VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BURLA, ODISHA, INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Pow er System-I
Lect ure Not es

Subject Code: BEE1507

Lecture Notes Power System-I

Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a subst it ut e for prescribed
t ext books. The informat ion presented here is merely a collect ion by the committ ee members
for their respect ive teaching assignments. Various sources as ment ioned at the end of the
document as w ell as freely available material from int ernet w ere consult ed for preparing t his
document. The ow nership of t he information lies w ith t he respect ive aut hors or instit ut ions.
Furt her, t his document is not intended t o be used for commercial purpose and t he commit tee
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Lecture Notes Power System-I

Syllabus

MODULE-I (10 HOURS)

Introduction to different sources of energy and general discussion on their application to
generation,general introduction to power transmission by DC and AC overhead lines & underground
cables, Perunit system, Single line diagram
Choice of size and number of generating units: Review of the terms maximum demand, load
factor,diversity factor, plant capacity and use factor, load & load duration curve and their effect on
thegenerating capacity. Reserve units (hot, cold and spinning- reserve), different types of power
tariffs,brief idea about national grid and its operational problems.
MODULE-II (10 HOURS)
Hydro plant: classification of plants, base load and peak load station, Turbines, head gate, penstock,surge
tank, scroll case, draft tube and tail race, power plant auxiliaries.
Thermal Power: Block diagrams, Boilers, steam turbines, super heater, economizer, air preheater,
dustcollection, draft fans and chimney; condensers, feed water heaters, cooling water system;
Governors,plant layout and station auxiliaries.
MODULE-III (10 HOURS)
Nuclear Power: Fission & fusion, reactor construction, controlled chain reaction, operational controlof
reactors, Reactors (Boiling water, pressurized water, sodium graphite, breeder), layout of nuclearpower
plant.
Electrical System: excitation system, AVR: magnetic amplifier and thyristor converter type/DVR.Main
transformer, unit transformer and station reserve transformer, commissioning tests of alternatorsand
transformers.
MODULE-IV (10 HOURS)
Substation & Earthing: Types of substations, arrangement of bus-bars and control equipments,
solidearthing, resistance earthing and Peterson coil,Distribution System; types of distributors and feeders
(radial & ring), voltage drop and loadcalculation, Primary and secondary distribution network, Capacitor
placement in distribution network,Distribution system planning, Service area calculation.

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Table of Contents
Syllabus ................................................................................................................................................. 3
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ 8
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Module-1 .............................................................................................................................................12
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................12
Sources of Energy ...........................................................................................................................12
Installed Capacity in India..............................................................................................................13
Choice of size and number of Generating Units ...........................................................................14
Type of Load ...................................................................................................................................14
Important Terms..............................................................................................................................15
Demand Factor ............................................................................................................................15
Group Diversity Factor ...............................................................................................................15
Peak Diversity Factor..................................................................................................................15
Load Factor..................................................................................................................................15
Capacity Factor ...........................................................................................................................15
Utilization Factor ........................................................................................................................15
Load Curve: .................................................................................................................................15
Load Duration Curve: .................................................................................................................16
Energy Load Curve: ....................................................................................................................16
Mass Curve ..................................................................................................................................16
Operating Reserves .........................................................................................................................19
Tariffs ..............................................................................................................................................20
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................20
General Tariff Form ....................................................................................................................20
Spot Pricing .................................................................................................................................21
Availability based Tariff.............................................................................................................21
National Grid ...................................................................................................................................21
Module-2 .............................................................................................................................................22
Hydro Power Potential....................................................................................................................22
Hydrology........................................................................................................................................23

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Objectives of Hydrology ............................................................................................................23

Various terms related to Hydrology...........................................................................................23
Site Selection for Hydropower Plants ...........................................................................................25
Types of Dams ................................................................................................................................26
Classification of Hydropower Plants ............................................................................................28
Components of a HPP.....................................................................................................................29
Hydraulic Turbines .........................................................................................................................36
Types of Hydraulic Turbines......................................................................................................36
Specific Speed (Ns) .....................................................................................................................41
Runaway Speed ...........................................................................................................................41
Turbine Setting ............................................................................................................................41
Governing of Hydraulic Turbines ..............................................................................................42
Hydro Power Plant Auxiliaries ......................................................................................................43
Hydro Power Plant Layout .............................................................................................................44
Numerical Problems on Hydro Power Plants................................................................................45
Principle of Operation of Thermal Power Plants ..........................................................................46
Thermal Power Plant Resource ......................................................................................................47
Selection of site for thermal power plant ......................................................................................48
Schematic of a Thermal Power Plant.............................................................................................50
Major Components of a Thermal Power Plant..............................................................................51
Coal Handling Plant ........................................................................................................................52
Draught System...............................................................................................................................55
Boiler ...............................................................................................................................................57
Fire Tube Boiler ..........................................................................................................................57
Water Tube boilers......................................................................................................................58
Superheater and Reheaters .............................................................................................................59
Feed Water Heaters.........................................................................................................................61
Economizer......................................................................................................................................62
Air Preheaters ..................................................................................................................................63
Steam Turbines ...............................................................................................................................64
Condensers ......................................................................................................................................66

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Deaerators........................................................................................................................................68
Cooling Towers and Spray Ponds ..................................................................................................69
Ash Handling Plant .........................................................................................................................71
Electrostatic Precipitators ...............................................................................................................76
Numerical Problems on Thermal Power Plant..............................................................................78
Module-3 .............................................................................................................................................79
Nuclear Reactions ...........................................................................................................................79
Basics ...........................................................................................................................................79
Energy from Nuclear Reactions .................................................................................................79
Nuclear Fission............................................................................................................................80
Nuclear Fusion ............................................................................................................................81
Nuclear Power Plant .......................................................................................................................82
Nuclear Power Reactors .................................................................................................................83
Magnox Reactors ........................................................................................................................83
Advanced Gas cooled Reactors ..................................................................................................84
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR).............................................................................................85
Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) .................................................................................................86
Comparison of PWR and BWR .....................................................................................................87
Fast Breeder Reactors .....................................................................................................................88
Factors for Site Selection of NPPs .................................................................................................90
Advantages of NPPs .......................................................................................................................90
Disadvantages of NPPs...................................................................................................................90
Nuclear Power in India ...................................................................................................................91
Nuclear Power in World .................................................................................................................91
Numerical Problems on Nuclear Power Plant...............................................................................92
Types of Alternators .......................................................................................................................93
Generator Cooling Arrangements ..................................................................................................96
Excitation Systems..........................................................................................................................98
Function .......................................................................................................................................98
Exciter Design .............................................................................................................................98
Types of Excitation Systems ......................................................................................................98

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DC Excitation System.................................................................................................................99
AC Excitation System...............................................................................................................101
Static Excitation Systems .........................................................................................................102
Automatic Voltage Regulators .....................................................................................................102
Functions ...................................................................................................................................102
Direct acting voltage regulator .................................................................................................102
Magnetic Amplifier Regulator .....................................................................................................104
Solid State Electronic Regulator ..................................................................................................106
Power Plant Transformers ............................................................................................................107
Pre-commissioning Tests on Alternators ....................................................................................108
Pre-commissioning Tests on Transformers .................................................................................109
Module-4 ...........................................................................................................................................111
Substations ....................................................................................................................................111
Classification .............................................................................................................................111
Arrangement of Busbars ...............................................................................................................112
Substation Earthing.......................................................................................................................115
Objectives ..................................................................................................................................115
Equipment Earthing ..................................................................................................................115
Neutral Earthing ........................................................................................................................115
Primary and Secondary Distribution Network ............................................................................116
Types of Distribution Feeders ......................................................................................................117
Radial System............................................................................................................................117
Parallel or Loop System ...........................................................................................................118
Voltage Drop and Load Calculation ............................................................................................119
Capacitor placement in Distribution network .............................................................................119
References .........................................................................................................................................120

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List of Tables
Table 1: Installed Capacity as on 30-11-2014 .................................................................................................13
Table 2: Operating Reserves .............................................................................................................................19
Table 3: Grids in India ......................................................................................................................................21
Table 4: Impulse and Reaction Turbines .........................................................................................................36
Table 5: Comparison of Turbines .....................................................................................................................36
Table 6: Coal Classification ..............................................................................................................................47
Table 7: Jet and Surface Condensers................................................................................................................66
Table 8: Comparison of PWR and BWR .........................................................................................................87
Table 9: Hydro and Turbo generators ..............................................................................................................93
Table 10: AC versus brushless excitation ......................................................................................................101

