UNIT II : Attitude and Motivation

CATTELL’S FACTOR THEORY:

Cattell diagrammed these subsidiation relationships in the dynamic lattice (see Figure
8.3). Attitudes (on the left) are subsidiaiy to sentiments (in the middle), which are
subsidiaiy to ergs (on the right). The channels show the connections among these
dynamic (motivational) levels. Cattell (1950) explained how to interpret this diagram:

Inter relatedness of traits i.e. Attitudes are dependent on sentiments; sentiments

dependent on ergs.

Attitudes………………………Sentiments…………………………Urgs
Portion of a dynamic lattice illustrating subsidiation ( Cattell, 1950, pp. 158 )

The man's attitude ... to his bank account has the direction that he wants to increase it.
The lines of subsidiation . . . indicate that he wants to do so in order to protect his
wife ... to satisfy self-assertion ... to assuage his fear of insecurity . . . and to satisfy
hunger. . . . This attitude or sentiment to his bank account is served by an attitude of
annoyance toward higher taxation ... by an intention to keep company with his
business friend . . . and by an attitude of avoidance to New York, where he spends too
much money. . . . (p. 188)

Metaergs (attitudes and sentiments) are learned. Their connections with one another
and with the ergs are affected by learning. Sentiments may be connected to many ergs;
through development, these connections change. Ergs are generally satisfied
indirectly through metaergs. This indirect satisfaction of ergs is called long-circuiting.
(In contrast, artificial stimulation of the pleasure centers of the brain through electrical
stimulation in the laboratory, or drug use on the street, could be thought of as short-
circuiting.)

Certain types of learning involve reorganizing or coordinating various traits. We may

learn certain behaviors that can satisfy many motivations (many metaergs and ergs) at
the same time. This is called confluence learning. For example, learning to ski might
satisfy various social and physical motivations.

Cattells 16 Personality Factors 16PF

Dynamic Traits- Attitude are dynamic surface traits which are specification
manifestations or combinations of underlying motives. Five attitude components are
id, ego strength, superego, physiological component and conflict. - Ergs include
biologically based drives.

Surface traits vs Source traits - Surface traits represents cluster of manifest variables,
which are together while source traits are underlying variables that enter into the
determination of multiple surface manifestations. - Source traits are identified with
the help of factor analysis only and permits the investigator to estimate the factors that
are basis of the surface behavior. - According to Cattell “Source traits are more
important than surface traits”. - Surface traits are identified by the interaction of
source traits and are less stable than factors. - After the factor analysis, Cattell found
out 16 source traits that contribute to the underlying nature of personality. This is
identified as 16 PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire) and is used in research
work of identification of personality of the person.

Source traits can further be classified in terms of the modality through which they are
expressed. Ability traits determine the person’s skill and effectiveness in pursuing a
desired goal. For example, intelligence, musical aptitude. Temperament traits relate to
other emotional and stylistic qualities of behaviour. For example, people may either
work quickly or slowly on a task. Cattell considers temperament traits to
constitutional source traits that determine a person’s emotionality. Dynamic traits
reflect the motivational elements of human behaviour. These are traits that activate
and direct the person toward particular goals. Thus, a person may be characterised as
ambitious, power-oriented, or interested in acquiring material possessions.

Ergs are goals created because of hunger, thirst etc. The organism is motivated to get
food when hungry. These are called ergs. Socially created goals are called socially
shaped ergs and Cattell gave it the term socially shaped ergic manifolds. In short
form it was called SEM. Cattell used SEM to help explain the contribution of the
environment to human behaviour. SEM’s are socially acquired and can satisfy several
ergs at one time. Because SEMS are socially acquired, they vary in number and type
by culture. SEM’s get their energy from the ERG’s. Humans are innately driven by
ergs, which are goals created by curiosity, anger, hunger, fear, and many other basic
motivations. Through research Cattell developed list of ergs which are for instance,
Food Seeking, Mating, Gregariousness, Parental Protectiveness, Exploration, Safety,
Self-Assertion, Pugnacity, Narcissistic Sex, and Acquisitiveness. Some of the major
socially shaped ergic models are profession, family and home, spouse, religion.
Together with attitudes, ERHGs and SEMs interact to produce behaviour. According
to Cattell, if you can systematically identify their attitudes, ERG’s and SEM’s, you
should then be able to reliably predict future behaviour. Cattell’s trait theory of
personality attempts to explain the interaction between the genetic and personality
systems and the socio cultural milieu within which the organism is functioning. It
delves deep into the complicated transactions between the personality system and the
more inclusive sociocultural matrix of the functioning organism. According to him
these traits are genetically and environmentally determined, and the ways in which
genetic and environmental factors interact decide the behaviour of the individual.
Cattell opines that an appropriate theory of personality must take into account the
multiple traits that comprise the personality. The theory should be able to indicate the
ways in which genetic and environmental factors interact to influence behaviour. He
believes that an appropriate theory of personality functioning and growth must be
based on systematic research methods and precise measurements. Multivariate
statistics and factor analysis are his preferred methods of personality study.

