Setting Out

This is the transfer of all detailed information from the drawing or plan to the
proposed work area (construction site), sometimes setting out is known as ground
setting. It requires the marking out, positions of building and wall.

Settings out should ensure the following

(i) Building face is in right direction

(ii) Building is erected on a right plot
(iii) The over all sizes (length and width) are according to these drawn on the
plan
(iv) Regard in paid to local building line

Building line this is the line established by the local authority or agreed with the
local authority to which a new building should emerge.

The term setting out is used for the operation of a proposed work on the ground
and the proper dimension of the construction work.

Method of setting out

In setting out a simple out a building we may use on the three (3) methods.

(i) 3,4,5 method

(ii) Builder’s square method
(iii) Dumpy level.

PROCEDURES OF SETTING OUT A SIMPLE BUILDING

Before the procedures are put into consideration, it is important to visit the site,
such that one can have the first hand information to deal with for the site
operations that will be based on, when designing the structure and if possible,
alterations can be made.

1) Determining the building line.

2) Position the first peg.
3) Refer to the drawing to get the second peg
4) Introduce the 3,4,5 method to get the right angle for the third peg,

5) Repeat procedure 4 above to get the forth peg.

6) Join diagonals A and C, then B and D to check for accuracy, (they should
measure the same).
7) Introduce corner profiles to all points, ABCD. As shown below.
 8) Transfer the dimensions from the ground to the profiles; this is done by
fixing the building string in line with the pegs on the ground.
9) Determine the trench thickness by marking on the profile.
10) Tie strings to guide you when excavating the trenches and setting the
plinth walls.

Builder’s square method

Procedures

(i) Set out a building line in the usual procedures with pegs
 (ii) Place the builder’s square at front line so that it touches one side of the
square right through its length
(iii) Stretch a line from the corner peg so that its parallel to the side of the
square and establish a third peg
(iv) With the aid of a tape measure, mark out the length and breadth of the
proposed building
(v) Transfer the builder’s square to the remaining corners and repeating the
above operations, a simple rectangular building can be set
(vi) After establishing the four corner pegs, profiles may be erected in the
same way as designed above

N.B Builder’s square can only be used with accuracy for small building such as
family houses and typical single room

Advantages of 3, 4, 5 method

(i) It’s simple to use

(ii) Does not require any calculations
(iii) Can be applied to large buildings
(iv) Accuracy of setting out is self evident and adjustment in the event of
error is simple and quick

Disadvantages

(i) Two tape measures are required which may be difficult to obtain in rural
areas
(ii) Effect of wind on tape and line may lead to inaccurate work especially on
large buildings

Advantages of builder’s square method

 (i) It’s simple to use
(ii) Does not require any calculations
(iii) Can be very accurate when used on small rectangular buildings
(iv) It’s quick in application

Disadvantages

(i) Un seasoned timber can twist and warp leading to error when used
(ii) Unsuitable for large buildings.

Training: Basic Training Code: TCBC 101

Course: Building Construction

Excavation
In building terms is to remove earth to form a cavity in the ground or the action of digging out sides from
the trench and can be done manually or mechanically.
At this stage the contractor already has two important sources of information about excavations.
(i) Trial holes, these reveal the type of soil under ground
(ii) The working drawings which indicate the depth required for foundations.
Types of excavations
(i) Open excavation
(ii) Perimeter trench excavations
(iii) Complete excavations
Excavations may be classified as;
(i) Shallow up to 1.5m deep
(ii) Medium from 1.5m to 3.0m deep
(iii) Deep over 3.0m deep
However in the act of excavation the contactor must solve two problems that affect the safety of the
workers digging in the excavations:
 (i) Supporting the sides
(ii) Removing water
Water can be removed from excavations by use of sump holes. Trench sides are supported by a temporary
structure (timber or metallic) normally called timbering.

