ALIGNMENT

Table of Contents

What is Machinery Alignment? ................................................................3

Types of Misalignment .............................................................................4
Effects of Misalignment ............................................................................5
Indications of Misalignment ....................................................................6
Problems Caused By Misalignment .........................................................6
Misalignment Detection ...........................................................................9
Alignment Tools ..................................................................................... 12
1.1 Dial Indicators ................................................................................................................................. 12
1.2 Parallels ............................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3 Thickness Gauges ........................................................................................................................... 14
1.4 Micrometers ..................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Miscellaneous Tools ...................................................................................................................... 16

Alignment Methods ............................................................................... 16

Pre-Alignment Preparation ................................................................... 23
Bar Sag ..................................................................................................... 25
1.6 Measuring Bar Sag ......................................................................................................................... 25
1.7 Compensating for Bar Sag .......................................................................................................... 26

Moving the Machine .............................................................................. 27

1.8 Vertical Moves ................................................................................................................................. 28
1.9 Horizontal Moves ........................................................................................................................... 29

Thermal Growth ...................................................................................... 32

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 How to get perform Alignment in Field .............................................. 34
1.10 Rim and Face (Mathematically Method) ................................................................................. 34
1.10.1 Angular Misalignment Corrections .................................................................................. 35
1.10.2 Procedure................................................................................................................................. 35
1.10.3 Parallel Misalignment Corrections ................................................................................... 37
1.11 Reverse Dial (Mathematically and Graphically) ..................................................................... 39
1.12 Mathematical Solutions................................................................................................................ 41
1.12.1 Graphical Solution ................................................................................................................. 44

Case Study ............................................................................................... 48

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 What is Machinery Alignment?
The objective of performing any type of rotating machinery alignment is collinear shaft centerlines
under normal operating conditions. Because each machine and each shaft reacts differently under
varying operating conditions, alignment is performed to position the shafts as close to collinear as
possible under normal operating conditions. The most common operating variable which affects
machinery alignment is temperature. Generally, machine temperatures are determined by the
machinery’s:

1. Load
2. Process fluid temperature
3. Pressures
4. Flow
A machine under normal operating conditions has reached and stabilized at the load, temperatures,
pressures, and flows it is likely to experience the majority of the time.

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 Types of Misalignment
Misalignment at the coupling can be described in terms offset and angular misalignment.

• Offset: The amount of misalignment between parallel shafts with parallel

coupling faces.

• Angular: The amount of angular misalignment between shaft centerlines or

between coupling faces.

Both offset and angular misalignment occurs in the vertical and horizontal planes. Typically,
machine-to-machine misalignment is combination of all four possibilities.
Two additional conditions must be addressed. The axial location of the machines and the baseplate
are important to the operation. The proper shaft-to-shaft distance must be maintained, particularly
when a limited end float coupling is being used, as shown in Figure 3.

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 Figure 3: Maintain Proper Shaft-to-Shaft Coupling

Torsional effect, or machine torque, may also need to be considered when aligning the equipment,
as shown in Figure 4. Machines may move horizontally during start-up and operation. These are not
entirely alignment subjects, but we should be aware of their importance when performing
alignments.

Figure 4: Torsional Effect

Effects of Misalignment
The effects of misalignment are all around us in a facility. High noise levels or constantly vibrating
floors are strong indications of possible misalignment of machinery. Some of the other effects can
be:
• Lost production
• Poor-quality products
• Higher than normal repair orders
• Increased spare parts purchases and inventory on hand
• Reduced profits
In addition to the financial impact on the company, the direct effect on the various machine
components can be considerable. Bearings will run hot, causing them to fail prematurely.

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 Mechanical seals, seal rings, and packing will leak. Loss of product and lubrication can occur.
Couplings will fail due to excessive strain on the hubs. In severe cases, shafts can break, causing
extensive damage to machines.

Indications of Misalignment
Misalignment in rotating machinery can be detected in many different ways. Some methods are
incorporated into the plants preventative maintenance program. Others are inspections that could
be used on a regular basis but usually are performed after the equipment has failed. Some of the
indications of misalignment are:
• Wobbling shafts
• Excessive vibration
• Excessive bearing temperature
• Noise
• Bearing wear pattern
• Coupling wear

Problems Caused By Misalignment

According to industry estimates, shaft misalignment causes 60% - 70% of damaging vibrations in
rotating machinery. Often, misalignment may be the root cause of a host of other secondary
problems. The most common problems caused by misalignment are:
• High Axial / Radial Vibration - Vibration behavior will differ from machine to machine,
depending on the amount and type of misalignment, the type of coupling, and the condition
of the foundation and grout. Soft foot and casing distortion will also affect alignment and
produce vibrations.
• High Bearing Temperatures - Misalignment adds an additional radial pre-load to the bearing
loading. A pre-load is defined as a Uni-directional steady state force. Increased pre-load will
increase the loading per square inch experienced by the bearing, and will increase friction. A
heavily pre-loaded bearing may exhibit higher than normal metal temperatures.
• Bearing and Seal Wear / Failure - A fluid film bearing heavily loaded due to misalignment
may experience polishing and wiping of the Babbitt. Roller element bearings will experience
a dramatically shortened life span. The amount of pre-load due to misalignment figures
directly into commonly used equations to calculate the approximate life of a roller element
bearing:

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 Seals and packing may also experience rubbing and excessive wear from misalignment, resulting in
additional vibrations and reduced machine performance.

• Coupling Wear / Failure - Couplings are designed to transmit torque, while

accommodating some misalignment. Excessive misalignment, however, can cause
premature wear and/or failure of a coupling. Gear couplings will experience uneven and
excessive wear on the gear teeth. Diaphragm and shim-pack couplings can experience

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 fatigue, warping, and cracking of internal components. Misalignment introduces
alternating stresses to rotating components; when fatigue limits are reached, the
coupling hubs themselves may be subject to cracks.