The dynamic trait is the personality feature that propels a person towards change and
improvement. It is a personality trait that includes levels of motivation and putting
things into action. This is a trait that varies widely amongst individuals. We all know
people that are happy with the "status quo" of their life and others that are curious and
easily bored, constantly seeking changes and experiences. For instance, many people
are content to work at a steady, routine job (such as an assembly-line or cubicle) while
others are internally motivated to seek employment that is less routine and may
include travel, educational programs, and a less restricted schedule.

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An attitude is a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object that is expressed
at some level of intensity. It usually implies feelings that are either positive or
negative.
Attitudes are our established ways of responding to people and situations that we have
learned based on the beliefs, values and assumptions we hold and our life experiences.
Our attitude towards a person or event is displaced through our behaviour as a result
of interaction with that person. A person’s attitude represents how he or she feels
about something or their state of mind.
Example:
If one can have a good (or positive) attitude toward their work, it means they feel
good about their work, their job, their organisation, etc.
If one can have a bad (or negative) attitude, it means they dislike their environment no
matter what is going around them.
CONCEPT OF ATTITUDE:
The concept of attitude occupies a very favoured position in social psychology and is
considered very important for every individual who wants success in their life.
Attitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable or unfavourable, concerning
objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something.
Example:
When you say “I like Mathematics”, you are expressing your attitude towards the
subject of mathematics.
THREE CONCEPTS OF ATTITUDE:
1. Cognitive Attitude:
Our belief in something is the cognitive attitude.
Example: “Gender discrimination is widespread” - This is an opinion which
evaluates the topic of discrimation based on gender.
2. Affective Attitude:
It is the emotional or feeling segment of attitude.
Example: “I don’t like Jon because he discriminates against minorities.”
3. Behavioural attitude:
It refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
Example: Employees working in an organisation commonly can follow certain
behaviour for the purpose of betterment of the organisation
SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF ATTITUDE:
Attitude plays a very important role for achieving the success. It is more important
than education, money, knowledge, intelligence, talents or skills.
It applies to every sphere of life, including one's personal and professional life. Can
an executive be a good executive without a good attitude? Can a student be a good
student without a good attitude? Can a parent, teacher, salesman, employer, employee
be good in their roles without a good attitude?
The foundation of success regardless of your chosen field is attitude. If attitude is
such a critical factor in success, shouldn't you examine your attitude toward life and
ask how your attitude will affect your goals?
Example:
Journalists, friends, armed forces, Specialists and event their father laughed at an
idea of an aeroplane
proposed by Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright (Wright brothers). Many people told
“What a silly and
insane way to spend money?” “Only birds can fly. Machines cannot fly!”
The Wright brothers responded we have a dream and we can make it happen”. As a
result, the aeroplanes were invented.
This shows the importance of attitude towards the success.

Factors Affecting Attitude Formation Social learning forms of social interaction. In