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List of Figur es
Figure 1: Load Curve ........................................................................................................................................16
Figure 2: Load Duration Curve ........................................................................................................................17
Figure 3: Domestic Load (DF=0.5) ..................................................................................................................17
Figure 4: Industrial Load (DF=0.8) ..................................................................................................................18
Figure 5: Commercial Load ..............................................................................................................................18
Figure 6: Earth and Rockfill Dam ....................................................................................................................26
Figure 7: Arc Dam .............................................................................................................................................26
Figure 8: Arc Gravity Dam ...............................................................................................................................27
Figure 9: Schmatic of a Hydropower Plant .....................................................................................................29
Figure 10: Forebay ............................................................................................................................................30
Figure 11: Forebay with Penstock ....................................................................................................................31
Figure 12: Penstocks .........................................................................................................................................31
Figure 13: Surge Tank.......................................................................................................................................32
Figure 14: Elbow Type Draft Tube ..................................................................................................................33
Figure 15: Straight conical type draft tubes .....................................................................................................33
Figure 16: Scroll Casing ...................................................................................................................................34
Figure 17: Tail race ...........................................................................................................................................34
Figure 18: A switchyard under construction ...................................................................................................35
Figure 19: Kaplan Turbine ................................................................................................................................37
Figure 20: Kaplan Turbine ................................................................................................................................37
Figure 21: Francis Runner ................................................................................................................................38
Figure 22: Francis Runner ................................................................................................................................38
Figure 23: Francis Runner ................................................................................................................................39
Figure 24: Francis Runner ................................................................................................................................39
Figure 25: Pelton Turbine .................................................................................................................................40
Figure 26: Pelton Turbine .................................................................................................................................40
Figure 27: Governing Mechanism ....................................................................................................................42
Figure 28: Power House Layout .......................................................................................................................44
Figure 29: Rankine Cycle and Thermal Power Plants ....................................................................................50
Figure 30: Schematic of a Thermal Power Plant-2 .........................................................................................50
Figure 31: Block diagram of coal handling plant ............................................................................................52
Figure 32: Coal Storage ....................................................................................................................................52
Figure 33: Processes in Coal Handling Plant ..................................................................................................53
Figure 34: Draught System ...............................................................................................................................56
Figure 35: Fire Tube Boiler ..............................................................................................................................57
Figure 36: Water tube boiler .............................................................................................................................58
Figure 37: Functions of superheater .................................................................................................................59
Figure 38: Superheaters ....................................................................................................................................60
Figure 39: Water steam flow diagram..............................................................................................................61
Figure 40: Economizer ......................................................................................................................................62

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Lecture Notes Power System-I

Figure 41: Air Preheater....................................................................................................................................63

Figure 42: Steam Turbines ................................................................................................................................65
Figure 43: Steam Turbines ................................................................................................................................65
Figure 44: Surface Condenser ..........................................................................................................................66
Figure 45: Surface Condenser ..........................................................................................................................67
Figure 46: Jet Condenser...................................................................................................................................67
Figure 47: Cooling Tow er .................................................................................................................................. 69
Figure 48: Cooling Tow er .................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 49: Cooling Tow ers................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 50: Ash handling Plant flow diagram...................................................................................................72
Figure 51: Belt Conveyor System ....................................................................................................................73
Figure 52: Ash St orage ......................................................................................................................................74
Figure 53: Ash Ponds ........................................................................................................................................74
Figure 54: Ash Usage .........................................................................................................................................75
Figure 55: Electrostatic Precipit at or.................................................................................................................77
Figure 56: Electrostatic Precipitator.................................................................................................................77
Figure 57: ESP Principle ...................................................................................................................................78
Figure 58: Nuclear Fission ................................................................................................................................80
Figure 59: Nuclear Fusion ................................................................................................................................81
Figure 60: Schematic of a Nuclear Power Plant ..............................................................................................82
Figure 61: Magnox Reactor ..............................................................................................................................83
Figure 62: Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor.......................................................................................................84
Figure 63: Pressurized Water Reactor..............................................................................................................85
Figure 64: Boiling Water Reactor ....................................................................................................................86
Figure 65: Fast Breeder Reactors .....................................................................................................................89
Figure 66: Hydrogenerator................................................................................................................................93
Figure 67: Hydrogenerator under construction ...............................................................................................94
Figure 68: Turbogenerator ................................................................................................................................94
Figure 69: Turbogenerator ................................................................................................................................95
Figure 70: Turbogenerator ................................................................................................................................95
Figure 71: Air cooling of generators ................................................................................................................96
Figure 72: Hydrogen Cooling ...........................................................................................................................97
Figure 73: Hydrogen Cooled Alternator ..........................................................................................................97
Figure 74: DC Excitation ..................................................................................................................................99
Figure 75: Excitation System with Amplidyne .............................................................................................100
Figure 76: AC Excitation System ...................................................................................................................101
Figure 77: Direct Acting Voltage Regulator..................................................................................................103
Figure 78: Magnetic Amplifier Regulator Principle .....................................................................................104
Figure 79: Magnetic Amplifier Regulator .....................................................................................................105
Figure 80: Solid State Electronic Regulator ..................................................................................................106
Figure 81: Typical Generation Station Auxiliaries [7] .................................................................................107
Figure 82: Static Excitation System ...............................................................................................................110

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Figure 83: Single Bus System.........................................................................................................................112

Figure 84: Single Section Bus System ...........................................................................................................113
Figure 85: Double Bus System .......................................................................................................................113
Figure 86: Transfer Bus System .....................................................................................................................114
Figure 87: One and Half Breaker Bus System ..............................................................................................114
Figure 88: Radial Distribution System...........................................................................................................117
Figure 89: Ring Bus System ...........................................................................................................................118

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Module-1

Introduction
Loads
Concept of MW, MWh, Units, Million Units (MU)
Structure of Power System
Power Generation
Concept of Frequency
Prime movers and Generators
Salient Pole and Cylindrical type Alternators

Sources of Ener gy
 How can we keep providing humankind with energy-derived advantages without damaging
the environment, affecting societal stability or threatening the wellbeing of future generation?
 Sustainable energy can be thought of as a living harmony between the equitable availability
of energy sources to all people and the preservation of earth for future generations.
 Electricity is an intermediate energy product that is made from primary energy sources.
Power is the rate of energy exchange between two systems.
 The various sources of energy in the Indian context are as follows. As is obvious, the major
source of generation is coal based thermal power plant. Thermal, nuclear and hydro powers
are known as conventional energy sources which is the subject matter of this course.

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Installed Capacity in India

Table 1: Installed Capacity as on 30-11-2014

Source Subtype Capacity (MW) Remarks

Thermal Coal 153571
Gas 22971
Diesel 1199
Total 177742
Nuclear 4780
Hydro 40798
RES Wind 21136
Solar 2632
Biopower 4119

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Lecture Notes Power System-I

Choice of size and number of Gener ating Units

1. Economy: large size units have
a. low capital cost/kW,
b. need less land area
c. requires less operating labor
d. have better efficiency
e. system strength
2. Power plant capacity: neither small nor large number of units
3. Transmission facility
4. Reserve requirements
5. Status of technology
6. For hydro stations unit size depends on nature of flow, availability of head and water to
generate maximum power possible.

Type of Load
 Domestic Load
 Industrial Load
 Commercial Load
 Municipal Load
 Traction Load
 Irrigation Load

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Important Ter ms

Demand Factor
= Maximum Demand / Connected Load

Connected Load: sum of continuous ratings of all outlets in a distribution circuit

Maximum Demand: maximum power that the distribution circuit is likely to draw at any time

Gr oup Diversity Factor

= Sum of individual maximum demands / Maximum demand of the group

GDF is always greater than unity

Peak Diver sity Factor

=sum of maximum demand of a consumer group / demand of the consumer group at the time of
maximum demand

Load Factor
=Average Load / Peak Load

Capacity Factor
= Average Demand / Installed Capacity

Utilization Factor
= Maximum Load / Rated Plant Capacity

Load Curve:
It is the curve between load (MW) versus time.

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Load Dur ation Cur ve:

It is the rearrangement of all the load elements of a load curve in a descending order plotted as a
function of time.

Energy Load Cur ve:

It plots the cumulative integration of area under the load curve.

Mass Cur ve
It gives the total energy used by the load up to each hour of the day.

Figure 1: Load Curve

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Figure 2: Load Duration Curve

Figure 3: Domestic Load (DF=0.5)

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Figure 4: Industrial Load (DF=0.8)

Figure 5: Commercial Load

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Oper ating Reserves

 How much generating capacity should be committed and how much should be left for future
expansion?
 In electricity networks, the “operating reserve” is the generating capacity available to system
operator within a short interval of time to meet the changing demand or in case a generator is
out of service.

