Satistical Quality control

SQC
 Statistical Quality Control
• Definition-Statistical Quality Control (SQC)–
When statistical techniques are employed to
control the quality or to solve quality
problems
SQC consists of three general activities
• Systematic collecting and recording data
• Analyzing the data
• Practical implementation or management
action
 Benefits of SQC
1. It provides a means of detecting error at inspection.
2. It leads to more uniform quality of production.
3. Better utilization of raw material
4. Improve inspection standards
5. It reduces inspection costs.
6. It reduces the number of rejects and saves the cost of
material.(reduction of scrap)
7. Improves productivity
8. It points out the bottlenecks and trouble spots.
9. It provides a means of determining the capability of the manufacturing
process.
10. It promotes the understanding and appreciation of quality control.
11. It improves the relationship with the customer.
12. Easy to apply
 Variable and Attribute Measurement
• Variable-When measurements are carried out to quality
characteristic of component the quality expressed by
variables. Continuous data
• These measurements are carried out with the help of
precision measuring instruments
• Example Dimension of the part, hardness, temperature
• Data obtained is continuous data. Values can be in fraction.
• Attribute-when data is of the yes-or-no variety. Conforming
to specific requirement. Discrete data
• Example-Go and No-Go Gauge
• Data obtained is discrete data.
• The values can not be in fraction.
Difference between Variable and
Attribute
 Different SQC Tools
• Histogram
• Bar chart
• Frequency Polygon
• Process capability study
• Various control charts.
When measured size of all the parts are plotted
against the frequency of occurrences of each size in
the form of graph is called frequency distribution.
 • A graph that uses vertical
Frequency Histogram columns to
show frequencies (how many
times each score occurs).
• And no gaps between the bars.
• To make a histogram, follow
these steps:
• On the vertical axis,
place frequencies. Label this axis
"Frequency".
• On the horizontal axis, place the
lower value of each interval. ...
• Draw a bar extending from the
lower value of each interval to
the lower value of the next
interval.
 • A frequency polygon is a
Frequency Polygon graph constructed by using
lines to join the midpoints of
each interval, or bin.
• Frequency polygons are a
graphical device for
understanding the shapes of
distributions.
• They serve the
same purpose as histograms,
but are especially helpful in
comparing multiple sets of
data. .
• Sometimes it is beneficial to
show the histogram
and frequency
polygon together.
 • Mean or average is a
Arithmetic mean or
Average
measure of central
tendency or location.
The notation x̅
• The average of all the
The mean for grouped data
values of variables in the
sample.
 Median and Mode
• Median-When all observation are arranged I
ascending or descending order then median is
magnitude of middle case.
• Observation n is odd then median is (n+1)/2th
value.
• Observation n is even then median is n/2th.
• Mode-Mode is the value which occurs most
frequently.
• Example-4,5,4,2,3,4,6,,4,9,6 then mode is 4
 Dispersion,Range,RMS value,Variance
• Dispersion-The extent to which data is scatted about the
zone of central tendency. It is measured in three ways.
• Range-The difference between largest observed value and
smallest observed value.
• RMS-Root mean square.(Standard Deviation) It is defined
as the root mean square deviation of the observed value
from their arithmetic mean. It is denoted as σ (sigma)

