersl
pistons outwards.
These
applied.
cyhnder
each of the four brakes, where it forcesthe drums. Thusthe brakes are
When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cyl1nder piston returhs to 1ts 0rIgIna
against the brake
force the brake shoes out
position due to the return spring pressure, andthusthefluid pressurein the entire System drops
its original low value, which :allows retracting springs on wheel brakes to pullthe brake hoes out
contact with the brake drums intotheir original positions. This causes the wheel cylinder pisto,
released.
position. Thus the brakes are
The hydraulic
also to come back to their systeminward
brakeoriginal contains two important components upon which the system

mostly dependent, these are :

1. Master cylinder
2. Wheel cylinder.
1. Master cylinder:
It is the main cylinder in the hydraulic brake system. It servesthe following objects in the
system.
() It builds up hydraulic pressure to operate the brakes.
(ü) It maintains a constant volume of fluid in the system owing to its reservoir.
(üi) It serves as a pump tobleed or force air out of the hydraulic system.
There are the following two types of master cylinders:
(a) "Single master cylinder" for all the front and rear wheel cylinders.
(b) "Tandem master cylinder'" containing separate units for front and rear wheel cvlinders.
(a) Single master cylinder:
Construction :
The master cylinder (Fig. 9.5), named as the
two main chambers: (i) The "fluid reservoir" (whichheart of the hydraulic brake systems, consists i
contains the fluid to supply
Filler cap -Vent
Reservoir

Main cylinder Filler or

Intake
Compensating
or

port bypass port

Stop ring
Link
Stop disc To brake
Outlet
lines
Boot

Secondary cup Piston

Primary cup Return Check Valve
Fig. 9.5. spring valve Seat

Master cylinder.
BRAKING SYSTEM 565

brake system), and (2) the "compression chamber" (in which piston operates). The reservoir
tothe
fluidtothe brake systemthrough two ports. The larger port is called the filler or intake port
suppliesconnected tothe hollow portion of the the piston on the
and is piston (there are a number of holes inwhich act as piston
primaryor high pressure seal side) between the primary and secondary cups
called the Compensating, bypass or relief port which connects the reservoir
seals.Thesmaller port is
position. The reservoir is
directly withthe cylinder and lines when the piston is in the released
ventedtothe atmosphere so that atmospheric pressure causes the flowthrough the filler port. The
placed inthe filler cap. The "boot" covers the push rod andthe end of the cylinder to keep it
ventis fluid
from foreign matter. Towards the brake lines side of the compression chamber, there is a
free pressure in the brake lines
"checkvalve" with arubber cup inside. It serves to retain the residual
even when
the brakes are released.
Working:
force
When the brake pedal is pressed piston of the master cylinder moves forward to system. The
out of the
the liquid under pressure into the svstem. The relief port is sealed cylinder
the wheel
liquid pressure is conducted to the wheel cvlinders, where it forces brake drums and
the
pistons outwards. These pistons force the brakes shoes out against
the brakes are applied.
spring quickly forces the master
As soon as the brake pedal is released, the return
fluid in the lines returns rather
cylinder piston back against the piston stop. Since the of the piston. This causes the
slowly, a vacuum tends to form in the cylinder in front
flow from the reservoir through the
primary cup to collapse/deflect to allow the liguid to
filler port past the piston to fill the vacuum.
flow from the reservoir through the
When the pedal is in "off position", the liquid may
and wheel cylinders to make up for any
relief port in the master cylinder, supply lines,
shrinkage cooling of the liquid. In this way, a
fluid that may be lost or to compensate for between the master cylinder piston and
complete column of liquid is always maintained
wheel cylinder pistons. bleed air out of the
some makes of master cylinders a bleeder screw is also provided to
In
master cvlinder.
(b) Tandem master cylinder : and medium type of vehicles. However.
cylinder is mostly used in all small
simple master
A
master cylinder is used.
in some vehicles, the tandem reservoirs
cylinder with two separatecylinders and operating
"tandem master cylinder" is the master cylinder
A operating front brakes and the other being put out of
master cylinder assembly, one vehicle
in the same brakes of a
avoids the possibility of all thecylinder.
rear brakes. This master cylinder
pipe line leading to one wheel
order by a leak or fracture in the cost. In this arrangement separate lines go to ditter
not much extra the
It ensures reliability with the rear and the front brakes and it so arranged that if
system, say, rear brake line is
ent sections of thebrake rear brakes will be still effective. Similarly if
Iront brake lines are damaged, the
defective, at least front brakes will be applied. tandem master cylinder. Two pistons have been
diagram of a the
Fig. 9.6 shows a single lineother. If line A fails, the piston A bottoms against the end of
each brakes to one
Shown which are in line with to
applying
develop pressure in the line B thusbuilding up pressure in
cylinder while the piston B continues piston A, thus
wheels. If the line B fails piston B comes up against
Set of the
line A.
tandem master cylinder. As shown in diagram,space
sectional view of a directly by the brake pedal. The
Fig. 9.7 shows the rear being operated brakes is made at
two pistons, the
aster cylinder containsconnected brakes while the connection to rear
to the front
between the pistons 1s link.
the front end opposite to operating
 S66 AUTOMOBILE,
Piston