Table 2: Operating Reserves

Spinning Reserve Non-spinning Reserve

(Hot Reserves) (Cold Reserves)
It is the extra generating capacity that is It is the reserve which can be brought ONLINE
available by increasing the power output of the after a short delay. It also includes imported
generator that are already connected to power power.
system.
In other words, it is the unloaded generation In other words, cold reserve is the reserve
i.e. synchronized and ready to serve the generating capacity that is available for service
additional demand. but not in operation.

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Tar iffs


Objectives
Capital recovery
 Operational cost of distribution utility
 Cost of metering, billing and collection
 Simple and comprehensible to general public
 Uniform for a large population
 Should provide incentives for using power in off-peak hours
 Should have a provision of penalty for low power factor.

Gener al Tar iff Form

A = c*x + d*y + f
Where
A= total amount of bill for a certain period
x=maximum demand during a period (kW or kVA)
y= total energy consumed during the period in kWh
c=unit charge for maximum demand (Rs/kWh or Rs/kVA)
d=unit cost of energy (Rs/kWh)
f= constant charge

Flat Demand Rate

A = c*x

Straight Meter Rate

A = d*y

Block Meter Rate

A=d1*y1 +d2*y2 + …

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
Spot Pr icing
It is the half hour price of whole sale electricity market.
 The spot price is published by the pricing manager for each point of connection on the
national grid.
 The electricity market uses spot electricity prices for each trading period to schedule
available generation so that the lowest cost generation is dispatched first.

Availability based Tar iff

It is a frequency based pricing mechanism for electric power. The ABT falls under electricity
market mechanisms to charge and regulate power to achieve short term and long term network
stability as well as incentives and disincentives to grid participants against interruption in
committed supplies.

National Grid

Table 3: Grids in India

 From 2006, all the northern grids connected to form central grid
 Since 2013, the southern and central grid unified, but not fully.

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Module-2

Hydr o Power Potential

P = g*ρ*Q*H
Where
P = Power available in water
g = 9.81 m/s2
Q = flow or discharge (m3/s)
H = Height of fall of water or head (m)
P = 9.81*1000*Q*H*10-3 kW = 9.81 QH kW
P= 9.81 QHη kW where η = efficiency of the turbine-generator assembly

 Rain falling on earth’s surface has potential energy relative to oceans.

 This energy is converted to shaft work when the water falls through a vertical distance.
 This shaft work is used to drive water turbines to generate electricity.

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Hydr ology

• First requirement – Q (discharge)

• Hydrology deals with occurrence and distribution of water over and under earth’s surface.
– Surface Water Hydrology
– Ground Water Hydrology
• Watershed, catchment area or drainage area: length of the river, size and shape of the
area it affects, tributaries, lakes, reservoirs etc.
• Investigation of run-off for past few years is required for power potential studies of a HPP.

Objectives of Hydr ology

• To obtain data regarding the stream flow of water that would be available,
• To predict the yearly possible flow
• To calculate the mean annual rainfall in the area under consideration from a record of the
annual rainfall for a number of years, say 25 to 30
• To note the frequency of dry years
• To find maximum rainfall and flood frequency

Var ious ter ms related to Hydr ology

• Rainfall is also known as precipitation and can be measured by rain gauges.
• Some part of precipitation is lost due to evaporation, interception and transpiration.
• Transpiration: Plants absorbing moisture and giving it off to the atmosphere
• Stream flow = precipitation – losses
• Stream flow = surface flow + percolation to ground
• Surface flow is also known as run-off.

• Hydrograph:
– shows the variation of stream flow in m3/s with time for a particular river site. The
time may be hour, week, month or a year.
– The area under hydrograph gives the total volume of flow

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• Flow duration curve:

– shows the percentage of time during the period when the flow was equal to greater
than the given flow.
– The area under FDC gives the total quantity of run-off during a period

• Mass curve
– indicates the total volume of run-off in cubic meters up to a certain time.
– the slope of the curve at any point shows the rate of flow at that time
– Used for estimating the capacity of storage reservoir
• Storage:
– to ensure water availability during deficient flow and thus increasing the firm
capacity
– Storage also results in more energy production
• Pondage:
– Storing water in small ponds near the power plant as the storage reservoir is away
from plant
– To meet the power demand fluctuations over a short period of time e.g. 24 hours

• Primary Power: power that will be available 90 % of the time

• Secondary Power: power that will be available 75 % of the time
• Dump Power: power that will be available 50 % of the time.
• Maximum flow estimation: gives estimation of floods and helps in design of dam and
spillway.

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Site Selection for Hydropower Plants

• Availability of Water: Run-off data for many years available

• Water Storage: for water availability throughout the year
• Head of Water: most economic head, possibility of constructing a dam to get required head
• Geological Investigations: strong foundation, earthquake frequency is less
• Water Pollution: excessive corrosion and damage to metallic structures
• Sedimentation: capacity reduces due to gradual deposition of silt
• Social and Environmental Effects: submergence of areas, effect on biodiversity (e.g.
western ghat), cultural and historic aspects
• Access to Site: for transportation of construction material and heavy machinery new railway
lines or roads may be needed
• Multipurpose: power generation, irrigation, flood control, navigation, recreation; because
initial cost of power plant is high because of civil engineering construction work

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Types of Dams

Figure 6: Earth and Rockfill Dam

Figure 7: Arc Dam

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Figure 8: Arc Gravity Dam

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Classification of Hydropower Plants

According to water flow regulation:

1. Runoff river plants without pondage
2. Runoff river plants with pondage
3. Hydroelectric plants with storage reservoir

According to Load:
1. Base load plants
2. Peak load plants
3. Pumped storage plants

According to head:
1. High head plants (>100m)
2. Medium head plants (30-100 m)
3. Low head plants (<30 m)

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Components of a HPP

Figure 9: Schmatic of a Hydropower Plant

The various components of HPP are as follows:

1. Catchment area
2. Reservoir
3. Dam
4. Spillways
5. Conduits
6. Surge tanks
7. Draft tubes
8. Power house
9. Switchyard for power evacuation

 Develops a reservoir to store water

Dam

 Builds up head for power generation

 To safeguard the dam when water level in the reservoir rises

Spillway

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 Contains trash racks to filter out debris which may damage the turbine
Intake

 Enlarged body of water just above the intake

Forebay

Figure 10: Forebay

 Headrace is a channel which lead the water to the turbine

Conduits

 Tailrace is a channel which carries water from the turbine

 A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground following its contour.
 A flume is an open channel erected on a surface above ground.
 A tunnel is a closed channel excavated through an obstruction.
 A pipeline is a closed conduit supported on the ground.
 Penstocks are closed conduits for supplying water “under pressure” from head pond to the
turbines.

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Figure 11: Forebay with Penstock

Figure 12: Penstocks

 A surge tank is a small reservoir in which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure
Surge Tank

 Water Hammer
swings so that they are not transmitted to the penstock.

o Load on the turbine is suddenly reduced

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o Governor closes turbine gates


o Sudden increase of pressure in the penstock
Negative Pressure
o Load on the generator is suddenly increased
o Governor opens the turbine gates


o Tends to cause a vacuum in the penstock
When the gates are closed, water level rises in the surge tank and when the gates are
suddenly opened, surge tank provides the initial water supply.

Figure 13: Surge Tank

Draft Tubes

 To reduce the velocity head losses of the water

The function of the draft tube is to

 To allow the turbine to be set above the tailrace to facilitate inspection and maintenance

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Figure 14: Elbow Type Draft Tube

Figure 15: Straight conical type draft tubes

Scroll Casing:
Takes the water from penstock to turbine blades

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Figure 16: Scroll Casing

 A tailrace is required to discharge the water leaving the turbine into the river.
Tailrace:

 The design of the tail race should be such that water has a free exit.

Figure 17: Tail race

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Power House
1. Hydraulic turbines
2. Electric generators
3. Governors
4. Gate valves
5. Relief valves
6. Water circulation pumps
7. Air ducts
8. Switch board and instruments
9. Storage batteries
10. Cranes

Switchyard
1. Step up transformers
2. Instrument transformers
3. Transmission lines

Figure 18: A switchyard under construction

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Hydr aulic Tur bines

Types of Hydr aulic Tur bines

1. According to the head and quantity of water available

a. Low head (2-15m)
b. Medium head (16-70m)
c. High head (71-500m)
d. Very high head (>500m)
2. According to the name of the originator
a. Francis
b. Kaplan
c. Pelton
3. According to the nature of working of water on blades

Table 4: Impulse and Reaction Turbines

Impulse Reaction
Available head of water converted into kinetic Flow of water takes place in a closed conduit
energy in a nozzle system
The free jet strikes a bucket which revolves Part of P.E. is converted into K.E. and part into
around a shaft pressure energy
Turbines are above ground Water flows in a closed conduit system and
turbines are submerged in water
After energy production, water falls freely Water falls through a draft tube
through the passage into tail race

4. According to the direction of flow of water

a. Radial
b. Axial
c. Tangential (Deriaz)
5. According to the axis of the turbine shaft: vertical, horizontal

Comparison of Turbines

Table 5: Comparison of Turbines

Turbine Head (m) Specific Speed (metric)

Kaplan 30 to 70 300 to 1000
Francis 40 to 400 60 to 300
Pelton >400 m 10 to 50

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Figure 19: Kaplan Turbine

Figure 20: Kaplan Turbine

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Figure 21: Francis Runner

Figure 22: Francis Runner

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Figure 23: Francis Runner

Figure 24: Francis Runner

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Figure 25: Pelton Turbine

Figure 26: Pelton Turbine

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Specific Speed (Ns)

 It is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar turbine to produce 1 kW of power under

1 m head. Its units are ‘rpm in (m-kW)’ or ‘rpm in (m-mhp)’.