social interaction, individuals form different patterns of attitudes toward
psychological object faces. Among the various factors that influence the formation of
attitudes are:
1. Personal experience. In order to be the basis of attitudes, personal experiences have
left a strong impression. Therefore, the attitude will be more easily formed when
personal experience involves emotional factors. In situations involving emotions,
appreciation will be more in-depth experience and longer trace.
2. Culture. B.F. Skinner (in, Azwar 2005) emphasized the influence of the
environment (including culture) in shaping one's personality. No other personality
than a consistent pattern of behavior that illustrate the history of reinforcement
(reinforcement, reward) owned. The pattern of reinforcement from the public to the
attitude and behavior, rather than to the attitudes and behavior of others.
3. Other people are considered important. In general, the individual being conformist
or the direction of the attitude of the people it deems important. The trend is partly
motivated by a desire for affiliation and the desire to avoid conflict with the people
considered important.
4. Media. As a means of communication, the mass media such as television, radio,
has a major influence in shaping people's opinions and beliefs. There is new
information on something that provides the foundation for the emergence of new
cognitive attitudes towards it. Suggestive messages that carry information, if strong
enough, will provide basic affective in assessing something emepersiapkan and
forming attitudes toward certain.
5. Educational Institutions and Religious. As a system, educational and religious
institutions have a strong influence in shaping attitudes because they lay the
foundation of understanding and moral concepts within the individual. Understanding
the good and the bad, the dividing line between something that can and can not do, is
obtained from the center of the educational and religious activities and teachings.
6. Emotional factors in themselves. Not all forms of attitude is determined by
environmental circumstances and personal experiences. Sometimes, a form of attitude
is a statement that is based on emotion which serves as a sort of channeling frustration
or transfer form ego defense mechanisms. Such an attitude is temporary and goes
away so frustrating was lost but could also be more persistent attitude and more
durable. example form attitudes based on emotional factors are prejudice.

POSITIVE ATTITUDE:
A positive attitude helps you to cope more easily with the daily affairs of life. It brings
optimism into your life and makes it easier to avoid worry and negative thinking. It will bring
constructive changes into your life and make you happier, brighter and more successful.
People with positive attitudes have certain personality traits that are easy to recognize. They
are caring, confident, patient, and humble. They have high expectations of themselves and
others. They anticipate positive outcomes. A person with a positive attitude is like a fruit of
all seasons. He is always welcome.

The Benefits of a Positive Attitude:

These are many and easy to see. But what is easy to see is also easy to miss. To
mention a few, a positive
attitude
increases productivity
fosters teamwork
solves problems
improves quality
makes for congenial atmosphere
breeds loyalty
increases profits
fosters better relationships with employers, employees, and customers
reduces stress
helps a person become a contributing member of society and an asset to their
country
makes for a pleasing personality
Steps to build a Positive Attitude:
Step 1: Changing the Focus and Looking for the Positive:
We need to become good finders. We need to focus on the positive in life. Let's start
looking for what is right in a person or situation instead of looking for what is wrong.
Even in paradise, fault finders will find faults. Most people find what they are looking
for. If they are looking for friendship, happiness and the positive, that is what they get.
If they are looking for fights or indifference, then that is what they get. Looking for
the positive does not mean overlooking faults.
Step 2: Making a Habit of Doing It Now:
We have all procrastinated at some time in our lives. Procrastination leads to a
negative attitude.The habit of procrastination fatigues you more than the effort it takes
to do it. A completed task is fulfilling and energizing; an incomplete task drains