A ’A
B
I,

Piston B

Fig. 9.6. Simple line diagram of tandem master cylinder.

To front Filler plug

brakes -Top cover

-Gasket
Secondary Main
Dust boot Cup port
Bypass Reservoir
port Main Bypass
port
port End plug
Check
valves

Push rod
To rear brakes
Primary Main Return
piston
Cup
Rubber Stopper Return spring
spring Cup bolt
Secondary
piston
Rubber cup
Fig. 9.7. Tandem master
cylinder (Sectional view).
Depressing the
ing cylinder for front brake pedal moves the rear piston
brakes.
moves ahead developing an Since the front piston is free inward developing pressure in the operi
equal pressure in the to move along the
motion of the front piston is operating cylinder, so it als
cylinder for rear brakes. The retur
Wheel cylinder (orlimited
2. by the stopper
Slave screw.
Refer to Fig. 9.8. Awheel cylinder):
spring. The fluid presses cylinder
against pistons. Theconsists of a cylinder, two
pistons move outward inpistons. two
the cvlinder.rubber cups au
When the ps
Cylinder
Spring
Dust
COver

Piston Rubber
Cups Piston
Fig. 9.8. Wheel
cylinder.
BRAKING SYSTEM
567

ecloser, the lhquid is torced into the master cvlinder. The spring
between the two pistons holas
the rubber cups in position.
The copper-coated, tin-plated annealed steel tubing and flexible hoses are used to con
nect the master cylìnder to the wheel cvlinders, The hoses are used to connect the lines
to the front wheel cylinder to permit the front wheel to be turned. Rear wheel cylinders
are generally connected directly to a line fastened to the rear axle housing. The brake
lines are attached directly or by means of brackets tothe frame or axle
housings.
9.7.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic
Brakes
Advantages :
1.Equal braking effort to all the four wheels (since fluid exerts equal
pressure every where in
the circuit).
2, The system is simple in
construction.
3. Less rate of wear (due to absence of joints compared to mechanical brakes).
4.The system is mostly self-lubricating.
5. Increased braking effort.
6. High mechanical advantage.
7. Flexibility in brake lines.
8. The hydraulic brakes can also provide differential braking action between the front and
rear brakes by using the wheel cylinder of different size for the front and rear wheels.
Disadvantages :
1. Even slight leakage of air into the braking system makesit useless.
2.The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.
3. This system is suitable only for applying brakes intermittently. For parking purpose sepa
rate mechanical linkage has to be emploved.
9.7.4.Hydraulic Brake Fluid
The fluid used in the braking system is a special kind of fluid which has to be satistactory
under all conditions. Most fluids are based on polyglycols and additives are added to achieve the
required properties. A50 percent solution of caster oil in alcohol to which a neutraliser is added.
meets the above mentioned requirements satisfactorily. The neutraliser is added to counter act the
effect of any free acids which may be present in caster oil or alcohol.
The hydraulic brake fluid should possess the following characteristics :
1. Should be non-compressible.
2. Must remain fluid at low temperature.
3. Should not rust corrode or rust metallic parts in the brake system.
4. Mix satisfactorily with other makes of hydraulic fluids.
5. Must be chemically stable.
6. Should not soften the rubber parts used in the hydraulic brake svstem.
7. Must act as a lubricant to the moving parts inside the system.
8. Must retain all its characteristics for a maximum long period.
9.7.5. BIeeding of Hydraulic Brakes
automobile is called
The process of eliminating or removing air out of the braking system of an
"bleeding".
 S68 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
the svstem
The hydrauic braking system must be bled to remove air from
()A pipeline or any part has been disconnected from the
replace the parts.
systenm to do anywhenever
repair ;
work or
() There is a leak and the air bas entered the system through that leak.
(ii) Whenever the fluid level inthe master cvlinder has become too low or the
in the master cvlinder has been allowed to run dry (Ths may be the result ofuid
When the air traps into the systemn, it being compressible, the effort of brake pedal reservor
leak).
notgoes waste
in applying brakes. Until and unless air from the svstem is removed, the brakes would
Droperly. Hence, to remove air from the svstem it must be blea.
When bleeding the brakes, it is gdvisablethat the longest fluid line from the. function
master cylinder is
Oled first, the next longest second. ete. The master cylinder must be kept 3