√
Ns = /

Where N = rotational speed of the turbine in rpm

P = Power output of the turbine in kW or mhp
H = Head of the turbine in meters

 Specific speed is the basis of comparison of the characteristics of hydraulic turbines.

 Higher the specific speed for a given head and power output, the lower the cost of installation
as a whole.

Example:
Find out the specific speed of a turbine of 10 MW capacity working under a head of 500m and
having the normal working speed of 300 RPM.
Solution:
Ns = 300x sqrt (10000) / 500^(1.25) = 12 rpm in (m-kW)

Runaway Speed
It is the maximum speed at which a turbine would run under the worst conditions of operation
i.e. with all gates open so as to allow all possible water inflow under maximum head and
corresponding to the condition of the load being suddenly thrown off from the generator.


Tur bine Setting
Height of the turbine from the tailwater level is known as turbine setting.
 Turbine setting must ensure a cavitation free operation.

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 Air bubbles are formed on the turbine, if there is no proper turbine setting leading to air
cavity and can damage turbine blades.


Gover ning of Hydr aulic Tur bines
N = 120f/P implies speed of the generator can be maintained at a constant level only when
the speed of the turbine is constant.
 Load is increased => speed tends to decrease and vice versa.
 The function of the governor is to regulate the quantity of water flowing through the runner
in proportion to the load. Thus the governing mechanism maintains the speed of the runner at
a constant level at all loads.
 For reaction turbines, the governor controls the guide vanes and wicket gates. For impulse
turbines, the governor controls the spear and nozzle.

Figure 27: Governing Mechanism

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Hydr o Power Plant Auxiliar ies

1. Governing oils systems
2. Lubricating oil pumps
3. Coolant oil pumps
4. Drainage pumps
5. Pipes, fans, ventilation
6. Air compressor
7. Cooling oil pumps for transformers
8. Head gates
9. Drain valves
10. Gantry cranes
11. Station batteries
12. Instrumentation system

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Hydr o Power Plant Layout

The major aspects to be considered for deciding the power plant layout are:
 Size of various units
 Size required for spiral casing
 Distance between various units
 Width of erection bay
 Position of gantry crane
 Position of control room

Figure 28: Power House Layout

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Numerical Problems on Hydr o Power Plants

1. A hydro plant operates under an effective head of 100 m and a discharge of 200 m3/s. If the
efficiency of the turbine alternator set is 0.9, find the power developed.
(Ans. 176.52 MW)
2. A hydro-electric station has an average available head of 100 meters and reservoir capacity
of 50 million cubic meters. Calculate the total energy in kWh that can be generated,
assuming hydraulic efficiency of 85 % and electrical efficiency of 90%.
(Ans. 10.423 x 106 kWh)
3. One million cubic meters of water is stored in a reservoir feeding a water turbine. The
density of water is 993 kg/m3. If the centre of mass of water is 50m above the turbine and the
losses are negligible, what will be the energy in MWh produced by that volume of water?
(ESE-2011)
(Ans. 135.3/130/120/140)
4. The utilizable water from a catchment is 60x106 cu m annually and the hydro station has a
head of 40 m. Assuming ideal generator and turbine, find power that can be theoretically
generated?
(Ans. 250/300/500/750 kW)
5. A hydroelectric station is designed to operate at a mean head of 205 m and fed by a reservoir
having a catchment area of 1000 km2 with an annual rainfall of 125 m of which 80% is
available for power generation. The expected load factor is 75%. Allowing a head loss of 5 m
and assuming efficiency of turbine and generator to be 0.9 and 0.95 calculate suitable MW
rating of the power station. Comment on the type of turbine to be used. (BRG P-156)
(Ans. 70.9 MW, Pelton turbine)

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Principle of Oper ation of Thermal Power Plants

Zeroth Law:
 Temperature measurement
 thermal equilibrium

First Law:
 ∑Wcycle = J (∑Qcycle) for a cyclic process
 Equivalence of heat and work
 Principle of conservation of energy

Second Law:
 Gives condition of heat and work transfer
 Work is high grade energy and heat is low grade energy.
 All heat cannot be converted to work.
 Second law can be implemented by heat engine.

Third Law:
A system cannot be reduced to absolute zero (-273 0C by a finite number of operations)

Heat Engine Cycle

It is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is net heat transfer to the system and a net work
transfer from the system. Thermal power plant operate on the principle of Rankine
thermodynamic cycle.

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Ther mal Power Plant Resour ce

 India has large deposit of coal (about 170 billion tonnes), 5 th largest in world.
 Indian coals are classified as A-G grade coals.
 Power generation from coal can be estimated by means of its calorific value kCal/kg or
kJ/kg.
 The calorific values of major types of coals are given below.

Table 6: Coal Classification

Coal Type kJ/kg kWh/kg kCal/kg
Peat 8000 28800000 1912
Lignite 20000 72000000 4780
Bituminous 27000 97200000 6453
Anthracite 30000 108000000 7170

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Selection of site for thermal power plant

 Transportation network: Easy and enough access to transportation network is required in

both power plant construction and operation periods.
 Gas pipe network: Vicinity to the gas pipes reduces the required expenses.
 Power transmission network: To transfer the generated electricity to the consumers, the
plant should be connected to electrical transmission system. Therefore the nearness to the
electric network can play a roll.
 Geology and soil type: The power plant should be built in an area with soil and rock layers
that could stand the weight and vibrations of the power plant.
 Earthquake and geological faults: Even weak and small earthquakes can damage many
parts of a power plant intensively. Therefore the site should be away enough from the faults
and previous earthquake areas.
 Topography: It is proved that high elevation has a negative effect on production efficiency
of gas turbines. In addition, changing of a sloping area into a flat site for the construction of
the power plant needs extra budget. Therefore, the parameters of elevation and slope should
be considered.
 Rivers and floodways: obviously, the power plant should have a reasonable distance from
permanent and seasonal rivers and floodways.
 Water resources: For the construction and operating of power plant different volumes of
water are required. This could be supplied from either rivers or underground water resources.
Therefore having enough water supplies in defined vicinity can be a factor in the selection of
the site.
 Environmental resources: Operation of a power plant has important impacts on
environment. Therefore, priority will be given to the locations that are far enough from
national parks, wildlife, protected areas, etc.
 Population centers: For the same reasons as above, the site should have an enough distance
from population centers.
 Need for power: In general, the site should be near the areas that there is more need for
generation capacity, to decrease the amount of power loss and transmission expenses.

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 Climate: Parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind direction and speed affect the
productivity of a power plant and always should be taken into account.
 Land cover: Some land cover types such as forests, orchard, agricultural land, pasture are
sensitive to the pollutions caused by a power plant. The effect of the power plant on such
land cover types surrounding it should be counted for.
 Area size: Before any other consideration, the minimum area size required for the
construction of power plant should be defined.
 Distance from airports: Usually, a power plant has high towers and chimneys and large
volumes of gas. Consequently for security reasons, they should be away from airports.
 Archeological and historical sites: Usually historical building …are fragile and at same
time very valuable. Therefore the vibration caused by power plant can damage them, and a
defined distance should be considered.

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Schematic of a Thermal Power Plant

Figure 29: Rankine Cycle and Thermal Power Plants

Figure 30: Schematic of a Thermal Power Plant-2

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Major Components of a Thermal Power Plant

 Coal Handling Plant
 Pulverizing Plant
 Draft or Draught fan
 Boiler
 Ash Handling Plant
 Turbine and Generator
 Condenser
 Cooling Tower And Ponds
 Feed Water Heater
 Economiser
 Super heater and Reheater
 Air pre heater
 Alternator with Exciter
 Protection and control equipment
 Instrumentation

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Coal Handling Plant

Figure 31: Block diagram of coal handling plant

Figure 32: Coal Storage

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Figure 33: Processes in Coal Handling Plant

Screening Process:
There are three basic type of screening process
 Scalping
 Fine removals
 Grading

Crushing Process:
There are four basic process to reduce the size
 Impact
 attrition
 Shear
 compression

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Stacking Process:
 This process involves in dead storage in the form of piles laid directly in the ground. In case
of road transport and aerial transport coal are unloaded in stack yard and the coal is stacked
properly using dozers.
 When coal supply by railway is excess it would be stacked through a separate conveyor. For
these purpose stacker or telescopic chutes are used.