energy like a leak from a tank. If you want to build and maintain a positive attitude,
get into the habit of living in the present and doing it now.
Step 3: Developing an Attitude of Gratitude:
Count your blessings, not your troubles. Take time to smell the roses. It is not
uncommon to hear that someone, because of an accident or illness, became blind or
paralyzed but won a million dollars in settlement. How many of us would like to trade
places with that person? Not many. We are so focused on complaining about things
we don't have that we lose sight of the things we have. There is a lot to be
thankful for.
Step 4: Getting into a Continuous Education Program:
Let's get some myths out of the way. It is a general belief that we get educated in
schools and colleges. "Do we really get educated in schools and colleges?" Generally,
there is a consensus that some do but most don't. We receive a lot of information in
schools and colleges and that alone is not needed in achieving our goals. We do need
information to be educated. But we need to know the true meaning of
education.
Step 5: Building a Positive Self-Esteem:
Self-esteem is the way we feel about ourselves. When we feel good within, our
performance goes up, our relationships improve both at home and at work. The world
looks nicer. What is the reason? There is a direct correlation between feeling and
behaviour.
Step 6: Staying away from Negative Influences:
Today's teenagers learn from adult behaviour and the media. They face peer pressure.
Peer pressure is not just limited to teenagers; it is also prevalent in adults. It shows a
lack of self-esteem when people do not have the courage to say "No, thank you," and
stay away from negative influences: What are the negative influences?
NEGATIVE ATTITUDE:
People with negative attitudes will blame the whole world, their parents, teachers,
spouse, the economy and the government for their failures.
Some people criticize no matter what. It does not matter which side you are on, they
are always on the other side. They have made a career out of criticizing. They are
"career critics." They criticize as if they will win a prize at a contest. They will find
fault with every person and every situation. You will find people like this in every
home, family, office. They go around finding fault and telling everybody how bad
things are and blaming the whole world for their problems.
All that they are doing is causing more tension for themselves and for others around
them. They spread negative messages like a plague and create an environment
conducive to negative results. Some people always look at the negative side.
Who are pessimists? Pessimists
are unhappy when they have no troubles to speak
feel bad when they feel good, for fear they will feel worse when they feel better
spend most of their life at complaint counters
always turn out the lights to see how dark it is
are always looking for cracks in the mirror of life
stop sleeping in bed when they hear that more people die in bed than anywhere else
cannot enjoy their health because they think they may be sick tomorrow
not only expect the worst but make the worst of whatever happens
don't see the doughnut, only the hole
believe that the sun shines only to cast shadows
forget their blessings and count their troubles
 know that hard work never hurts anyone but believe "why take a chance?"
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ATTITUDES.
S.no Negative attitude personality Positive attitude personality
1 They are always part of the problem They are always part of the answer
2 They always has an excuse They always has a program
3 Sees a problem for every answers Sees an answer for every problem
4 Says “It may be possible but it is too difficult” Says “It may be difficult but it is
possible”
5 Says “It was not my fault Says “I was wrong”
6 Always apart from the team Always a part of the team.
7 Sees only problems Sees all possibilities
8 Says “Life is hard” Says “Life is filled with experiences”
9 Thinks “People are worst” Thinks “Good people are there”
10 Always hates the work place Always work with lovely people
11 They are mostly losers They are mostly winners
12 Always looks on the negative side Always looks on the positive side
13 They are always angry, frustrated and stressed. They are always happier, polite and
lovable
14. Always says “Impossible” Always says “Possible”
15. Says “I can’t do” Says “I can do”