fluid dring the bleeding

least 4 full of hydraulhe
operation.
Bleeding procedure:
1. After removing all dirt from around the
and hll the master cylinder to the lower edge of themaster cylinder filler plug, remove the
2. Clean all bleeding
connections at all
filler neck.
four wheel cylinders. Attach bleeder hose
filler pug
to longer brake line wheel cvlinder
bleeder screw and place end of the bleeder tube in and fixture
containing some brake liquid. aglass ia
3. Open the bleeder valve
it to return very slowly. one-half to three-quarter to a turn. Depress the foot
the bleeder hose which Continue this pumping action to force the fluid pedal, allowing
carries through the line
at the end of the with it any air in
bleeder hose, close the bleeder the system (Fig. 9.9). \When bubbles cease and
to
out of
valve and remove the hose. appear

Fig. 9.9.
4. When the Bleeding of brake.
reservoir and replacebleeding
the filleroperation
plug.
at each wheel
eylinder is completed, fill the cylinder
Don't reuse the
liquid
ess because it containswhich has been mastel
Don't mix two brands of bubbles andremoved
air from the lines proc
brake fluids dirt. through the bleeding
BRAKING SYSTEM 569

9.7.6. HillHolder
It is an auxiliary braking device used on hvdraulic braking system. It automatically prevents
brake, and
carfrom sliding down on a grade after it has been fully stopped bythe use of service
thelong as the clutch is disengaged.
The hill holder essentially consists of a check in the fluid line just ahead the master cylinder
bich maintains the pressure as long as the clutch is held disengaged.
With this device in the hydraulic svstem. the driver can remove his foot from brake and use it
onthe accelerator as the clutch is engaged.
9.7.7.Self-energizing Brakes
Usually the hydraulic wheel brakes of drum type are provided with a self-energizing or seruo
fogture. in which the force of rotating drum is utilized to increase the brake pressure.
The self-energizing brake shoe action is shown in Fig. 9.10 (The relative size of the arrOWs
indicates the increase of brake force or pressure). When the vehicle is travelling forward, the drum
is rotating in anticlockwise direction. When the brakes are applied, the primary shoe at the left,
tends to move in the drection of drum's rotation, due to the friction of rotating drum. Because the
prinary shoe is linked to the secondary shoe at the bottom, the secondary shoe is forced against the
anchor pin at the top. This action causes to force both the shoes into tighter contact with drum and
the braking force is applied more uniformally. This combination of forces is the self energizing ac
tion. Since greater force is applied to the secondary shoe, the secondary shoe lining area is usually
larger than the primary shoe lining area.
Anchor
pin
Applying force
wheel cylinder
Drum Heel
rotation

Primary Secon
brake dary
shoe brake
Oshoe

Heel
Car moving
forward Adjusting screw
Fig. 9.10. Self-energizing brake shoe action.

9.8. POWER BRAKES

Brakes operated by power other than physical effort applied at brake pedal, are known as
energy.
pOwer brakes. The power may be exerted by air pressure, engine vacuum or electrical
power assists or supplements
There are semi-power or power assisted brakes too, in which the the
; in these brakes
ne power in actuating thebrakes. "Hydrovac brakes" are semi-power brakes
Cngine vacuum assists in the actuation of hydraulically operated brakes.
S70 AUTOMOBILE EN
Main features
are:
The main features of the power brake system
the moment when pedal is pressed
1. "Time-lag" or the time internal between
moment when the brakes are put on must be very smalt. down and
2. The force applying the brakes should be closely proportional to
the
force by :
driver on the brake pedal.
The brake system should be such that the driver may judge the intensitvof
exerted
the
tion of brakes fairly accurately.
These days the following systems are predominantly used for actuating the brakes :
1. Air brakes. 2. Air hydraulic brakes.
app,.
3. Vacuum brakes. 4. Electric brakes.
9.8.1. Air Brakes
9.8.1.1. Deseription of air brakes
In air brakes, the brake shoe cam is operated by means ofi air
operating
developed by an air compressor driven by the engine. There are separate brake which ipressure
separate brake shoe operating cams. The brake chambers are connected
means of pipe line. A brake valve operated by the foot with the air chamberreservor
for the s
affects the brake chambers. Fig. 9.11 shows the general pedal, controls the pressure of air wh:by
arrangement (simnple line
brake system for bus or truck. diagram) an
brake system. Fig. 9.12 shows the layout of an air of