• Shaft Cracks - Alternating stresses due to misalignment can also cause cracks to occur on
the rotor, often underneath a coupling hub shrink fit.

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 Other - Misalignment is often the root cause of a variety of other secondary problems. Typically,
these other problems appear first:

• Rubs can occur in seals and in bearings, producing potentially high vibration.
• Instability can occur in seals and in bearings, when misalignment results in a bearing
becoming unloaded.
• High Unbalance Response can result when misalignment causes a bearing to be
unloaded.
• Mechanical Looseness can result from wear caused by high forces on machine
components due to misalignment.

Misalignment Detection
• Axial and Radial Vibration - Torque transmitted through a misaligned coupling
can translate into high radial and/or axial vibrations. These vibrations typically
occur at 1X and 2X running speed in frequency.

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 Shaft relative orbits measured with proximity probes are slightly elliptical under normal loading. A
bearing with a heavy pre-load due to misalignment will exhibit a highly elliptical orbit, and
sometimes a flat or figure-eight orbit. A pre-loaded orbit due to misalignment is often accompanied
by an abnormal shaft average centerline position.

• Bearing Metal Temperatures - Bearing temperatures are best measured by RTD.s or

thermocouples installed directly in the bearing backing. Normal bearing metal temperatures
typically fall between 160° F and 180° F. A metal temperature approaching 220° F may cause
failure of the bearing. Lube oil drain temperatures are a much less reliable means of
monitoring bearing temperatures. Lube oil drain temperatures are not a direct measurement
of bearing temperature, and can be taken from a common drain with several different
sources.

• Trend Data - Thermal effects on alignment are most easily quantified during startup and
loading from a cold condition. Thermal growth can occur over a significant period of
time during machine startup and loading. A large machine train can take 1 -2

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 days to become thermally stable. Correlating vibration information, bearing temperature
data, and machine load vs. time can be a powerful tool when diagnosing misalignment.

• Casing Expansion - A machine casing that is bound by physical constraints from expanding
thermally may warp and cause an internal misalignment condition. On large steam turbine
generators, axial thermal growth is accommodated by slides or tracks on which the turbines
are mounted. Dual casing expansion measurements, taken on the two front corners of the
High Pressure Turbine case, are used to make sure thermal growth is occurring evenly.
• Infrared Thermography - Infrared analysis of a machine train can help determine local
machine case temperatures. A localized hot spot caused, for example, by a steam leak, may
be affecting thermal growth enough to cause a misalignment condition.
• Piping Hangers - Piping hangers should support piping in such a way as not to oppose
thermal growth of the pipe.
• Expansion Joints - Stresses in structural members and in piping due to thermal expansion
can be relieved by using expansion joints in key locations.
• Flange Bolts - Check for loose and broken flange bolts on piping. Broken bolts may be a clue
that piping strain is significant, possibly causing a misalignment condition.
• Alignment Shims - Shims should be clean, free of paint and rust. They should be tight under
the machine feet. To prevent a soft or spongy support, shims should be limited to 3 or 4 at
one location.
• Dowel Pins - Check for loose and damaged pins.
• Maintenance History - The clue to a machinery problem often lies in the machines
maintenance history. Review maintenance records to determine which machinery
components were reconditioned or replaced. Review the machines alignment history. This
should include:

- Past and Present Alignment Readings

- Alignment Moves
• Mechanical / Metallurgical Inspection of Worn Components – Inspect machine components
for abnormal wear:
- Couplings
- Bearings
- Seals

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 Alignment Tools
There is a multitude of methods available to perform accurate alignment, any of which can deliver
the desired result. However, several precision tools are commonly used in alignment work. dial
indicators, parallel blocks, taper gauges, feeler gauges, a tape measure, a 6-inch rule, and a small
mirror are all useful. Each one has a part to play in doing alignments.

1.1 Dial Indicators

Dial indicators are probably the most widely used precision tools. They are available in various styles,
sizes, and range. A back plunger type, shown in Figure 5, is often used to take rim and face readings
on couplings, to measure soft foot, and to monitor accurate machine moves. Their small size makes
them easy and convenient to use.

Figure 5: Bottom and Back Plungers

Bottom plunger style indicators are used for taking run out readings on couplings and shafts, and
for measuring misalignment. They come in two styles: balanced or continuous reading. Examples of
both are shown in Figure 6. The dials are 1 inch in diameter or 2 1/8 inches in diameter. Their usable
range is from 0.250 inch to as much as 12 inches. Typically, a 0.0250-inch or 0.500-inch travel
indicator is used in alignment work.

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 Figure 6: Balanced and Continuous Reading Plunger

1.2 Parallels
Adjustable, or sliding, parallels, shown in Figure 7, are used to measure gaps or holes. They usually
are available in sets. Sliding parallels vary in length from 1 to 5 1/16 inches, are 9/32 inch thick, and
can measure ranges such from 3/8 inch to 1 to 2 inches. To check the size of a gap, the sliding
parallel is inserted and expanded to the proper size. The parallel then is measured with an outside
micrometer to determine the gap size. Sliding parallels can be used to take coupling hub face
readings.

Figure 7: Sliding Parallels

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 1.3 Thickness Gauges
The standard thickness gauge, also called a feeler gauge is a compact assembly of high-quality,
heat-treated steel leaves of various thicknesses, as shown in Figure 8. The leaves usually vary in
thickness by .001 inch, and the exact thickness of each leaf is marked on its surface.