Reclaiming Process:
 The stored coal is required to bunkered in case of emergency or improper coal supply. The
reclaiming process involves the lifting of coal from stack yard by means of dozer or
reclaimer like bucket wheel.
 The dozer feed this coal in hopper. This process is simple process. This process is simple.
The main object of this process to bunker crush coal or non-crush coal as per requirement of
bunker to support the other process feeding.

Bunkering Process:
 This process involves feeding of bins and maintaining the level of these bins. From the
conveyor belt the coal is discharged into bunker or bins with the help of trippers.

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Draught System

 The combustion in the boiler requires supply of sufficient quality of air and removal of
exhaust gases
 The circulation of air is caused by difference of pressure is known as draught. Thus draught
is the differential in pressure between the two points.
 A draught tube may be
1. Natural Draught
2. Mechanical Draught
Natural Draught
 A natural Draught is provided by the chimney or stack.
 Natural draught has its limitation . Modern plants has high rate of heat transfer and Draught
losses are very high. in view of this Natural draught is used only for small boilers.

Mechanical Draught
 Modern large size plants use very large size of boilers of capacity above 1000,000 kg per
hour. such boiler needs tremendous volume of air (around 200000 m3) Per minute. A
chimney providethis.Therefore mechanical draught is used.
 In a mechanical draught the system the movement air is due to the action of fan. A
mechanical Draught consist of forced Draught or induced draught or both.
 In forced draught system the fan is installed near the boiler .the fan force the air through the
furnace , economizer, air preheater and chimney. The pressure of air, throughout the system,
is above atmospheric and air is forced to flow through the system
 In an induced draught system the , the fan is installed near the base of the chimney .The burnt
gases are sucked out from the boiler , thus reducing the pressure inside the boiler. to less than
atmosphere. this induces fresh air to enter the furnace.
 A mechanical Draught need additional capital investment and maintenance .But it required
for proper operation of modern power plant. In super thermal power plant , each boiler may
used two forced fans and two induced fan.

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Figure 34: Draught System

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Boiler
 A boiler (or steam generator) is a closed vessel in which water, under pressure , is converted
into steam. The heat is transferred to the boiler by all three modes of heat transfer i.e.
conduction ,convection and radiation.
 Major types of boilers are: (i) fire tube boiler and (ii) water tube boiler

 The boiler is named so because the products of combustion pass through the tubes which are
Fire Tube Boiler

surrounded by water.
 Depending on whether the tube is vertical or horizontal the fire tube boiler is divided into
two types
 Vertical tube boiler
 Horizontal tube boiler
 A fire tube boiler is simple ,compact and rugged in construction. Its initial cost is low.

Figure 35: Fire Tube Boiler

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Water Tube boiler s

 In this boiler, the water flows inside the tubes and hot gases flow outside the tube .
 Water tube boiler are classified as
 Vertical tube boiler
 Horizontal tube boiler
 Inclined tube boiler
 The circulation of water in the boiler is may be natural or forced.

Figure 36: Water tube boiler

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Superheater and Reheater s

 Super heated steam is that steam which contains more heat than the saturated steam at the
same pressure. The additional heat provide more energy to the turbine hence power out put is
more.
 Superheated steam causes lesser erosion of the turbine blades and can be transmitted for
longer distance with little heat loss
 The function of the super heater is to remove the last trash of moisture from the saturated
steam.
 A superheater may be convention type, radiant type or combination

Figure 37: Functions of superheater

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Figure 38: Superheaters

Reheater
 In addition to super heater modern boiler has reheater also. The function of the reaheater is to
superheat the partly expanded steam from the turbine, this ensure that The steam remain dry
through the last stage of the turbine.
 A reheater may be convention type, radiant type or combination.

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Feed Water Heaters

 Feed Water heating improve overall efficiency.

 The dissolved oxygen which would otherwise cause boiler corrosion are removed in the feed
water heater.
 Thermal stresses due to cold water entering the boiler drum are avoided.
 Quantity of steam produced by the boiler is increased.
 Some other impurities carried by steam and condensate, due to corrosion in boiler and
condenser, are precipitated outside the boiler.

Figure 39: Water steam flow diagram

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Economizer

 Boilers are provided with economizer and air pre-heaters to recover heat from the flue gases.
An increase of about 20% in boiler efficiency is achieved by providing both economizer and
air pre-heaters.
 Economizer alone gives only 8% efficiency increase. The feed water from the high pressure
heaters enters the economizer and picks up heat from the flue gases after the low temperature
superheater.
 Economizer can be classified as an inline or staggered arrangement based on the type of tube
arrangement.

Figure 40: Economizer

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Air Preheater s

 After the flue gases leave economizer, some further heat can be extracted from them and is
used to heat the incoming air for combustion.
 Air preheaters may be of following types:
 Plate type
 Tubular type
 Regenerative type
 Cooling of flue gases by 200increase the efficiency of the plant by 1%.

Figure 41: Air Preheater

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Steam Turbines
 Steam entering from a small opening attains a very high velocity. The velocity attained
during expansion depends on the initial and final content of the steam.
 The difference in initial and final heat content represent the heat energy to be converted to
kinetic energy.
 There are two types of steam turbines:
Impulse Reaction
Expansion happens in a nozzle Expansion happens in turbine blades
High speed Low speed
Sufficient number of impulse stages are
provided.

Compounding of steam turbines:

 Single stage turbines are of low efficiency.
 In compounding, a number of rotors are connected or keyed to the same shaft
 Two types of compounding are used: velocity compounding and pressure compounding

Governing of steam turbines:

Governing signifies the process of controlling the volume of steam to meet the load fluctuation.

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Figure 42: Steam Turbines

Figure 43: Steam Turbines

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Condensers

 The function of the condenser is to condense the steam exiting the turbine.
 The condenser helps maintain low pressure at the exhaust.
 Two types of condensers are used.
Table 7: Jet and Surface Condensers

Jet condenser (contact type) Surface condenser (non-contact type)

Exhaust steam mixes with cooling water. Steam and water do not mix.
Temperature of the condensate and cooling Condensate temperature higher than the
water is same while leaving the condenser. cooling water temperature at outlet.
Condensate cannot be recovered. Condensate recovered is fed back to the boiler.
Heat exchanged by direct conduction Heat transfer through convection.
Low initial cost High initial cost.
High power required for pumping water. Condensate is not wasted so pumping power is
less.

Figure 44: Surface Condenser

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Figure 45: Surface Condenser

Figure 46: Jet Condenser

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Deaerators

 A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved
gases from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers.
 In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feedwaters will cause serious corrosion damage in
steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and
forming oxides (rust).
 There are two basic types of deaerators,
1. the tray-type an
2. the spray-type
 The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed deaeration section
mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler
feedwater storage tank.
 The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves as
both the deaeration section and the boiler feedwater storage tank.

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Cooling Towers and Spray Ponds

 Condensers need huge quantity of water to condense the steam.
 Water is led into the plants by means of circulating water pumps and after passing through
the condenser is discharged back into the river.
 If such a source is not available closed cooling water circuit is used where the warm water
coming out of the condenser is cooled and reused.
 In such cases ponds and cooling towers are used where the water loses heat to the
atmosphere.

Figure 47: Cooling Tow er

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Figure 48: Cooling Tow er

Figure 49: Cooling Tow ers

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Ash Handling Plant

In Thermal Power Plant’s coal is generally used as fuel and hence the ash is produced as the
byproduct of Combustion. Ash generated in power plant is about 30-40% of total coal
consumption and hence the system is required to handle Ash for its proper utilization or disposal.
The steam power plant produces 5000 of tons ash daily ( 2000MW)
The ash may be-----
 Fly Ash ( Around 80% is the value of fly ash generated)
 Bottom ash (Bottom ash is 20% of the ash generated in coal based power
stations.
Fly Ash
 Ash generated in the ESP which got carried out with the flue gas is
generally called Fly ash. It also consists of Air pre heater ash &
Economizer ash (it is about 2 % of the total ash content).
Bottom ash
 Ash generated below furnace of the steam generator is called the bottom
ash.
The operation of ash handling plants is…….
 Removal of ash from the furnace ash hoppers
 Transfer of the ash to a fill or storage
 and disposal of stored ash

The ash may be disposed in the following way…….