Air
Brake
chambers Air filter

Brake Compressor
valve
-Unloader valve
Reservoir To accessories

Brake
chambers
Fig. 9.11.
When the foot pedal is Generalarrangement of an air
The diaphragm is linked with pressed down, air brake system.
in the brake the brake sshoe pressure acts on the
chamber causing operating diaphragm of brake chamber.
outwards and hold the moving movement
brake
of brake shoecamshaft. The
diaphragm is pushedoutward
applied. drums as they comeoperating cam. The brake shoe expands
As soon as the into its The brakes are thus
return spring. This pressure is
released contact.
ber. The brake shoe results in closing of brakefrom the brake pedal, it with the help ot
the brake chamber. operating
The cam valve and comes back
moves in the reverse release pressure inside brake on
of chat:
the brake drum of the brake shoe direction as a result of the release
binding effect. contracts inward
The brakes are with the help of pressure
Spring. releasit#
BRAKING SYSTEM S71

Brake Governor
chamber Slack
Slack adjuster adjuster
Hose Brake
chamber
Quick release Gauge
valve Tubing tee
Compressor
Hose
Satety
valve
Brake
valve Reservoir

-Hose

Stop light switch

Fig. 9.12. Lavout of an air brake svstem for bus or truck.

Main parts of an air brake :
Following are the main parts of an air brake :
(i) Air compressor. (ii) Unloader valve.
(ii) Reservoir. (iv) Brake valve.
(v) Brake chamber. (vi) Quick release valve.
(vii) Relay valve. (vii) Warning signal.
() Air compressor:
" It builds up air pressure in reservoir.
" A piston type air compressor is commonly employed in the brake system. When piston
moves downwards air is drawn intothe cylinder through intake valve. When the piston
moves upward, the intake valve is closed and outlet valve is opened by the air pressure
and the air is forced out into the reservoir.
(i) Unloader valve :
" This valve is mounted in the air pressure system between the compressor and the reser
voir tocontrol the pressure of air in the reservoir. lt relieves the compressor of its pump
ing load once the unloader cut-out pressure is obtained and seals the reservoir when the
compressor has built up a pressure depending upon the setting of the adjusting
which is normally 7.4 bar. The unloader then diverts the air delivered by the compressor
to the atmosphere thus allowing the compressor to run right whilst the reservoir contains
an adequate supply of air.
" It consists mainly of a gouernor valve, an unloader plunger and a non-return valve.
(iüi) Reservoir :
" t stores compressed air at the specified pressure for brake application.
It is made of sheet steel and a safety valve is provided at the top of the reservoir to
regulate the air pressure. A drain plug is also provided at the bottom for periodic drain
ing of the reservoir,without which the lubricating oil from the compressor and moisture
in the air would form emulsion which would damage the other brake units (e.g.. brake
valve, brake chambers etc.).
 AUTOMOOBILE ENGINEERIN,

e) Brake valve:
" ltis the controlvalve which is operated by the brake pedal. It controls the intensi.
braking inan air pressure system.
" lt is located between the reservoir and air lines leading to individual brake chamhe
() Brake chamber :
The brake chambers convert the energyof the compressed air into mechanical for
and motion necessary to operate the vehicle brakes.
A brake chamber consists of a housing which encloses a movable
nected by arod linked to the brake shoe operating camshaft. The chamberdiaphragrn con
is
into two parts by the diaphragm, the side opposite to the rod being air divided
tight. Ai.
pressure acts in the air tight portion of the chamber which causes deflection of dio
phragm and application of brakes.
() Quick release valve:
" It is emploved in the front brake lines to
chambers.
accelerate the release of air from the brake
lt directly releases pressure to the
() Relay valve:
atmosphere rather than through the brake valve
The relay valve speeds up the application and
release of air from the brake chambers.
" It supplies air to the brake
chambers directly from the reservoir for quick application
of the brake. It also exhausts
to the atmosphere rather thancompressed
air from the rear brake chambers
through the brake valve. directlr
(ii) Warning signal:
It is a warning light or buzzer
which warns low pressure in the circuit.
9.8.1.2. Advantages and
Advantages : disadvantages of air brakes
Air brakes entail the
following
1. Much more powerful than theadvantages
:
are exclusively used in heavy ordinary mechanical or hydraulic brakes (that is
vehicles). why these
2. Simplified chassis design.
3. The compressed air from reservoir, apart from
windscreen wipers, horns etc. braking, can be used for tyre intlation
Disadvantages :
1. Involve
2. The air
relatively more parts.
compressor uses a certain amount of the
9.8.1.3. Failsafe brake system engine power.
In an unikely event of
asafety system has sudden loss of air pressure due to
been developed for Viking the failure of a unit in the brake systet
called the fail safe brake system and has Cornet model, as a
(i) In case of failure in the
air
the following essential featuresprecautionary
: measure. It
due to the application of the pressure system, thevehicle will
spring
(ii) It can be used for both brakes on the rear wheels, automatically come to a st
brake assembly is eliminated. hand brake and parking purpose and as such the
(iüi) It will not be possible for mechanical n
sure (4 bar, minimum) is built up in the driver to move the vehicle away unless
the system. sufficient air pre
BRAKING SYSTEM S73