Figure 8: Thickness Gauge

A thickness gauge is the measuring instrument commonly used to determine the precise dimension
of small openings or gaps, such as those that must be measured in the course of aligning a
coupling. To determine the dimension of an opening or gap, the steel leaves are inserted singly or in
combination until a leaf or combination is found that fits snugly. The dimension is then ascertained
by the figure marked on the leaf surface or, if several leaves are used, by totaling the surface figures.
Another type of thickness gauge, not as widely known or used but ideally suited for coupling
alignment, is the taper gauge, shown in Figure 9. It is sometimes referred to as a gap gauge. Its
principal advantage for coupling alignment is that it gives a direct reading and does not require
trial-and-error "feeling" to determine a measurement. The tool end is inserted into an opening, or
gap, and the opening size is read on the graduated face. Two measurement systems inch and metric
are shown.

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 Figure 9: Taper Gauge

1.4 Micrometers
Another precision measuring instrument used for coupling alignment is the outside micrometer
caliper shown in Figure 10. As its name implies, it is used to measure outside dimensions. Outside
micrometers are available as single units or as complete sets. A complete set of micrometers gives
you the advantage of being able to quickly choose the micrometer appropriate for a specific
situation. Two types of micrometer sets are generally available. One contains
many micrometers of different sizes with a variety of frames. Such sets may contain
anywhere from 3 to 24 micrometers and have ranges varying from 0 to
3 inches up to 0 to 24 inches. Different combinations of a ratchet stop or friction thimble and lock
nut may be provided on micrometers in these sets. Micrometer sets of this type may be graduated
in thousandths of an inch, ten-thousandths of an inch, or hundredths of a millimeter. The second
type of outside micrometer set, illustrated in Figure 11, contains an outside micrometer with
interchangeable anvils and a set of standards.

Figure 10: Micrometer Caliper

Micrometers of this type range from 0 to 4 inches up to 20 to 24 inches and are also available with
Metric calibrations. An outside micrometer with interchangeable anvils is frequently used in the field
to measure objects of varying sizes. The micrometer has an adjustable stop on the anvil to alter the
overall anvil dimensions. Both types of micrometer sets are capable of measuring within the same
size range and producing results with equal accuracy.

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 Figure 11: Outside Micrometer with Anvils

1.5 Miscellaneous Tools

Another useful and necessary tool needed when doing alignment work is a tape measure. This is a
common item to most craftspeople, so a detailed description is not needed here. Your 6-inch pocket
scale is very likely the alignment tool you are most familiar with. Many of your alignment jobs will be
performed with this device. This type of alignment has its place, but it is not a precision method. A
small mirror is another very helpful item to have in your toolbox. It is very handy when trying to read
an indicator that may be positioned in a location that is inaccessible. Shims are very likely the most
important tool used when performing alignments. Proper placement and accurate thickness are the
most crucial elements of using shims. Using precut stainless-steel shims is rapidly becoming the
preferred way of making vertical elevation changes. They are very easy to use, quick to install, and
usually accurate in their exact thickness.

Alignment Methods
It is obvious there are many methods available today to align machinery. Almost all
of these methods originated over 30 years ago. The concept of alignment is not new;
it is just not understood by most people who actually perform the alignment. The
purpose of this section is to familiarize the technician with the most common
methods used today. All of these methods will be described in detail later in this
manual. As with any method, there are potential sources of error as well as

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 advantages. This section points out some of the more salient aspects for each
method. The methods we will cover are:
• Visual Line-Up
• Straightedge/Feeler Gauge
• Rim and Face
• Cross Dial
• Reverse Dial
• Laser

Visual Line-Up
The visual line-up method, shown in Figure 12, is the most common method of alignment. Used in
initial installations, visual line-up allows technicians to analyze the working conditions and feasibility
of installation.

Figure 12: Visual Line-Up Method

Straightedge/Feeler Gauge

Straightedges are used to determine the offset between coupling halves; this is shown in Figure 13.
Corrections are made under all four of the machines feet. Feeler gauges or taper gauges measure
the gap between coupling halves at the bottom and top of the coupling.

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 Figure 13: Straightedge/Feeler Gauge

Rim and Face

This method is similar in principal to using a straightedge and feeler gauge, but more accurate since
dial indicators are used. The rim reading measures the offset between the coupling halves. The face
reading measures the angular difference between the faces of the coupling, as shown in Figure 14.
Changes are calculated with the same formula as the straightedge/feeler gauge method.

Figure 14: Reading Angular Difference Between Faces

Advantages:
• Used when only one shaft can be rotated.

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 • Given the correct precautions, precision alignment is attainable with this
method.

Disadvantages:
• End float affects face reading.
• Indicator bracket (bar) sag affects readings.
• Eccentric, skewed couplings or damaged surfaces will cause errors.
• Fixture looseness causes errors.
• Indicator stems not perpendicular to shaft causes errors.

The indicators should be checked to ensure that:

• The plungers are level, parallel to shafts, and depressed about half their total travel.
• The indicators are same distance from the shaft axis and exactly opposite each other when
two indicators are used.
• The contact points are midway between coupling halves in the axial direction.
If sag-free brackets are not available, sag greater than .001 inch must be compensated for.

Cross Dial
This method uses two dial indicators mounted exactly 180 apart to take shaft-to-shaft readings.
Both parallel and angular misalignment may be compensated for at the same time. This method
allows the couplings to remain attached, as the shafts must move together. Figure 15 shows a
typical cross dial setup.

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 Figure 15: Cross Dial Setup

Advantages:
• Very accurate method of using dial indicators
• Easy and fast to use
• Simple:
- Graphical calculations for misalignment are non-technical
- Computer or pocket calculators can also be used Sources of error are:
• Indicator stems must be perpendicular to the shaft
• Looseness
• Indicator bracket (bar)sag
• Coupling backlash
• Extreme axial float
• Indicators that are not exactly opposite each other

Reverse Dial
This method uses two dial indicators that take shaft-to-shaft readings and is almost the same as the
cross dial method, except that the indicators are in the same plane with each other. Both the offset

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 and angularity are combined in the alignment calculation. This method, shown in Figure 16,
determines the misalignment by taking two rim readings at different points along the shaft.