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MOTIVATION
Concept of Motivation:
Motivation is something that encourages action or feeling. To motivate means to
encourage and inspire. Motivation can also mean to turn on or ignite the feeling or
action.
Motivation is powerful. It can persuade, convince and propel you into action. In
other words, motivation can be defined as motive for action. It is a force that can
literally change your life.
Motivation is the driving force in our lives. It comes from a desire to succeed.
Without success there is little pride in life; no enjoyment or excitement at work and at
home. Often life becomes like a lopsided wheel giving a bumpy ride.
The greatest enemy of motivation is complacence. Complacence leads to frustration,
and when people are frustrated they give up because they cannot identify what is
important.
2.9.2 Significance and types:
Once you understand the principle that motivates the motivator, you can proceed to
achieve your goal and can motivate others too.
Your internal motivation is your drive and attitude. It is contagious. Attitude is the
key to getting the response you want from others. How does a person stay motivated
and focused? One important tool that has been used by athletes for a long time is
called auto-suggestion. Auto suggestions are positive statements made in the present
tense and repeated regularly. In other words it is positive self-talk.
Motivation is classified into two types:
1. External motivation and
2. Internal motivation.
2.10 EXTERNAL MOTIVATION
External motivation comes from outside, such as money, societal approval, fame or
fear. Examples of external motivation are fear of getting spanked by parents and fear
of getting fired at work.
A company wanted to set up a pension plan. In order for the plan to be installed, it
needed 100% participation. Everyone signed up except John. The plan made sense
and was in the best interest of everyone. John not signing was the only obstacle.
John's supervisor and other co-workers had tried to persuade him without success.
The owner of the company called John into his office and said, "John, here is a pen
and these are the papers for you to sign to enrol into the pension plan. If you don't
enrol, you are fired this minute." John signed right away. The owner asked John why
he hadn't signed earlier. John replied, "No one explained the plan quite as clearly as
you did."
2.10.1 Fear Motivation
The advantages of fear motivation are:
It gets the job done quickly.
It is instantaneous.
It prevents loss, by meeting deadlines.
In the short run the person's performance may improve.
The disadvantages of fear motivation are:
It is external, which means the motivation is there while the motivator is there.
When the
motivator goes, the motivation also goes.
It causes stress. Performance is limited to compliance.
In the long run, performance goes down. It destroys creativity.
They get used to the stick and then need a bigger stick.
Example: A customer asked an employee, "When did you start working here?" He
replied, "Ever since
they threatened to fire me."
2.10.2 Incentive Motivation
External motivation can also take the form of incentives, bonuses, commission,
recognition, etc. What are the advantages of incentive motivation? The major
advantage is that it can work very well as long as the incentive is strong enough.
Think of a donkey with a carrot dangling in front and with a cart behind. Incentive
motivation will only work if the donkey is hungry enough, the carrot is sweet enough
and the load is light enough. From time to time, you have to let the donkey take a bite
of the carrot; otherwise it is going to get discouraged. After the donkey takes a bite, its
stomach is full, and you need to wait for the donkey to get hungry again before it will
pull the cart. This is typically seen in our business environment. The moment sales
people meet their quota, they stop working. This is because their motivation is limited
to meeting their quota. That is external, not internal.
2.11 INTERNAL MOTIVATION
Internal motivation is the inner gratification, not for success or winning, but for the
fulfilment that comes from having done it. It is a feeling of accomplishment, rather
than just achieving a goal. Reaching an unworthy goal does not give the gratifying
feeling. Internal motivation is lasting, because it comes from within and translates into
self-motivation.
Motivation needs to be identified and constantly strengthened to succeed. Keep your
goals in front of you and read them morning and evening. The two most important
motivating factors are recognition and responsibility.
 Recognition means being appreciated; being treated with respect and dignity; and
feeling a sense of belonging.
Responsibility gives a person a feeling of belonging and ownership. He then
becomes part of the bigger picture. Lack of responsibility can become demotivating.
Monetary rewards are temporary and short-lived; they are not gratifying in the long
run. In contrast, seeing an idea being implemented can be emotionally gratifying by
itself. People feel that they are not being treated like objects. They feel part of a
worthwhile team. The reward of doing the right thing by itself is motivating.
2.12 THE FOUR STAGES FROM MOTIVATION TO DEMOTIVATION
1. Motivated Ineffective
This is the stage when the employee is most open minded, receptive and easy to mold
to the culture of the organization. Training and orientation become imperative.
Professional organizations, on the other hand, take special care to induct people into
their organizations. They explain to them, among other things, the following:
the hierarchy
expectations of each other
do's and don’ts
parameters and guidelines
what is acceptable and what is not
what are the resources
2. Motivated Effective:
This is the stage when the employee has learned what to do and does it with drive and
energy. He has learned the trade and it reflects in his performance. Then he moves on
to the next stage.
3. Demotivated Effective:
After some time the motivation level goes down and the employee starts learning the
tricks of the trade. This is the stage when the employee is not motivated. He continues
doing just enough so that the employer has no reason to fire him but he is really not
motivated.
This stage is detrimental to growth--most people in organizations fall into this third
stage. A motivated professional learns the trade and leaves the tricks to cheats and
crooks, but a demotivated employee start sabotaging the company. His performance is
marginal. He makes fun of the good performers. He rejects new ideas and spreads the
negativity all around.
Our objective is to bring them back to the second stage of motivated effective through
training. An employee ought not to stay in the third stage too long; because from here
either they move back to the second stage, which is being motivated and effective, or
they move into the fourth stage.
4. Demotivated Ineffective:
At this stage, the employer does not have much choice but to fire the employee, which
may be the most appropriate thing to do anyway at this point.
Remember, employers want the same thing as employees do. They want to succeed
and improve business and if employees help in this objective, then they make
themselves valuable and achieve their own success.
2.13 DEMOTIVATING FACTORS:
Some of the demotivating factors are:
Unfair criticism
Negative criticism
Public humiliation
Rewarding the non performer which can be demotivating for the performer
 Failure or fear of failure
Success which leads to complacence
Lack of direction
Lack of measurable objectives
Low self-esteem
Lack of priorities
Negative self-talk
Office politics
Unfair treatment
Hypocrisy
Poor standards
Frequent change
Responsibility without authority
2.14 MOTIVATING FACTORS:
What we really want to accomplish is self-motivation, when people do things for their
own reasons and not yours. That is lasting motivation.
Remember, the greatest motivator is belief. We have to inculcate in ourselves the
belief that we are responsible for our actions and behaviour. When people accept
responsibility, everything improves: quality, productivity, relationships and teamwork.
A few steps to motivate others:
Give recognition
Give respect
Make work interesting
Be a good listener
Throw a challenge
Help but don't do for others what they should do for themselves