 Waste land site may be reserved for the disposal of ash.
 Building contractor may utilize it to fill the low lying area.
 Deep ponds may be made and ash can be dumped into these ponds to fill
them completely
 When sea born coal is used, barrage may take the ash to sea for disposal
into water grave.

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Figure 50: Ash handling Plant flow diagram

The modern ash handling system usually used in large steam power plants are …….
 Belt conveyor system
 Pneumatic system
 Hydraulic system
 Steam jet system

Belt conveyor system

 In this system the ash is made to flow through a water seal over the belt conveyor in order to
cool it down and then carried out to a dumping site over the belt.
 It can deliver 3 tonnes of ash per hour with a speed of 0.3m/minute.
 The life of belt is 5 years. it is used in small power plant

Pneumatic system
 In this system air is employed as a medium to driving the ash through a pipe over along
distance.
 This system can handle 5-30 tonnes of ash per hour

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 This is used for disposal of fly ash

Hydraulic system
 In this system a stream of water carries ash along with it in a closed channel and disposed it
off to the proper site.
 It is of two types high pressure system and low pressure system.

Steam jet system

 This system employs jets of high pressure blowing in the direction of ash travel through a
conveying pipe in which ash from the boiler ash hopper is fed.
 It is employed in small and medium size plant
 Steam consumption is 110 kg per tonne of material conveyed.

Figure 51: Belt Conveyor System

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Figure 52: Ash Storage

Figure 53: Ash Ponds

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Figure 54: Ash Usage

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Electrostatic Pr ecipitators

 An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection

device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge.
 the basic idea of an ESP:
 Charging
 collecting.
 removing
 Every particle either has or can be given a charge—positive or negative.
 we impart a negative charge to all the particles in a gas stream in ESP.
 Then a grounded plate having a positive charge is set up.
 The negatively charged particle would migrate to the grounded collection plate and be
captured.
 The particles would quickly collect on the plate, creating a dust layer. The dust layer would
accumulate until we removed it.
 The structural design and operation of the discharge electrodes (rigid-frame, wires or plate)
and collection electrodes.
 tubular type ESP
 plate type ESP
 The method of charging
 single-stage ESP
 two-stage ESP
 The temperature of operation
 cold-side ESP
 hot-side ESP
 The method of particle removal from collection surfaces
 wet ESP
 Dry ESP

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Figure 55: Electrostatic Precipitator

Figure 56: Electrostatic Precipitator

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Figure 57: ESP Principle

Numerical Problems on Thermal Power Plant

1. A steam power station of 100 MW capacity uses coal of calorific value 6400 kCal/kg. The
thermal efficiency of the station is 30% and electrical generation efficiency is 92%. Find the
coal requirement per hour when the plant is working on full load.
2. Assuming efficiency of 33%, how much coal is needed to be burnt to supply energy for a
average household in a year. Given connected load: 1 kW, load Factor: 60%.

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Module-3

Nuclear Reactions


Basics
Atoms consist of nucleus and electrons.
 The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.
 Protons are positively charged whereas neutrons are electrically neutral.
 Atoms with nuclei having same number of protons but difference in their masses are called
isotopes. They are identical in terms of their chemical properties but differ with respect to
nuclear properties.
 Natural Uranium consists of 92U238 (99.282%), 92U235 (0.712%) and 92U234
 92U
235
is used as fuel in nuclear power plants.


Energy fr om Nuclear Reactions
The sum of masses of protons and neutrons exceeds the mass of the atomic nucleus and this
difference is called mass defect ∆m.
 In a nuclear reaction the mass defect is converted into energy known as binding energy
according to Einstein’s equation (E=∆m c2).
 Fissioning one amu of mass results in release of 931 MeV of energy.
 It has been found that element having higher and lower mass numbers are unstable. Thus the
lower mass numbers can be fused or the higher mass numbers can be fissioned to produce
more stable elements.
 This results in two types of nuclear reactions known as fusion and fission.
 The total energy per fission reaction of U235 is about 200 MeV.
 Fuel burn-up rate is the amount of energy in MW/days produced by each metric ton of fuel.

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Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the reaction by which a heavy nucleus (that is one with a high value of Z) is hit
with a small particle, as a result of which it splits into two (occasionally more) smaller nuclei.

Figure 58: Nuclear Fission

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Nuclear Fusion

Fusion is the opposite of fission, it is the joining together of two light nuclei to form a heavier
one (plus a small fragment). For example if two 2H nuclei (two deuterons) can be made to come
together they can form He and a neutron.

Figure 59: Nuclear Fusion

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Nuclear Power Plant

 A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more
nuclear reactors. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to generate
steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.
 Nuclear power plants are usually considered to be base load stations, which are best suited to
constant power output.

Figure 60: Schematic of a Nuclear Power Plant

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Nuclear Power Reactor s

Magnox Reactors

 Of the six main commercial reactor types, two (Magnox and AGR) owe much to the very
earliest reactor designs in that they are graphite moderated and gas cooled. Magnox reactors
were built in the UK from 1956 to 1971 but have now been superseded.
 The Magnox reactor is named after the magnesium alloy used to encase the fuel, which is
natural uranium metal. Fuel elements consisting of fuel rods encased in Magnox cans are
loaded into vertical channels in a core constructed of graphite blocks.

Figure 61: Magnox Reactor

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 In order to improve the cost effectiveness of this type of reactor, it was necessary to go to
Advanced Gas cooled Reactor s

higher temperatures to achieve higher thermal efficiencies and higher power densities to
reduce capital costs.
 This entailed increases in cooling gas pressure and changing from Magnox to stainless steel
cladding and from uranium metal to uranium dioxide fuel. This in turn led to the need for an
increase in the proportion of U235 in the fuel. The resulting design, known as the Advanced
Gas-Cooled Reactor, or AGR

Figure 62: Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor

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Pr essur ized Water Reactor (PWR)

 The most widely used reactor type in the world is the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
which uses enriched (about 3.2% U235) uranium dioxide as a fuel in zirconium alloy cans.
 The fuel, which is arranged in arrays of fuel "pins" and interspersed with the movable
control rods, is held in a steel vessel through which water at high pressure (to suppress
boiling) is pumped to act as both a coolant and a moderator.
 The high-pressure water is then passed through a steam generator, which raises steam in the
usual way.

Figure 63: Pressurized Water Reactor

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Boiling Water Reactor s (BWR)

 The second type of water cooled and moderated reactor does away with the steam
generator and, by allowing the water within the reactor circuit to boil, it raises steam
directly for electrical power generation. Such reactors, known as Boiling Water
Reactors (BWRs), throughout the world.
 This, however, leads to some radioactive contamination of the steam circuit and turbine,
which then requires shielding of these components in addition to that surrounding the
reactor.

Figure 64: Boiling Water Reactor

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Compar ison of PWR and BWR

Table 8: Comparison of PWR and BWR

PWR BWR
Advantages Advantages
• Relatively compact in size • Elimination of heat exchanger circuit
• Possibility of breeding plutonium by results in reduction in cost and gain in
providing a blanket of U-238 thermal efficiency (to about 30%)
• High power density • Pressure inside in the reactor vessel is
• Containment of fission products due considerably lower resulting in lighter
to heat exchanger and less costly design
• Inexpensive ‘light water’ can be used • BWR cycle is more efficient than PWR
as moderator, coolant and reflector as the outlet temperature of steam is
• Positive power demand coefficient much higher
i.e. the reactor responds to load • Metal surface temperature is lower since
increase boiling of water is inside the reactor
• BWR is more stable than PWR and hence
is commonly known as a self-controlled
reactor
Disadvantages Disadvantages
• Moderator remains under high • Possibility of radio-active contamination
pressure and hence a strong pressure in the turbine mechanism
vessel is required • Wastage of steam may result in lowering
• Expensive cladding material is of thermal efficiency on part load
required to prevent corrosion operation
• Heat loss occurs due to heat • Power density of BWR is nearly half that
exchanger of PWR resulting in large size vessel
• Elaborate safety devices are required • Possibility of burn-out of fuel is more as
• Lacks flexibility i.e. the reactor needs water boiling is on the surface of fuel.
to be shut down for recharging and • BWR cannot meet a sudden increase in
there is difficulty in fuel element load

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design and fabrication

• Thermal efficient is very low; around
20%

Fast Breeder Reactors

 All of today's commercially successful reactor systems are "thermal" reactors, using
235
slow or thermal neutrons to maintain the fission chain reaction in the U fuel. Even with
the enrichment levels used in the fuel for such reactors, however, by far the largest
numbers of atoms present are U238, which are not fissile.
 Consequently, when these atoms absorb an extra neutron, their nuclei do not split but are
converted into another element, Plutonium.
 Plutonium is fissile and some of it is consumed in situ, while some remains in the spent
fuel together with unused U235. These fissile components can be separated from the fission
product wastes and recycled to reduce the consumption of uranium in thermal reactors by up
to 40%, although clearly thermal reactors still require a substantial net feed of natural
uranium.
 It is possible, however, to design a reactor which overall produces more fissile material in the
form of Plutonium than it consumes. This is the fast reactor in which the neutrons are
unmoderated, hence the term "fast".
 The physics of this type of reactor dictates a core with a high fissile concentration,
typically around 20%, and made of Plutonium. In order to make it breed, the active core
is surrounded by material (largely U238) left over from the thermal reactor enrichment
process. This material is referred to as fertile, because it converts to fissile material when
irradiated during operation of the reactor.
 The successful development of fast reactors has considerable appeal in principle. This is
because they have the potential to increase the energy available from a given quantity of
uranium by a factor of fifty or more, and can utilise the existing stocks of depleted uranium,
which would otherwise have no value.