This svstem consIsts of the following major assemblies :

() Hand control valve. (ü)) Double check valve.
iü) Spring brake chamber.
The circuit diagram of a fail safe brake system is shown in Fig. 9.13. The working of the
:
SVstem is as follows

Reservoir
Unloaded washer Air filter
Air compressor
-Steering
Pressure
Double check valve Brake gauge
Hand control valve valve

Brake chamber Stop light switch

Spring brake
chamber
Fig. 9.13. Circuit diagram of a fail safe brake system.
The movement of the vehicle takes place only when adequate pressure is built up in the
air reservoir. When the air pressure in the system is inadequate, the spring brakes are
applied. As soon as the air pressure starts building up with the engine compressor run
ning this pressure is communicated to the spring brake chamber. When the air pressure
exceeds the hold off pressure of the spring brake chamber, the springs are held off and
the brakes are released. During the service brake operation the main spring in the spring
brake chamber is held out of action by ai pressure and does not affect the operation of
the service brake.
" When the hand brake is applied by operating handle to "ON" position, the air supply to
the spring brake chamber is cut-off and the air pressure in the chamber is released to the
atmosphere through the hand brake valve.
As the air exhausts, the main spring forces the push rod out and applies the brake. When the
hand brake is released, air supply is restored to the spring brake and the brake is released as the
spring is held off by the air pressure.
Under emergency condition when the system air pressure drops below the spring brake
hold off pressure, the spring will exert force and apply the brakes. In case the brake
valve fails, the hand control valve has to be operated to apply the spring brakes.
9.8.2. Air-hydraulic Brakes
In air-hvdraulic brakes, the air pressure is converted into hydraulic pressure. In this svstem
the air power cylinder is combined with the hydraulic master cylinder and the reservoir. With the
help of this unit the conventional type hydraulic brakes are actuated by the air power.
Fig. 9.14 shows the circuit diagram of compressed air-hydraulic brakes of Tata truck braking
System. The system consists of the following parts :
574
AUTOMOBILE NGINEERIN,
(i) Air compressor. (ii) Tyre inflating bottle.
(iii) Air pressure regulator. (iv) Air container.
() Truck brake valve. (vi) Air pressure gauge.

Unloaded valve
Lever type servo

Reservoir
From compressor
Pre reg. valve
Tyre inflator
and filter assy Gauge
Foot control valve

Air cylinder

Fig. 9.14. Circuit diagram of air-hydraulic brakes of Tata truck.

The compressed air delivered by the air compressor (incorporated in engine) is used to assi
the hydraulic brake system to increase brake efficiency. As shown in Fig. 9.14 the compressed a
from the compressor flows to the tyre inflating bottle, to the air
tainer, and to the truck brake valves when desired. pressure regulator, to the air con.
9.8.3. Engine Exhaust Brake
It is an auxiliary brake and should be used under the
following circumstances :
(i) In traffic situations demanding slowing down over a long
stretch of road.
(ii) While travelling on long downhill gradient.
The exhaust brake serves the following
purposes.
(i) Improves the life and efficiency of the service brakes.
(iü) Increases the life of the service brake linings and drums.
(iii) Reduces overheating of service brakes.

Engine
exhaust

Butterfly.
valve

Air
\cylinder
Link to
fuel cut-off

Foot control
valve
Pressure
regulator

Compressed
air tank

To brake valve
Fig. 9.15. Schematic
diagram of engine exhaust brake.
BRAKING SYSTEM 575