Sources of Motivation

Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation Examples – What’s the Difference?

What drives us to do the things we do? What is it that pushes us to accomplish things?
A simple answer would be personal gain, but the question is much more complex than
that. There are many ways to look at the concept of motivation, one of which is to
examine motivation examples.

A key ability of successful people is that they know how to motivate themselves
effectively. The skill of being able to start and finish tasks rigorously is what
solidifies their chances at being successful overall. But what kind
of motivation is most important? Is it motivation that arises from outside the
individual (extrinsic), or motivation that arises from inside the individual (intrinsic)?

There are benefits to both types of motivation, each with their own set of respective
effects on behaviours and how people choose to pursue goals. In order to understand
how these types of motivation influence human action and a drive for success, we
must first understand what each one is.
In a hurry? Take the infographic to go!

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

What is Extrinsic Motivation?

Simply put, extrinsic motivation refers to the behavior of individuals to perform tasks
and learn new skills because of external rewards or avoidance of punishment. In
this case, you engage in behavior not because you enjoy it or because you find it
appealing or satisfying, but in order to obtain something of value in return or avoid
something unpleasant. Let’s take a look at some extrinsic motivation examples:

Extrinsic Motivation Examples

1. Going to work because you want to earn money

2. Studying because you want to get a good grade
3. Helping others because you hope for praise
4. Volunteering because it looks good on a resume
5. Going to the same store because you benefit from loyalty programs
6. Cleaning your apartment because you do not want your partner to get mad
7. Going to new places because you want to post it on social media
8. Paying taxes because you want to avoid a fine
9. Pursuing a certain degree because you want to make your parents proud
10. Going on a business trip because you were ordered by your boss to do so
What is Intrinsic Motivation?
Intrinsic motivation refers to the act of doing something that does not have any
obvious external rewards. You do it because it’s enjoyable and interesting to you, not
because of any outside incentive or pressures, like rewards or deadlines. In short,
intrinsic motivation is performing an activity for its own sake rather than the desire
for some external reward or out of some external pressure. Essentially, the behavior
itself is its own reward.

Intrinsic motivation is more about personal growth, a sense of duty, and the
recognition of purpose, while extrinsic motivation is more about financial incentives,
status, and public recognition. Let’s look at some intrinsic motivation examples:

Intrinsic Motivation Examples

1. Playing sports because you enjoy how they make you feel
2. Staying longer at work because you believe in your work
3. Using positive affirmations because you want to change your mindset
positively
4. Investing money because you want to become financially independent
5. Traveling because you want to explore different cultures
6. Working in a team because you enjoy collaboration
7. Learning about personal development because you want to improve yourself
8. Going to the playground with your children because it makes you happy
9. Studying because you are curious about the topics
10. Trying to be a good leader because you want to inspire
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from within, while extrinsic motivation arises from
external factors. When you are intrinsically motivated, you engage in an activity
because you enjoy it and get personal satisfaction from doing it. When you are
extrinsically motivated, you do something in order to gain an external reward.

Consider the way each type considers both motivation and goals:

Intrinsic Motivation:

 You are motivated to do the activity because it is internally rewarding. You

choose to do it because it’s fun, enjoyable, and satisfying.
 Your goal comes from within, and the outcomes of your goal satisfy your
basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness.

Extrinsic Motivation:

 You are motivated to do the activity in order to gain an external reward in

return.
 Your goal is focused on an outcome, and does not satisfy your basic
psychological needs. Rather, it involves external gains, such as money, fame,
power, and avoiding consequences.

You have likely experienced both types of motivation throughout your entire life, and
often, the goal of your motivations can remain the same regardless of whether the
 outcome is something internal or external. These extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
examples illustrate this idea:

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Participating in a sport because it’s fun and Participating in a sport in order to win a
you enjoy it. reward or get physically fit.