• Variance-The square of standard deviation is called

variance.
 Normal Distribution(N.D) Curve
• A normal distribution, sometimes called the bell curve, is a
distribution that occurs naturally in many system
• The empirical rule tells you what percentage of your data
falls within a certain number of standard deviations from
the mean:
• 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of
the mean.
• 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations of
the mean.
• 99.7% of the data falls within three standard deviations of
the mean.uations.
 Process capability
• Process capability-Is defined as the minimum
spread of specific measurements variation which
will include 99.73% measurements from the
given process.
• The probability or rate at which product will be
manufactured within the tolerance limits.
• In x̅ and R chart variability in the process can be
controlled within control limits±3σ.
• 6σ is known as process capability.
• Process capability=6σ(Natural Tolerance)
 Control Charts
• The control chart is a graph used to study how a
process changes over time.
• Data are plotted in time order.
• Graphical representation of collected
information.
• A control chart always has a central line for the
average, an upper line for the upper control limit,
and a lower line for the lower control limit.
• These lines are determined from historical data.
 Most commonly used Charts
• x̅ Chart- The average of the measurements in the
sample is known as x̅ Chart. It shows centering
process.
• R Chart-The range of measurements in the
sample is known as R chart. R chart shows
uniformity or consistency of process.
• P Chart-The percentage of defective in the
sample is known as P chart or defective chart.
• C chart-The number of defects in the sample is
known as Chart or defect chart
 Acceptance sampling
• Acceptance sampling and procedures for product acceptance or
rejection will be examined.
• Acceptance sampling uses statistical sampling to determine
whether to accept or reject a production lot of material. It has been
a common quality control technique used in industry.
• The lot is accepted if the number of defects falls below where the
acceptance number or otherwise the lot is rejected.
• Acceptance sampling can be performed during Inspection of
incoming raw materials, components and assemblies, in various
phases of in-process operations or during final product inspection.
• Acceptance sampling does not control or improve the quality of a
process. It is a method for determining the general tendency of the
lot.
• Acceptance sampling should be viewed as an auditing tool.
• Methods of process control and improvement are essential for
maximizing quality.
 100% inspection
• It involve huge cost
• It is time consuming and tedious.
• It is not suitable to for items whose
conformance to test.
• Due to repetitive and monotonous nature of
work, sometime even competent inspector
reject good product or accept defective one
 Acceptance Sampling (Compared to
100% inspection
• 100% inspection is not feasible
• Sampling is more economical (inspection cost can
be high, inspection can take a long time, and
resources can be limited… In this case sampling
becomes preferable).
• Sampling reduces inspection error (especially
when inspection is repetitive)
• In sampling, an entire lot or batch may be
rejected, this provides a strong motivation to
improve quality
 Operating Characteristics Curve
• The OC (Operating
Characteristics) Curve shows how well
the acceptance sampling plan works, that is, it
shows the probability of accepting lots coming
in with various amount of defective items.
• The use of sampling plans involves risks to the
buyer and seller.
Operating Characteristics Curve
 Different Types of Sampling Plans
• Sampling is a technique of selecting individual
members or a subset of the population to make
statistical inferences from them and estimate
characteristics of the whole population.
• Types of sampling plans There are three types of
sampling plans:
• 1. Single sampling plans (SSP)
• 2. Double sampling plans (DSP)
• 3. Multiple sampling plans
Types of sampling: Sampling methods
Types of sampling: sampling methods
• Sampling in market research is of two types – probability
sampling and non-probability sampling
• Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling
technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few
criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All
the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the
sample with this selection parameter.
• Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the
researcher chooses members for research at random. This
sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection
process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a
population to have equal opportunities to be included in a
sample.
Probability sampling
 Probability sampling
1. Simple random sampling
• In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population.
• To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like
random number generators or other techniques that are
based entirely on chance.
2. Systematic sampling
• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling,
but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of
the population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals.
 Probability sampling
3. Stratified sampling
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you
draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.
• To use this sampling method, you divide the population into
subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g.
gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
4. Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to
the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
• .
Non-probability sampling methods
 Non-probability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data,
but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of
the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
2. Voluntary response sampling
• Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response
sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the
researcher choosing participants and directly contacting
them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).
 Non-probability sampling methods

3. Purposive sampling
• This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves
the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research.
• It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants
to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather
than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very
small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear
criteria and rationale for inclusion.
4. Snowball sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used
to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people
you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people.
 Advantages of Acceptance Sampling
• (i) The method is applicable in those industries where there
is mass production and the industries follow a set
production procedure.
• (ii) The method is economical and easy to understand.
• (iii) Causes less fatigue boredom.
• (iv) Computation work involved is comparatively very small.
• (v) The people involved in inspection can be easily imparted
training.
• (vi) Products of destructive nature during inspection can be
easily inspected by sampling.
• (vii) Due to quick inspection process, scheduling and
delivery times are improved.
 Limitations of Acceptance Sampling:
• It does not give 100% assurance for the confirmation of
specifications so there is always some likelihood/risk of
drawing wrong inference about the quality of the
batch/lot.
• Success of the system is dependent on, sampling
randomness, quality characteristics to be tested, batch
size and criteria of acceptance of lot.
• There is a risk of rejecting “good” lots called producers’
risk and a risk of accepting “poor” lots called
consumers’ risk.
• There is less information about the product compared
to 100% inspection.
• The selection and adoption of a sampling plan require
more time and effort in planning and documentation