The main components of the engine brake svstem (Fig. 9.15) are :
1. Pressure regulator. 2. Foot control valve.
3. Aircylinder.
This brake is operated by depressing afoot control valve located between the clutch and
brake pedals and keeping it depressed as longit is required to apply the engine brake. By a linkage
attachedto exhaust brake air cylinder, the throttle valve at the exhaust manifold is closed; at the
same time, the accelerator lever comes to stop position and the accelerator pedal is locked thus
utting off the fuel. This brake is very effective below vehicle speed of 40 km/h. However, it must be
Pemembered that it cannot stop the vehicle like a service brake.
As a design improvement, the exhaust operation hasnow been coupled with a service brake.
Hence whenever brake pedal is depressed for applving service brakes, the engine exhaust brake
alsogets operated automatically. This improvement has been gradually introduced in Tata truck
models 1210, 1510, 1612, 1613. The major advantages derived from the improved des1gns are i
(i) Optimum fuel economy.
(ii) Reduce maintenance time and cost.
(iii) Increased safety and better control of vehicle.
(iv) Improved life of brake liners, brake drums and tyres.
9.8.4. Vacuum Brakes
servo
Any mechanism which adds to the driver's effort in applying the brakes is called a that
although
mechanism (It may be mentioned that servo is also used in place of power cylinders),
effort remains a considerable part of the total braking effort required.
servos
Initially mechanical servos were used, but after the introduction of vacuum operated
these have becomes obsolete.
application.
ln the vacuum brakes the suction fromn the engine inlet manifold is utilised for brake
diaphragm operating
There are two types of vacuum brakes, both incorporating a piston or a vacuum reservoir is
A small
in a cylinder and provided with suitable linkage for brake application.
applications even after the engine has stopped.
also there toprovide enough vacuum for severalbrake
atmosphere when brakes are
First type. In this system both sides of the piston are exposed to
vacuum is applied on one side of the piston,
in the released position. For applying brakes, engine linkage. This system is called
subjecting the same to differential pressure and thus operating the
"atmospheric suspended" system.
to engine vacuum in the
Second type. In this case both sides of the piston are subjected
atmosphere which provides the
brakes released position. To apply brakes, one side is exposed to
suspended" system.This system is pre.
desired force on the piston. This system is called "vacuum
more rapid in action. These days vacuum
ferred over the first system since this is comparatively
Suspended brakes are predominantly used.
exhausted from both sides of the piston in a
In "vacuum suspended servo" the air is first
the air then admitted from the atmosphere to one
large cylinder and during the application of brake, cylinder is controlled by the driver. The piston of
Side of the piston. The amount of air entering the which in turn moves the hydraulic piston thus
the cylinder moves under the pressure differential
cylinders. The vacuum (about 0,35 bar) is obtained
10ring the fluid into brake pipes into the wheel vacuum reserve tank is fitted between servo
ITom the inlet manifold of the engine. In this system a
the help of non-return valves in order to enable
and engine. The tank and servoare protected with components. The tank provides reserve of some
them to hold some vacuum in case of failure of other
stops in quick succession.
Cacuum which can be utilised for making number of on cars.
engine vacuum was the only source of power for vacuum-assist brakes
Tillnow provision of emission controls, some vehicles
However, with the use of smaller engines and
 AUTOMOBILE
576 dO not have sufficient vaeuum to operatethe power brake8, In such cases,. neparate

pumps are used.

9.8.5. Electric Brakes
battery is ulilized to energize an
In an electric brake the current from the
within the brake drum. This actuates a cam toepand the brake
and brake by
controlled shoes are ofreturned
mneans to the
arheostat, which
shoes. When current
release position by retractor springs. The
seuerity a
is operated by the driver through the foot pedal.
pedal is
electrobnraakginngew
Hydraulic pressure has also been used to apply electric brakes, As
hydraulic pressure actuates the rheostat to increase eurrent to the electromagnet, presHed
Advantages :
Electric brakes claim the following advantages :
1. Simple in design and installation.
2. Simplified operating linkage (only one cable for each drum).
3. Less time-lag between the
pressing of brake pedal and application of brakes at the whe
4. Much better control over the braking effort.
5. Absence of grab.
6. No adjustment required during its lining life.
7. For trailer brakes, this type offers much simplified
carried to the trailer side.
connections; simply one cable haste.
Electric brakes are not very popular, as service brakes. "These are
trailers. commonly used tr
9.9. BRAKE EFFECTIVENESS
The following factors contribute to the
1. Amount of pressure applied to the effectiveness the brakes :
of
shoe brakes.
2. Area of brake linings.
3. Radius of brake drum.
4. Radius of car wheel.
5. Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces.
6. Coefficient of friction between tyre and road surface.
9.10. FACTORS
CONTROLLING THE STOP OF AN AUTOMOBILE
The following factors
1. Speed and load:
control the stop of an automobile :
Lesser the speed
vehicle as the and lesser the load, the less
brakes convert energy of energy shall be absorbed to stopthe
The higher the
ping a vehicle,
speed and more the load,motion into heat.
the more energy shall be absorbed for stop
2. Road surface.
The
nature of road. If the road is coefficient of friction
dry. slippery, the vehicle shallbetween the road and tyre 1s affected bythe
stop at a greater road Ë
than if the
3. Tyre tread. good
A
friction than a smooth tyre. tyre tread has good
distance
holding ability. It provides coefficientef
a
greater
BRAKING SYSTEM
577
4. Gradient :
When a vehicle is going un a grodient or hill. the gyavitational force
ping the movement of the assists n stop
vehicle.
If the vehicle is going down a gradient or hill., the force of gravity
tends to keep tne
vehicle moving and hence a greater braking force is reguired to overcome its move
ment.