Figure 16: Reverse Dial Method

Advantages:

• Most accurate method of using dial indicators

• Easy and fast to use
• Simple:

- Graphical calculations for misalignment are non-technical

- Computer or pocket calculators can also be used
- Requires only 180 rotation Sources of error are:

• Indicator stems not perpendicular to the shaft

• Looseness
• Indicator bracket (bar) sag
• Coupling backlash
• Extreme axial float

Laser Method
The laser method of alignment is similar to the rim and face method, but it uses light to span the
shaft-to-shaft distance. As both shafts are rotated, the misalignment is determined by the
movement of the laser beam on the detector surface. This is shown in Figure 17.

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 Figure 17: Laser Method

Advantages:
• Most accurate measuring device available
• Speed: with practice, alignment calculations can be made quickly
• Wired to a computer
• Only requires 180 shaft rotation
• Horizontal move capabilities

Sources of error are:

• Heat/cold - air can distort the laser and affect alignment calculations
• Looseness in brackets or fixtures
• Coupling backlash
Proper shaft alignment is required to maintain operational longevity of all rotating machinery. The
two basic types of misalignment are parallelism and angularity. Both types can be found in the
vertical and horizontal planes. To achieve our goal of proper shaft alignment, we must correct for
both types of misalignment. It has been noted in this section that 50 to 70% of all vibration
problems in rotating equipment are caused by misalignment. The overall effect of this misalignment
is lost production, poor quality of products, higher repair costs, and increased spare parts, all of
which lead to reduced profits. We also discussed the tools used in alignment. It is very important
that we know how to use these tools. In the sections that follow, we will learn how to use the
information as well as the tools to properly align a piece of equipment. Also, each of the alignment
methods will also be discussed in detail later in this manual.

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 Pre-Alignment Preparation
Before the alignment process can begin, several things must be examined and corrected. If a
precision alignment is attempted while any of these conditions has yet to be rectified, accurate
results will be unobtainable. If any one of these items is overlooked or ignored, the effect on the
machine could be an unscheduled or emergency shutdown. The machine could even be heavily
damaged. A pre-alignment checklist is also designed to save time in performing alignments, as 90%
of the problems involved with alignment can be avoided by following the pre-alignment checklist.
These checks should be completed every time an alignment is performed. You do not need to follow
the order of the list, but each point needs to be checked.
• Before shutting the machine off, take temperature readings in the planes of the feet for both
machines to determine if either machine is subject to thermal growth.
• Check the service history for any information that may be useful.
• Lockout/tag out the machine to be worked on. Ensure the safety of all individuals. For
pumps, close the suction/discharge valve to protect against pump backspin.
• Clean up around the machine.
• Loosen the mechanical seals or packing.
• Before the rotating shafts, make sure that the bearings are properly lubricated with the
correct type and amount of grease or oil. If an auxiliary oil system is used, make sure it has
been serviced.
• Rotate the shafts slowly. Listen/feel for binding/roughness. Always rotate in the direction of
equipment rotation to prevent backlash in couplings and gearboxes.
• Check the machine for worn or defective bearings.
• Check the coupling for the following:
- Looseness (grids, teeth, disks or elastomers, etc.)
- Fit on shaft (taper or straight bore)
- Eccentricity (run out)
- Worn grid/teeth members
- Correct lubricant type and amount
- Setscrew tightness
- Proper key length
- Match marks in the correct place
- Proper bolts and washers: note length, machining, weight

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 • Check shafts on both machines for:
- Concentricity (run out)
- Movement in the axial, horizontal, and vertical directions greater than the
manufacturers allowable limits
- Smooth fixture to mounting surface (pipe wrench footprints)
Inspect machine base and foundation for cracks, warped surfaces, and corrosion. Clean base (near
feet) of rust and other foreign matter.

• If carbon-steel shims are used, remove and replace with pre-cut stainless-steel shims.
Remove and replace any shims that may be cracked, bent, folded, rusted, hand cut, brass, or
otherwise defective.
• Whenever possible, start with 1/8 inch (0.125 inch) of shim under each foot to allow for
vertical adjustment.
• Ensure the axial position of the machine is correct and that the coupling will allow both
machines to run in their respective axial positions.
• Find and mark the magnetic center on motors that have axial end float (sleeve bearings).
• Check for pipe and/or electrical connection strain if possible (rough-in stage). :
• Ensure both the vertical and horizontal jack bolts are loose. Lubricate for smooth operation.
• Remove dowel pins from both machines.
• Check and remove any soft foot for both machines.
• Ensure all bolts on both machines are torqued. Note the bolt lubrication and remove any
"bell/cupped" washers.
• Determine alignment method to be used.
• Assemble fixtures and check for accuracy and working condition.
• Take machine dimensions.

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 Bar Sag
Bar sag is simply the effect of gravity on a fixture. This effect can be measured accurately. As it
affects the final accuracy of the alignment, it must be accounted for in your readings or eliminated
from your fixtures before taking indicator readings.

1.6 Measuring Bar Sag

A certain amount of sag exists in most brackets. This amount must be known before attempting to
align the couplings so that the sag can be calculated into the indicator reading. A procedure for
determining the amount of sag in a bracket is as follows:

• Assemble the bracket on a shaft or a lathe, as shown in Figure 30, then set up the indicator
on top and zero the dial.
•

Figure 30: Bracket Assembles on a Shaft

• Turn the complete assembly 180 and take a reading on the bottom. This reading is the
amount of sag for that particular setup. Remember, the test should be as near as possible to
the actual setup because a change in the distance between the shaft and the bracket may
change the amount of sag. : Where two indicators are to be used, both indicators must be
assembled on the brackets before zeroing on top.
•
• Keep a record of the amount of sag for each setup for reference when calculating the actual
indicator readings. If the amount of sag is greater than .001 inch, it is subtracted from the
vertical readings.