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Figure 65: Fast Breeder Reactors

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Factor s for Site Selection of NPPs

1. Availability of Water: working fluid
2. Distance from Populated Area: danger of radioactivity
3. Nearness to the load centre: reduction in transmission cost
4. Disposal of Waste: radioactive waste
5. Accessibility by Rail and Road: transport of heavy equipment

Advantages of NPPs
1. Reduces demand for fossil fuels
2. Quantity of nuclear fuel is much less: thus reducing transport and resulting costs
3. Area of land required is less: compared to a conventional plant of similar capacity
4. Production of fissile material
5. Location independent of geographical factors: except water requirement

Disadvantages of NPPs
1. Not available for variable loads (load factor-0.8): as the reactors cannot be controlled to
respond quickly
2. Economical reason should be substantial
3. Risk of leakage of radioactive material
4. Further investigation on life cycle assessment and reliability needs to be done
5. Perception problems

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Nuclear Power in India

Plant Units Capacity Established

Tarapur, Maharashtra BWR 160x2, 540x2 1969, 2005, 2006

Rawatbhata, Rajasthan PHWR 110x1, 200x1, 220x4 1973, 1981, 2000, 2010

Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu PHWR 220x2 1984, 1986

Narora, UP PHWR 220x2 1991, 1992

Kakrapar, Gujarat PHWR 220x2 1993, 1995

Kaiga, Karnataka PHWR 220x4 2000, 2007, 2011

Kundankulam, Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000x1 2013

Nuclear Power in World

Sl No Country Capacity % Share in Electricity production

(MW)
1 United States 102136 19 %
2 France 63130 75 %
3 Japan 44215 18 %
4 Russia 23643 18 %
5 South Korea 20739 30 %
6 Canada 14135 15 %
7 Ukraine 13107 46 %
8 China 12086 2%
9 Germany 12068 16 %
10 UK 9938 18 %

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Numerical Problems on Nuclear Power Plant

1. Calculate the amount of coal containing the same energy as in 1 kg of Natural Uranium under
the following assumptions. Also calculate the number of fissions per second to produce 1
watt power.
 Energy release from one fission of U235 = 200 MeV
 Atoms in one gram pure U235 = 25.64 x 1020
 Calorific value of coal = 6000 kcal/kg
 U235 content in Natural Uranium = 0.7 %
 Fission efficiency = 50 %
 One Joule = 0.239 cal
2. Find the power produced by fissioning 5 grams of U235 per day. Number of atoms in one
gram of U235 =2.563 x 1021
3. Find the U235 fuel used in one year in a 235 MW pressurized water reactor. Assume overall
plant efficiency of 33 % and 100% load factor throughout the year. Number of fissions
required for 1 watt-sec= 3.1x1010. Number of atoms in one gram of U235 = 2.563 x 1021

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Types of Alter nators

Table 9: Hydro and Turbo generators

Hydrogenerator Turbogenerator
Low speed (50-500 RPM) High speed (1500/3000 RPM)
Arrangement: Impulse: Horizontal; Reaction: Always horizontal
Vertical
Salient pole construction Cylindrical construction
Damper windings provided No damper windings needed
Direct axis and quadrature axis reactances Synchronous reactances
Air cooled Hydrogen cooled

Figure 66: Hydrogenerator

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Figure 67: Hydrogenerator under construction

Figure 68: Turbogenerator

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Figure 69: Turbogenerator

Figure 70: Turbogenerator

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Generator Cooling Arrangements

Cooling is basically of two types:

1) Open circuit cooling

2) Closed circuit cooling

Open circuit cooling

 Air is drawn into the generator by means of fans and is circulated inside.
 The air is later released into the atomosphere
 Suitable for small generators

Closed circuit cooling

 Hydrogen is used as cooling medium
 Circulated by pumps and then drawn back into a chamber
 Used for large sized generators

Figure 71: Air cooling of generators

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Figure 72: Hydrogen Cooling

Figure 73: Hydrogen Cooled Alternator

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Excitation Systems


Function
The alternators are provided with shaft or gear mounted exciters for providing dc excitation
to their field windings.
 For a large alternator the main exciter is a separately excited dc machine supplied by a pilot
exciter.

Exciter Design
• Excitation power required for large turbo-generators is of the order of 0.4-0.5% of the
generator rating .
• Usually main exciter separately excited from a pilot exciter.
• The advantage of using pilot exciter is to improve voltage response to changes of the field
current.

Minimum Requirements for the Main Exciter

 Rated current must not be less than 110% of rotor current for rated generator output.
 Rated voltage must not be less than 110% of the slip ring voltage for rated generator output.
The exciter voltage is generally 230V.
 in some cases nominal voltage of 440V is used.
 ceiling voltage must not be less than 120 percent of rated slip ring voltage .
 Nominal response must not be less than .5

Types of Excitation Systems

1) DC Excitation using DC Generators
2) AC Excitation using AC Generators along with Rectifiers
3) Static Excitation (from alternator terminals)

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DC Excitation System

Figure 74: DC Excitation

• The pilot exciter is a d.c shunt machine. The main exciter is a d.c shunt machine with a
number of control field windings .
• The main and pilot exciters are coupled to the main generator shaft.
• A d.cmotor drives an amplidyne or rotating amplifier which is cross field machine. It has a
number of control windings.
• The voltage transformers secondaries supply AVR and magnetic amplifier circuits.

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Figure 75: Excitation System with Amplidyne

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AC Excitation System

Figure 76: AC Excitation System

Table 10: AC versus brushless excitation

AC Excitation System Brushless Excitation System

The rectifier is on the floor. Rectifier is rotating
Cooling and maintenance problem of slip rings No need of brushes and slip rings, however it
and brushes is impossible to meter and read main generator
filed quantities as it is rotating

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Static Excitation Systems

 The supply of power to the rectifier is from the main generator through the station auxiliary


bus, using step down transformer.


The rectifier output is fed directly to the field of the main generator by means of slip rings.
There can be two arrangements:
o Power to the excitation using voltage only
o Using voltage as well as current from main generator

Field flashing: from battery bank, initial supply is given for starting up the alternator.

Automatic Voltage Regulators


Functions


To control system voltage within limits


To regulate the sharing of reactive load between machines operating is parallel.
To maintain voltage under system fault conditions to ensure rapid operation of protection


systems.
To keep the machine under synchronism.


Direct acting voltage r egulator


Adjustment of variable resistance


Voltage transformer to the operating coil thus the torque to operate the drum


Movement of pivot (P,P) causes sectors (S) to move
Clockwise movement increases the resistance

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Figure 77: Direct Acting Voltage Regulator

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Magnetic Amplifier Regulator

 Controls the flow of current by means of saturation of magnetic core.

Principle

 There are two windings:

o Control/DC winding: controls the mmf o/p and

 The operation is based on reduction of impedance of the core as DC magnetization is

o AC winding through which power is delivered to load

 When the DC is so high that full saturation of the core occurs, the impedance becomes
increased.

minimum and load current is maximum.

Figure 78: Magnetic Amplifier Regulator Principle

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Construction

1) Self excited main exciter

2) Motor operated field rheostat
3) Boost and buck control fields
4) Static components
5) Compensation

Operation



Deviation of the alternator terminal voltage


Difference between reference and compensated output


Amplified by input magnetic amplifier and power amplifier
High frequency AC supply ensures that delay in regulating system is negligible compared to
delay in exciter and alternator.