5 Number of wheels braking :

" For getting maximum braking effort all the wheels should be equipped with brakes.
lf any of the wheels is not eguinned with brakes the time and distancesof stopping
the vehicle shall increase.
6. Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces. The ability tohold a moving wheel 1s con
trolled by the coefficient of friction between the brakelining and brake drum. If the linkages are
glazed with oil or grease they will tend the brake drums toslip as the coefficient of friction is lowered
down.
7. Braking force of engine. The engine is also used as a brake when going down a hill. The
braking effect of the engine is more in lower gear speed than in direct drive.
8. Pressure applied through energization, More the self-energizing ability of the brake
shoe. better the braking effect.
9. Weight transfer. On application of brakes, there is a natural transfer of weight from the
rear wheels to the front wheels caused bv the tendencv of the mass to continue in its forward motion.
The greater the deceleration, the greater is the load or weight transfer from rear to front wheels.
During the stop, the weight holding the rear wheels to the road is lessened while the weight on the
front wheel is increased by exactly the same amount. Itis due tothis fact that brakes are designed so
thatapplied effort is greater on front wheels than on the rear.
9.11.ARRANGEMENT OF BRAKES IN DIFFERENT VEHICLES
In an automobile, there are two types of brakes viz. "service brake" and "hand brake". The
arrangement of these brakes in different automobiles is usually as under:
1.Service orfoot brake applicable to all front and rear wheels and hand brake applicable to
rear wheels alone.
2. Service or foot brake on all wheels and hand brake on drum at transmission shaft.

9.12. BRAKE SHOES AND LININGS

" Brake shoes are made of metal to which alining of friction material is attached. The
lining has to be tough. During hard braking, the shoe may be pressed against the drum
by force of 4500 N or higher. Since friction increases as the applied force increases, a
strong frictional drag is produced on the brake drum. This produces the braking effect at
the wheel.
between the brake shoes
A large quantity of heat is produced by the frictional contact
and the drum. Under heavy braking conditions, drum-brake temperatures may reach
260°C. Some heat flows through the brake linings to the shoes andheat braking plate.
There the heat is carried away by the surrounding air. But most of the is absorbed
provide additional
by the brake drum. Some brake drums have cooling fins. They some brake
surface to get rid of the heat more quickly. To help provide drum cooling,
Iinings are grooved at the centre.
linings, When the
Excessive temperature may damage brakes and burn the brake changes. Then less
linings and drums are excessively hot, the coefficient of friction
 AUTOMOBILE
S78
reasOnthat brakes "fade"
effective braking action results.
Ous use, as driving down a
This is the
moun tain.
type"or."moulded type".
ajler con
either of "solid woven
The brake linings are average coefficient
linings have anresistance
The asbestos base non-metallic is about
about 260°C. This maximum temperature 350°C,
Alo
upto non-metallic type,
have better resistance to wear than the
Zinc wire lin1ngs
to conduct some heat awav
"Moulded from
type the working
linings" surtace.directly from the mi which contais asbes.
are prepared
fibres, together with resin powders and fillers. These linings have good 1Dear resistan
Their maximum temperature resistance is about 450°C. The average coelieen

Thefriction
brakingis linings
0.4.
are attached (Fig. 9.16) with shoe brakes by synthetic resin adh
sives or by riveting. The first method is preferable, duetothe following reasong
() Absence of riveting holes.
(ü) More contact surface.
(ii) Free from scoring action.
(iv) More effective wearing thickness.
Top of shoe
.Anchor
end
Toe