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 1.7 Compensating for Bar Sag
Before we can determine the amount of bar sag, we must first be able to get repeatability from the
fixtures. The best way to do this is to set the dial to zero at the 12 o'clock, or top, position, rotate the
machine or bar one full 360o, and see if the indicator still reads zero at the top. If there is more than
one mil or 0.001inch showing on the indicator, there may be some looseness in the fixtures. You
may need to tighten up the fixture parts or make additional changes in the fixture configuration
until you can get repeatable readings. This is very important to the accuracy of your alignment
calculations. Once the amount of bar sag has been determined for the fixtures you are using, it can
be handled in one of two ways. The first possible method is to simply add the amount of bar sag to
your indicator readings. Because the sag is always a negative value, it can be added to the total
indicator readings. The exception to this is that indicators starting at the 6 o'clock position and
moving to the 12 o'clock position must have the bar sag subtracted from the final reading. This
would be the case for one dial in the cross dial method. A second method is to simply dial the
amount of bar sag determined at the 6 o'clock location into the 12 o'clock position as a positive
number, or set the dial at the 6 o'clock position to a negative value. For example, if you have
assembled the fixtures on a pipe or piece of bar stock that represents two shafts in perfect
alignment, as shown in Figure 31, and adjusted the indicator to zero at the top, or 12 o'clock
position, then rotated the fixtures so that the indicators are now at the 6 o'clock position, you
should get a negative reading on the indicator, say a minus 8. Now rotate the fixture back to the 12
o'clock position. Dial the minus 8 into the indicator as a positive value, or as plus 8. To confirm that
you have properly compensated for the bar sag; rotate the fixtures back down to the 6 o'clock
location. The indicator should read zero.

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 Figure 31: Compensating for Bar Sag

When you place the fixtures back on the shafts of the machines being aligned, set the dial at the top
to positive 8. When you rotate the fixture down to the 6 o'clock position, the number you read is the
total indicator reading of the amount of misalignment. The bar sag has been compensated for, and
the indicator now gives you the amount of difference between the two machine shaft centerlines.
This section covered items that must be corrected and/or accounted for before performing a
precision alignment. Items such as casing strain, cracked foundations, and soft foot will defeat the
purpose of performing an alignment in the first place. Bar sag, when unaccounted for, will cause
errors during the alignment process or lead us to believe a machine train is aligned, when it actually
is misaligned.

Moving the Machine

Any instruction on precision alignment of rotating equipment must include methods for making
accurate, controlled moves of the machine. There is a multitude of ways to move a machine. Some
are better than others with possibilities ranging from using large hammers or pry bars to using
hydraulic wenches or fine-threaded, smooth-operating devices. Any alignment method, regardless
of its accuracy in measuring the misalignment, is useless if we do not take the proper precautions
and procedures in order to achieve precision movement of the machine. All of the work in taking
accurate readings can be lost in a split second if the proper techniques are not applied. In this

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 section, we will examine many of the procedures and methods used to ensure an accurate
alignment. There has been some discussion among alignment specialists about which move should
be made first: the horizontal or the vertical move. Once the machine is adjusted to its proper vertical
orientation, a slight move in the horizontal direction should not change the vertical alignment. This
is the procedure once the rough alignment and adjustment stages are complete. However, certain
situations may require a horizontal move be made first in order to attain accurate indicator readings
if the alignment has been changed during the adjustment stage. In any alignment process, there
may be some going back and forth from the vertical to the horizontal until the alignment is
completed and precision is achieved.

1.8 Vertical Moves

As with all vertical moves, using a dial indicator is not necessary to determine the change in the
vertical direction, but it can be helpful to check for any soft foot created when moving the machine.
By using a micrometer, the exact thickness of the shims being installed can be determined for the
required alignment correction. Be sure to mic. every shim that is installed. Do not believe what is
printed, stamped, or etched on the shim. Always check the shim to be sure. When loosening the
hold-down bolts, the first precaution is to loosen only two bolts at a time when making any shim
change. If you loosen all the hold-down bolts at the same time and then raise the machine, the
entire configuration at the feet may change. This is particularly true if any of the feet have been
corrected for soft foot conditions using a tapered or step shim. Leaving two hold-down bolts tight
reduces the chances of an uncontrolled move. Any uncontrolled movement of the machine may
change the horizontal, axial, and even the vertical positioning of the machine, thereby negating all
your previous work. Loosen the bolts on either the left or the right side of the machine, but not both
sides. Raise one side of the machine just enough to make the shim change. If the machine is raised
too high, it can bend the feet on the side of the machine where the hold-down bolts are tight. Make
the necessary shim change and tighten down the bolts to their proper torque value. Repeat the
process for the other side of the machine. Each tightening of any bolt on the machine should be
treated as though it is the last time to work on that particular bolt. For all vertical moves, be sure to
raise the machine just enough to add or remove the desired amount of shims. Any excess
movement of the machine in the vertical direction can result in a bent foot. Once you have the
machine raised enough to make the shim change, remove the shims from underneath each foot and
add or subtract the amount of shims you have determined. Always use the least number of shims
under a foot as is practical. The more shims under a foot, the more likely a spring effect or soft foot
is to occur. If possible, make or use a single piece of shim the total thickness required under the
foot. If this is not possible, a maximum of three to four shims should be the limit. This gives the foot
a solid place to rest on and reduces the possibility of anything getting between individual shims.
When making shim changes for the vertical alignment, it is important to remember the shims must
be placed beneath those shims that are present to correct for soft foot. If the shims used for
correcting the vertical alignment are placed on top of the soft foot shims, it can create more soft
foot problems. When inserting the shims under the feet, insert the shims slot all the way in until the

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 shim has "bottomed out" in the slot. You should then pull the shim back about a quarter of an inch
before tightening the bolt. If you leave the shim inserted all the way into the threads, tightening the
bolt will pinch the end of the shim and may affect the accuracy of the shim change. After
completing the shim changes and tightening the hold-down bolts, another set of readings should
be taken with the method used in the alignment calculation. If the move is within the specified
tolerance, proceed with the horizontal moves. If a second move is required, determine the necessary
shim change and make the correction.