Figure 79: Magnetic Amplifier Regulator

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Solid State Electr onic Regulator

1) The sensing circuit responds to average 3 phase voltage output connected from PT to sensing
element.
2) To regulate output, we need to sense voltage; for this we use potential transformer (step
down transformer), from CT through compensate to limit sensing for current measurement.
3) Compensator works as amplifier. It stabilizes CT/PT outputs because output is always
fluctuating.
4) Three phase voltage from PT is rectified, filtered and compared with a constant reference.
5) The output of the amplifier is the voltage error signal.
6) Single phase CT is used for reactive current compensations.
7) Minimum excitation limiter prevents the regulator from decreasing regulation below the set
characteristics value.
8) The signal mixer amplifier output controls the firing circuit of thyristor which supplies
excitation to the machine.
9) The power and control elements can be taken out for repair.
10) From voltage reference to voltage adjuster.

Figure 80: Solid State Electronic Regulator

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Power Plant Transfor mers

Figure 81: Typical Generation Station Auxiliaries [7]

1) Unit: The generator or source of electrical power

2) Unit Transformer (UT): transforms all or a portion of unit power from unit voltage to
power system voltage
3) Unit Auxiliary Transformer (UAT): transformer intended primarily to supply all or a
portion of unit auxiliaries.
4) Station Service Transformer (SST): transformer that supplies power from a station HV bus
to the station auxiliaries and unit auxiliaries during unit startup.
5) Back feed: operation of unit transformer with generator disconnected to supply start up
auxiliaries power or testing power where low magnitude current in the opposite direction
from normal operation of transformer.

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Pre-commissioning Tests on Alter nators

1) Inspection: visual inspection to correct air gap, that bearings are free, that lubricating system
is free or dirt
2) Drying out: to release trapped moisture, measure insulation resistance
3) Short circuit curve: to compare rated current in each phase
4) Stator high voltage tests:
5) Phase sequence tests: between bus bar and alternator
6) Testing protection system of alternators:
a. Primary injection test
b. Trip test
c. Fault test
d. Field fault

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Pre-commissioning Tests on Transformers

1) Insulation Test
2) Drying out
3) Estimation of most suitable tap
4) Cooling equipment (pumps, fans etc)
5) Measurement of voltage ratio and checking of voltage phasor relationship
6) Measurement of no load current and no load loss
7) Testing of protection systems:
a. Differential
b. Restricted earth fault
c. Overload
d. Buchholz
e. Temperature

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Figure 82: Static Excitation System

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Module-4

Substations
 Substations serve as sources of energy supply for the local areas of distribution in which
these are located.
 Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage from generating
stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local distribution and provide facilities
for switching.

Classification

Classification based on Nature of Duties

1. Step-up or primary substations
2. Primary grid substations
3. Step down or distribution substations

Classification based on basis of service rendered

1. Transformer substations
2. Switching substations
3. Converting substations

Classification based on operating voltage

1. Grid substations
2. Town substations

Classification based on the basis of design

1. Indoor type substations
2. Outdoor substations

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Arr angement of Busbars

 The switching equipment can be connected in a variety of ways.

 The consideration governing the selection of bus bar arrangements include simplicity, initial
cost of equipment, flexibility of operation, possibility of system expansion and ease of
maintenance.
 The following are bus bar arrangements at generating stations.
o Single bus-bar
o Single sectionalized bus-bar
o Duplicate bus-bar
o Ring bus

Figure 83: Single Bus System

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Figure 84: Single Section Bus System

Figure 85: Double Bus System

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Figure 86: Transfer Bus System

Figure 87: One and Half Breaker Bus System

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Substation Earthing


Objectives
To ensure that live parts do not get a potential dangerously different from surroundings.
 To allow sufficient current to flow to operate the protective devices.
 To limit voltages from line to ground and neutral to ground
 To suppress dangerous earth potential gradients.


Equipment Ear thing
Earth electrode: is a rod, pipe or plate embedded in earth
 Step potential: the potential difference shunted by a human body between two accessible
points on the ground separated by the distance of one pace, assumed to be equal to one metre.
 Touch potential: the potential difference between a point on the ground and a point on an
object likely to carry fault current, which can be touched by a person.

Generating Station Earthing

1. Selection of material and size of conductors of the grid.
2. Preliminary arrangement of grid conductors
3. Checking of voltage gradients.
4. Calculation of grid resistance.
5. Connections to the grid.

Neutr al Ear thing

1. Isolated Neutral: not very popular as the healthy phases assume line potential in the event of
L-G fault
2. Solid Earthing:
a. Direct connection of neutral to earth
b. Recommended when maximum earth fault current is not likely to damage equipment
c. Most systems operate with solid earthing

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3. Resistance Earthing:
a. To limit the earth fault current the neutral is earthed through a resistor.
b. Value of resistance is so chosen to permit earth fault protection
4. Reactance Earthing/Peterson coil earthing
a. The value of reactance is tuned with the line to ground capacitance current.
b. By proper tuning, the lagging current can be properly balanced and almost nullified
by capacitance.
c. The system in such conditions behaves as an isolated neutral system but the arcing
ground phenomenon is eliminated.

Primary and Secondary Distr ibution Networ k

Primary Distribution Systems

 Primary distribution systems are those part of distribution systems which operate at voltages
(3.3, 6.6, 11 kV) at somewhat higher voltages than utility (400/230 V).
 These handle large blocks of power.
 The primary distribution is universally carried out by 3-phase 3-wire system.
 A primary distribution line is designed to carry a load of 1-2 MVA.

Secondary Distribution System

 Electric power from the generating station is transmitted through EHV lines to various
substations located near the load centre.
 These stations are called secondary substations where voltage is stepped down to 11, 6.6 or
3.3 kV with the help of power transformers for primary distribution.
 The 33/11 kV secondary substations are usually located in the area having load requirement
of the order of 5 MVA.

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Types of Distr ibution Feeders

Distribution systems differ from transmission systems in several ways. The number of branches
and sources is much higher in distribution networks. The distribution systems can be classified as
follows.


Radial System
The feeder originates from the secondary substation and branches into subfeeders and laterals
which extend into all parts of the area served.
 This serves the light and medium density load areas.
 Feeders are not tapped between the subtransmission and distribution substations.
 Distributors are tapped throughout at several points to serve the consumers.
 Simplest, most economical and most commonly used

Figure 88: Radial Distribution System

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
Parallel or Loop System
In parallel feeder system, two radial feeders originating from same or different secondary
substations run in parallel.
 In loop feeder system, two or more radial feeders originating from the same or different
secondary substations are laid on different routes of land areas.
 The circuit returns to the same point so that there is in effect one feeding point only.
 As the alternative path is available in case of fault, this system is more reliable than radial
system.

Figure 89: Ring Bus System

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Voltage Drop and Load Calculation

 In AC system, the voltage drops are due to the combined effect of resistances, inductances
and capacitances.
 In AC systems, all additions and subtractions must be done vectorially.
 At load point, the phase angle between voltage and current plays an important role.
(Please refer Ref. [4] for detailed calculations)

Capacitor placement in Distribution network

 Voltage stability problem in distribution networks because of utilities operating their systems
at higher and higher loads.
 Increasing network loading results in increases in active and reactive power losses.
 An increase in active power loss represents loss in savings as well as a reduction in feeder
utilization,
 an increase in reactive power loss causes system voltages to decline,
 Voltage instability may arise in heavily loaded distribution networks.
o increase in reactive power requirements causes the voltage to decline slowly;
o the system may reach an unstable region where a small increment in load may cause a
steep decline in the system voltage.
o Here, as load power is increased, the distribution network is no longer capable of
transmitting the power to meet the load.
 Installing capacitor banks in distribution networks
o reduces active and reactive power losses,
o increases feeder utilization and
o allows for the installation of more loads on existing distribution systems,
o thus increasing utility savings.
 The advantages of this kind of compensation depend on how and where to place the
capacitors in the network.
 Static shunt capacitors are installed near the load terminal, in factory substations, in the
receiving substations, switching substations etc to provide leading VARs and thus reduce line
current and total kVA loading of the substation transformer.

Department of Electrical Engineering, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology Burla Page 119
Lecture Notes Power System-I

References
[1] http://www.cea.nic.in/installed_capacity.html
[2] Generation of Electrical Energy by B. R. Gupta, S. Chand Publications
[3] Elements of Electrical Power Station Design by M.V. Deshpande, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
[4] A Course in Electrical Power by J. B. Gupta, Katson Publishers
[5] Power Plant Engineering by P. K. Nag, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Limited
[6] Power Plant Engineering by R. K. Rajput, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd
[7] IEEE Guide for Transformers directly connected to Generators, IEEE Std C57.116™-2014
(Revision of IEEE Std C57.116-1989)

Department of Electrical Engineering, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology Burla Page 120