Adjusting Adjusting
end
end

Heel
Bonded lining Riveted lining
Fig. 9.16. Two methods of attaching the lining to
the shoe.
9.13. BRAKE DRUM
The brake drum rotates with the road wheel
and provides
shoes to come in to contact for braking action. The brake drums are ausually
contacting
madesurface
of cast for
iron.t Insome
cases brake drums are made of steel or
aluminium having inner
In most cases, pins are provided at the outer surface ofliner
the of cast drum
brake iron. for rapiddissipt
tion of heat and thus help in its cooling.
9.14. BRAKE SHOE HOLDING DOWN
ARRANGEMENTS
In internal expanding brakes the brake shoes are held in position by different Wavsind1ier
ent designs of brakes. Some popular methods of
holding down brake shoes are:
BRAKING SYSTEM
579
1 Single anchor
9 Double anchor
arrangement.
3 Self centring orarrangement.
A. Separate wheel adjusting
cylinders arrangement.
for
KArticulating link each brake shoe.
arrangement.
1.Single anchor arrangement :
In this case, boththe
primary and secondary brake shoes are anchored at their bottom
ends through a 'single anchor' or pivot attached to back plate. The upper ends 01 the
brake shoes rest over the whee] cvlinder pistons or
be. operating cam, as ue vane
The brake shoes are adiusted by snail cams at upper parts of the back plate and by a
cam operated by the anchoring bolt at the lower
2. Double end.
anchor arrangement :
In this arrangement, the individual brake shoes are anchored at their bottom ends
through
separate anchor bolts. The upper ends of brake shoes rest over the wheel cylinder pistons 0r operat
ing cam. The adjustment of brake shoes is carried out as is done in single anchor
arrangement.
In some cases, adjustment of brake shoes at theirupper ends is through notched collars
provided at the wheel cylinder pistons. The collars are screwed in or out to adjust the
brake shoes at their upper ends.
3. Self centring or adjusting
arrangement :
In this case the brake shoes are not pivoted at their lower ends : the lower ends simply rest
over the brake adjuster. The brake shoes are held over the brake adjuster and wheel cylinder or
brake expander by means of springs, one at the lower and the other at the upper end and hold1ng
down springs and clips. The brake adjuster may be of girling type or bendix or screw type.
In certain cases, there is a peg or anchor placed between the uppermost ends of the
brake shoes. In some cases the anchor is fixed whereas in some designs, it is adjustable.
The wheel cylinder is located below that peg which assists in self-energization action
and servo action of the brakes.
4. Separate wheel cylinders for each brake shoe:
In this type of arrangement there are separate wheel cylinders for the individual
brake shoes. One end of each brake shoe is anchored to one wheel cylinder which
operates the opposite brake shoe. There are two retracting springs, one at the lower
end and the other at the upper end.
The adjustment of the brake shoes is through snail cams and anchor bolt cams.
5. Articulating link arrangement :
In this case, the brake shoes are connected to single anchor pin through articulating inks.
which connect the lower ends of the brake shoes together. The pivot pin for articulating ink is
anchored to the back plate. The upper ends of the brake shoes rest over the piston ends of the wheel
cylinder. The articulating links provide double lever action on the brake shoes which results in self
energization.
9.15. BRAKE TESTERS
The braketesters are of the following two lypes:
1. Static brake tester.
2. Dynamic brake tester.
1. Static brake tester :
One type of static tester has four tread plates and registering colunmns (Fig. 9.17). To make
tne tests, the car is driven onto the tread plates at a specified speed and the brakes are applied hard.
 AUTOMOBILE NGINERIN

The stopping fone at each wheel is regist ered onthe four columns, Ifthe readings are too \oU, or
unequal, brake service is needed. are
Four
registering
columns

Tread
plate

Fig. 9.17. Statie brake tester.

2. Dynamic brake tester :
The dynamic brake tester has rollers in the floor. The two wheels for which brakes are
tested are placed on the rollers (Fig. 9.18). If these wheels are drive tk
the speciied speed by the vehicle engine. For nondriving wheels, the wheels, the wheels are spun at
an electric motor. Then throttle is released or the electric rollers and wheels are spun hr
The braking force at wheel registers on meters. This shows ifmotor is turned off and brakes are applied
need service. the brake performs normally or if they

Idle roller

Driven roller

Fig. 9.18. Dynamic brake

tester.
9.16. BRAKE SERVICE
Ifthere is any
complaint of faulty braking action it should be
Sometimes, all that is necessary in the analysed to determine thecause.
to compensate for
lining wear. earlier drum brakes is a adjustment
automatically adjust to On the later drum brakes with brake-shoe
self thebrakes
compen sate for lining uvear,
Other brake services include adjusters, mayfail.
the following: However, the self-adjusters
() Addition of brake fluid.
(Gi) Bleeding the hydraulic
system to remove air.
BRAKING SYSTEM 581

(ii) Repair or replacement of master cylinders, wheel cylinders, and calipers.

(iv) Replacement of brake linings.
() Refinishing of brake drums or disks.
(ui) Overhauling of power brake units.