1.9 Horizontal Moves

If the base plate has jack bolts installed, the task of moving the machine is made much easier. In
many situations, it is best to have jack screws installed at the time of the alignment rather than
trying to move the machine some other way, which is often more difficult and requires more time.
Figure 32 shows a foundation with jacking screws installed.

Figure 32: Foundation with Jacking Screws Installed

Before any of the hold-down bolts are loosened, all of the jack bolts must be loosened on the
machine. Any unequal pressure of the jack bolts could result in an uncontrolled move and require
the technician to take another set of alignment readings. When loosening the hold-down bolts,
back them off just enough to allow the machine to slide sideways. Since it takes very little pressure
on the jack bolt to move the machine horizontally, there is no real need to completely back off or
remove the hold-down fasteners. If a graph is constructed determining the position of the
misaligned shaft, you will know exactly which direction to move the machine. Another way to avoid
confusion is to always look from the machine toward the machine.
• Everything to the right, or toward the 3 clock position, is in the positive direction.
• Everything to your left, or toward the 9 clock position, is in the negative direction.
This should help you visualize the proper direction for the move. The preferred and most accurate
method for measuring the horizontal move is to place dial indicators around the machine in the
planes of the feet, as shown in Figure 33.

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 Figure 33: Place Dial Indicators Around the Machine

It is important that the indicators are positioned on the machine in the location used in the
alignment calculation. As shown in Figure 34, this usually is the center of the hold-down bolt and at
the approximate shaft height.

Figure 34: Place Indicators in the Location Used in the Alignment Calculation

The procedure for performing a horizontal move of a machine is as follows:

1. Position the base-mounted dial indicators in the location of the machines feet or at the point
determined from the alignment calculation.
2. Adjust the dials to zero.

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 3. Move the machine in the proper direction by the determined amount, making sure the entire
dial indicators agree. '

Figure 35: Proper Dial Indicator Setup

No matter what device or method is used to move the machine, it is very important to have control
of the machine. The most common problem encountered when moving the machine horizontally is
that there are no jack bolts on the machine to maintain this control. If no jack bolts are installed,
small hydraulic jacks can be used to move a machine if they are backed up to a solid structure, such
as a beam, a solid wall, an adjoining pedestal, or a base. A chain fall or come-along can also be used.
Again, they must be secured to something solid or immovable and operated one click at a time.
Another very good idea is to use pony clamps or pipe clamps, as shown in Figure 36, attached and
operated to smoothly move the machine in the desired direction.

Figure 36: Using Pipe Clamps

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 Thermal Growth
Many machines operate at either hotter or colder temperatures than when they are being aligned.
Some refrigeration compressors operate at temperatures below freezing while some gas
compressors may reach over 300°F. Changes in temperature cause these machines to either grow or
shrink, and can distort the alignment. For these machines, consideration must be made for thermal
growth. Although most machines do not operate at these extremes, thermal growth should be
considered for all alignment processes. Once the fundamental understanding of how to compensate
for growth or shrinkage is understood, the few extra minutes required will assure the best possible
final alignment.
Metals, like most materials, expand when heated. The amount they expand is expressed as the
coefficient of thermal expansion. This coefficient is expressed as the change in length per degree of
temperature rise. This is expressed mathematically as:
c = dL/dT ---------------------------------------------------------- (8.1)
By rearranging Equation (8.1) the amount of thermal growth for a given length (L) can be expressed
as:

dL = c × dT × L ------------------------------------------------------------ (8.2)
Equation (8.2) states the change in length is equal to the difference in temperature times the
coefficient of thermal expansion times the original length.
In general, most steels or cast iron frames have a coefficient of thermal expansion of about .0063
mils per inch per degree Fahrenheit, with aluminum and bronze being about twice that amount.
Table 8-3 lists the coefficient of expansion in mils per inch per degree Fahrenheit, for some common
metals for use between 32°F and 212°F.

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 Although these are not the exact coefficients of expansion for all steels and various alloys, they are
close enough to provide solutions that will assure equipment is in exact alignment when it reaches
operating temperatures.
Example 8-2
If a bar of soft rolled steel 12 inches long at 60°F is heated to 300°F, how long would the bar be?
Step 1. Using Equation (8-2) and finding the thermal growth coefficient from Table 8-3, the growth
is .0063 × (300–60) × 12 = 18 mils. Therefore, the bar would be 12.018 inches long.
There are several ways to compensate for thermal growth:
• Use the thermal offset provided by equipmen t manufacturer.
• Calculate anticipated thermal growth at each foot.
• Take a set of hot readings.
Of these methods, the third choice is by far the most desirable. It is accomplished by first aligning
the equipment cold. That is, the machinery is cooled to ambient temperature. Prior to removing the
alignment fixtures, their exact location is marked on the machine to assure they can be placed as
close as possible to their original position. The machine is then placed on line and allowed to heat
soak and stabilize at operating temperatures.

A sure sign of thermal growth problems is when a machine’s vibration level increases with time after
a cold start up. This is an indication that the unit is growing out of alignment.

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 After the machine has stabilized, it is shut down and the alignment fixture attached as soon as
possible. A set of readings is taken in the same manner as with the cold alignment. Most equipment
will require a considerable time to cool off, so there is adequate time to obtain a set of hot readings.
These hot readings can now be plotted over the original cold alignment graph, and the calculator
method can be performed. If the machine experienced thermal growth or shrinkage, the results will
indicate how many shims to add or remove. Of interest
fact that when the machine is aligned in the future, it will need to be set exactly opposite, and by the
same amount, as is indicated by these calculations. To do this precisely, the
desired final indicator readings are required. That is, we do not want to set the machine at zero/zero
when cold, but rather at some offset to compensate for the thermal growth .