Learning a new language because you like Learning a new language because your job
experiencing new things. requires it.

Spending time with someone because you Spending time with someone because they can
enjoy their company. further your social standing.

Cleaning because you enjoy a tidy space. Cleaning to avoid making your partner angry.

Playing cards because you enjoy the

Playing cards to win money.
challenge.

Exercising because you enjoy physically Exercising because you want to lose weight
challenging your body. or fit into an outfit.

Volunteering because it makes you feel Volunteering in order to meet a school or

content and fulfilled. work requirement.

Going for a run because you find it relaxing Going for a run to increase your chances at
or are trying to beat a personal record. winning a competition.

Painting because it makes you feel calm and

Painting so you can sell your art to make money.
happy.

Taking on more responsibility at work

Taking on more responsibility at work in order to
because you enjoy being challenged and
receive a raise or promotion.
feeling accomplished.

Which is Best: Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation?

Each person is different, and what motivates us and our perspectives of rewards are
also different. Some are inherently more intrinsically motivated by tasks, while others
see the same activities extrinsically.

While both can be effective, most agree with the idea that extrinsic rewards should be
used less in order to minimize the overjustification effects. This phenomenon refers
to the findings that offering excessive external rewards for what is already an
internally rewarding behavior can lead to a reduction in intrinsic motivation.
This is not to say that extrinsic motivation always presents negative outcomes. In fact,
it can be extremely beneficial in some situations, those where someone needs to
complete a task that they find unpleasant. Excessive rewards may be problematic, but
when used appropriately, extrinsic motivating factors can be a useful tool.

There are several factors that can work to promote intrinsic motivation. By focusing
efforts on these factors when introducing intrinsic motivations, you will see how
beneficial intrinsic motivation can be. These factors include but are not limited to:

 Curiosity: Fostered curiosity pushed people to explore and learn for the sole
pleasure of learning and mastering.
 Challenge: Being challenged helps people to work at optimal
levels continuously, while staying consistent in working towards meaningful
goals.
 Recognition: People have an innate desire to be appreciated, so when efforts
are recognized and appreciated by others, satisfaction becomes a reward in and of
itself.
 Cooperation: Cooperating with others satisfies the need to belong. It also
presents the reward of satisfaction, because cooperation involves helping others
and working together towards a shared goal.

Final Thoughts
While intrinsic motivation is often seen as ideal due to its sustainability and the
inherent nature of its rewards, both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are influential in
driving behavior. In order to understand how these can be best utilized, it is important
to understand their key differences and the optimal times to employ each method.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a

five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to
needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are:
physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self actualization.
1. Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for Human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the
human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the
most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom
from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been
fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of
belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior Examples
include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and
love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself
(dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or
respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect
or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-
esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, selffulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable
of becoming” (Maslow, 1987, p. 64).

This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The
first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level
is known as growth or being needs (B-needs). Deficiency needs arise due to
deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation
to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For
example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit needs
before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified
that satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his
earlier statements may have given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied
100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).

When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away, and our activities
become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to
satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be
felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged. Growth needs do
not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Once
these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the
highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to
move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is
often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including
divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the
hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-
directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

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Characteristics of self-actualized people Although we are all, theoretically, capable of

self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970)
estimated that only two percent of people would reach the state of self-actualization.
He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to
have achieved their potential as individuals. By studying 18 people he considered to
be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970)
identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person. Characteristics of self-
actualizers:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3. Spontaneous in thought and action;
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of humor;
6. Able to look at life objectively;
7. Highly creative;
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12. Peak experiences;
13. Need for privacy;
14. Democratic attitudes;
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.

Behavior leading to self-actualization: (a) Experiencing life like a child, with full
absorption and concentration; (b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
(c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of
tradition, authority or the majority; (d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being
honest; (e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those
of the majority; (f) Taking responsibility and working hard; (g) Trying to identify
your defenses and having the courage to give them up. The characteristics of self-
actualizers and the behaviors leading to self actualization are shown in the list above.
Although people achieve self actualization in their own unique way, they tend to
share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, 'There
are no perfect human beings' (Maslow,1970a, p. 176). It is not necessary to display
all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only self-actualized people
will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-
actualization merely involves achieving one's potential. Thus, someone can be silly,
wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the
population achieve self-actualization.

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