How to get perform Alignment in Field

There are TWO methods currently used to calculate the amount of shim changes and horizontal
moves required to achieve accurate machine alignment. They are each capable of arriving at the
same results by use of mathematical formulas and/or graphical solutions. There are various tools
that are available to help in the process. The first is a simple pocket calculator. With the proper
formula and a basic understanding of the alignment process, accurate machinery movement can be
achieved. The second method is the use of a computer, either a desktop or a special computer
designed specifically for the alignment task. In this section, graphical and mathematical solutions
to misalignment are discussed. We mentioned the computer method only to make you aware of its
existence. The following are the methods of alignment that are discussed and their methods of
solution:

1. Rim and Face (Mathematically Only)

2. Reverse Dial (Mathematically and Graphically)

1.10 Rim and Face (Mathematically Method)

The rim and face alignment method is commonly used where space considerations would prevent
the use of the cross dial or reverse dial methods. It also is the only method that can be used when
rotation of both shafts cannot be accomplished. The results of the misalignment can only be
calculated mathematically, and parallel and angular misalignment must be calculated separately.
After the rough alignment is done, the angular misalignment should be removed before solving for
the parallel misalignment. For this reason, the rim and face method is often more time consuming
than the other methods available.

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 1.10.1 Angular Misalignment Corrections
The face dial is used to measure the distance between the coupling faces. This measures the angular
misalignment in both the horizontal (3 o'clock to 9 o'clock position) and the vertical (12 o'clock to 6
o'clock position) planes. The total indicator reading gives the actual difference in distance between
the coupling faces. Because of the dial position relative to
the face of the coupling, bar sag will not have an effect on face readings. It will still be an issue to
consider when taking rim readings though. Figure 40 shows a typical setup for taking the face
readings.

Figure 40: Face Readings

1.10.2 Procedure
1. Zero the dial indicator at the 12 o'clock position (3 o'clock position for horizontal moves).
2. Rotate the indicator 180 and read the error from the difference in reading.
3. Measure the coupling diameter of indicator travel.
4. Measure the distance between the coupling face and the front foot and the rear foot.
5. Calculate proper shim movement (or horizontal movement) with the following formula:

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 Example 1: Rim and Face Angular Misalignment Calculation
Given the following information and Figure 41, calculate the required shim moves to
achieve perfect angular alignment.
Face Reading @ 12 o'clock: .000"
Face Reading @ 6 o'clock: -.072

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 Figure 41: Example One
Solution: These calculations tell us that, to achieve perfect angular alignment, it will be necessary to
remove .216 inch from the front foot and .360 inch from the rear foot. Negative numbers will always
indicate that shims need to be removed, while positive numbers are an indication that shims will
need to be added.

1.10.3 Parallel Misalignment Corrections

The dial indicator positioned to take the rim readings will measure the amount of parallel offset
misalignment. The total indicator reading is always double the actual offset. Therefore, any shim
moves to correct parallel offset misalignment will always be half the total indicator rim reading. Bar
sag will need to be accounted for during vertical adjustments but will be negligible for horizontal
adjustments. Figure 42 shows a typical setup for taking rim readings.

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 Figure 42: Taking Rim Readings
Procedure

1. Zero the dial indicator at the 12 o'clock position (3 o'clock position for horizontal
moves).
2. Rotate the indicator 180 and read the error from the difference in reading. This is the
TIR.
3. Calculate proper shim movement by dividing the TIR by two; this will be the shim
adjustment for all four feet.

Example 2: Rim and Face Parallel Misalignment Calculation Given the following information
from Figure 43, calculate the required shim moves to achieve perfect angular alignment.
Rim Reading @ 12 o'clock: .000

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 Rim Reading @ 6 o'clock: +.038
Bar Sag: .010

Figure 43: Example Two

Solution: Perfect parallel offset alignment may be achieved by adding .024 inch shims under
each foot of the movable machine. Negative numbers indicate shims to be removed, while
positive numbers indicate shim addition.

1.11 Reverse Dial (Mathematically and Graphically)

Reverse dial alignment is very similar to cross dial both in theory and misalignment
calculation. They both can either be calculated mathematically or graphically. Although there
are slight differences in the formula and the plotting, the process is practically the same. The
two major advantages to using reverse dial over cross dial are that many pre-manufactured
rigs are set up for reverse dial, and you may achieve alignment with only three points.
Although a cross dial alignment only requires three points to read, you still need the space
for the indicator setup, whereas the reverse dial setup, with both indicators in the same
plane, allows alignment of machines that are space-limited. By zeroing the indicator at the 12
o'clock position and reading the 3 and 9 o'clock positions, the 6 o'clock position may be
determined. The characteristics of a circle tell us that the sum of the side readings, when read
with a dial indicator, must equal the sum of the top and bottom readings. This is shown in
Figure 48.

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 Figure 48: Unknown Position Using a Circle

The ability to only read the shaft a three points can be a major advantage, but there are
some flaws to using this method all the time. In order for this to work, you must read at
exactly the 12, 3, and 9 o'clock positions.

Generally, this can lead to some inaccuracies when calculating the 6 o'clock position. One
way of ensuring the readings are taken at the correct points is to use a combination bubble
level attached to the shaft. When the bubble is exactly in the center, you will be at the
correct position to read the indicator. This is sometimes called a four-point indicator. Figure
49 shows a typical reverse dial setup.

Figure 49: Typical Reverse Dial Setup

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 1.12 Mathematical Solutions
For ease of use, the reverse dial formula has been incorporated into a shaft alignment data
form, shown in Figure 50. By filling in the appropriate information into the proper boxes, the
required shim changes for correcting both the angular and offset misalignments can be
determined. The steps to completing this form are as follows.

1. Enter the total indicator reading (TIR) for the stationary machine (SM) and the
movable machine (MM) indicators in the blocks labeled ASM TIR and AMM TIR.
Ensure bar sag has been accounted for.
2. Enter distance between SM and MM indicators in the block labeled AA.
3. Enter distance between SM indicator and the MM front foot in the block labeled AB.
4. Enter distance between SM indicator and the MM rear foot in the block labeled AC.
5. Enter previously recorded data in the calculation area of the form and calculate the
MM front and rear foot moves.

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 Figure 50: Reverse Dial Shaft Alignment Form
Example 5: Reverse Dial Mathematical Misalignment Calculation Given the following
information; calculate the required shim moves to achieve perfect parallel and angular
alignment.
SM Indicator TIR = .024
MM Indicat
or TIR = .010
Bar Sag =
.006
AA
Dimensi
on = 5
AB
Dimensi
on =

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 8.5 AC
Dimensi
on = 14
Solution: Figure 52 shows the calculation using the reverse dial alignment form. When
using this form, you may find it convenient to use mils instead of thousandths of an inch.
This allows the use of whole numbers and avoids confusing decimals. For example, if the TIR
was .027 inch, you would enter 27 on the form. When using mils, remember the solution will
also be in mils; that is,+32.5 would actually be+.0325 inch. The example in Figure 52 uses
mils and the same given data as above.

You may notice that the SM and MM TIRs are different from the given. This is because bar
sag must be accounted for. In this example, .006 inch must be added to the TIRs for correct
calculations, which makes the SM TIR+.030 inch and the MM TIR -
.004 inch.
Note: This alignment form applies to and should be used for the reverse dial method of
alignment only.

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 Figure 52: Calculation Using Reverse Dial Alignment Form

1.12.1 Graphical Solution

The graphical solution for reverse dial alignment problems is a method that will give you an
actual visual indication of the misalignment very much like that used for cross dial
alignment. The results will be the same as if they were calculated
mathematically. The only difference in this type of alignment is that the MM
indicator reading must have its sign changed before plotting.

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 Procedure
1. Lay out a horizontal line at the approximate middle of the graph paper. This is the
running alignment line (RAL).
2. Lay out a vertical line near the left edge of the graph paper. This represents the SM
dial indicator position.
3. Lay out another vertical line scaled from the SM indicator line that represents the
4. Indicator. If the distance is 6 inches and you are using a 1:1 scale, the line will be 6
blocks from the SM indicator line.
5. Lay out another vertical line scaled from the SM indicator line that represents the
front foot.
6. Lay out the last vertical line scaled from the SM indicator line that represents the MM
rear foot.
7. Determine the SM dial indicator TIR (remembering to account for bar sag) and divide
the reading by two. This is your plot point on the SM indicator line. Positive readings
are above the RAL, and negative readings are below the RAL.
8. Determine the MM dial indicator TIR (remembering to account for bar sag) and
divide the reading by two and then change the sign (positive readings become
negative and negative readings become positive). This is your plot point on the MM
indicator line.
9. Using a straight edge, extrapolate these plotted points across the vertical lines for the
front and rear foot. This is the misalignment line.
10. On the vertical lines for the MM feet, count the number of blocks either up or down
from the misalignment line to the RAL. If the misalignment line is above the RAL,
shims must be removed. If the misalignment line is below the RAL, shims must be
added. Assuming a 1:1 scale is being used, each block equals .001 inch.
In the next example, we will use the same dimensional data and indicator readings as used in
reverse dial Example 5. This will let you compare the two methods.
Example 6: Reverse Dial Graphical Misalignment Calculation Given the following
information; calculate the required shim moves to achieve perfect parallel and angular
alignment.

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 SM Indicator TIR = .024
Indicator TIR = .010 Bar Sag = .006
AA Dimension = 5 AB Dimension = 8.5 AC Dimension = 14

Solution:
Note: The graph scale for this example is as follows:

Horizontal Scale 1 Block = .5

Vertical Scale 1 Block = .001

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 Figure 53: Reverse Dial Graphical Calculation

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 Case Study

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 Attachments Report from Dresser Rand for K-2502 B & C Alignment

IP compressor K-2501-B SYN gas alignment issue:

The alignment reading taken before overhauling the machine with pipe connected, is as below

The alignment reading after overhaul was compared to both DR specification and the last
alignment performed in 2002 by H Hunter

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 DR design alignment

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 No shims available under the compressor far foot
Present reading 2002 H hunter:

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 Vertical alignment acceptable
Horizontal movement difficult due to pipe installed

LP to HP compressor SYN gas alignment issue:

The alignment reading taken before overhauling the machine with pipe connected, is as below

The alignment reading was compared to both DR specification and the last alignment
performed in 2002 by H Hunter

DR design alignment

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 Present reading 2002 H hunter:

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 Compare to the both alignment reference the compressor is out of specification
The problem is compressor is installed without shims on the near foot and with 0.048’’ shims
on the far foot
Vertical movement is not possible only side move
Base on the above finding it was decided to use the as found as new reference and just
remove more shims form the far foot
After correction we achieved the blow reading by removing 0.025’’ shims form the far foot,
its not possible to remove more due to soft foot

After pipe tightening the alignment reading completely change due to pipe stress on suction
discharge
New reading was

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 The new reading was found same as the initial reading before overhaul with process pipe
installed
Mainly due to pipe stress
Which alignment we have to consider the DR specification or we have just to put the
compressor to the as found value,
Last alignment value where discussed with customer and it was decided to adjust horizontal
alignment
By just losing the compressor fixing bolts we have lost the alignment

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