The method of excavation and timbering to be used in any particular case will depend upon a number of
factors;
(i) Nature of the sub-soil which determines the type of hand tools or plants required to use and the
amount of timbering.
(ii) Purpose of the excavation can determine minimum width, depth and placing of support members
to give a reasonable working space in the excavation.
(iii) Presence of ground water may necessitate the need of interlocking timbering, sump pits
and pumps, large quantities of ground water may require using dewatering techniques.
(iv)Position of the excavation may impose certain restrictions i.e. the need of licence, highway
Authority or police requirements when excavating in a public road.
(v) Non – availability of right type of plant for bulk excavations may mean a different method must
be used.
(vi) Presence of large number of services may restrict the use of machinery to such an extent that it
becomes uneconomical.
(vii) The disposal of the excavated spoil may restrict the choice of plant due to the loading and
unload cycle.
All subsoil’s have different abilities in remaining stable during excavation work. Most will assume a
natural angle of repose or rest unless given temporary support. The presence of ground water apart from
creating difficult working conditions can have an adverse effect on the subsoil's natural angle of repose.

Trial Holes
Before the foundations of a site can be designed or the work began, it is essential to find out the nature of
the sub-soil below the surface level of the ground. The information that is needed from this preliminary
work would include the following.
(i) The thickness of each stratum or layer of every sub-soil
(ii) The composition of each stratum
 (iii) The size of the various particles of which the sub –soil is composed in each layer
(iv) The condition of each layer
(v) The water table level
(vi) The quality of water below ground level
All these items will have an effect upon the general design of the foundation and upon the method which
may have to be used to carry out the work.
Mostly the trial holes will be dug before tenders are called for, so that the designer can determine the type
and size of the foundation work needed for the project. The contractor must also ensure that notice is
taken of all the information available from the details of trial holes. The cost of installing the foundations
will greatly be affected by the amount of temporary work that will have to be carried out, such as the
amount of timbering necessary to ensure the safety of the workmen, the stability of the sides of the
excavation, the amount of pumping necessary to keep the water table level down, the type of plant that
may be needed to carry out the work. More information on sub soil can be got from digging a borehole
with the earth auger or by digging a trial hole.
The size of a trial hole depends on the depth of the hole that has been taken as enough room must be
allowed for a person to work inside the hole. A careful record must be made of the subsoil and water
level, as the hole is being dug and also the rate, at which the water will fill the trial hole as it is being dug,
should also be noted as this will determine the number of pumps that may be required.
The workman must be safeguarded through timbering the sides of the hole is excavated.
The number of trial holes which must be dug on a site will depend upon the size and mass of the structure
that is to be erected and upon the area of the site.
A sufficient number of trial holes should always be excavated , this will not only determine a good cross –
section through the sub –soil but will also determine a good cross – section through the sub – soil but will
also determine a good but will also determine the nature of the soil.

Control of sub soil water

The sub soil water in excavations on sites can usually be readily controlled by centrifugal (which gives
outputs of various types of pumps). Foundations can be strengthened by drainage on sites where the
volume of water is quite large, the sub – soil water can be collected by one of the following methods;
(i) Using a sump hole
(ii) Digging a perimeter trench
 (iii) De – watering the sub – soil
When the soil is saturated it has a low angle of repose, while in the soil where water is extracted and the
moisture content of the soil is reduced, this will ensure greater stability of the soil.

Sump Hole
Where the excavation cannot have a perimeter trench around the outside for example on a confined site
where no space would be available, then a provision must be made for extraction of water within the
excavation. This can be done by means of sump hole, the bottom of which is kept half a meter below the
bottom main excavation. While the construction work on the foundations within the main excavation is
being done, the sump hole must be maintained continuously. This means while the structural work is
being completed, the sump hole must be left in the basement floor. Where great care must be taken when
finally sealing the floor after the work is finished.
When the work is completed an asphalt plug is made up so that it will fit snugly (tightly) into the space
left by the asphalters sump hole is filled up to the underside of the asphalt with a very dry mix of well –
rammed concrete, when everything is ready.
The asphalt plug is dropped into place and immediately a mound of hot asphalt is poured over the top and
smoothed off by the asphalter. Concrete is then poured over the top to the height of the loading slab; the
main factor in this operation is the speed.
If the operation is not done quickly, the water is likely to build up a pressure and lift up all the new sealing
round the sump hole before it is properly set.
An alternative method of sealing the floor is by building a tube fitted with an internal thread at the top into
the concrete floor. When the work is finished and the sump hole is ready to be filled in, the tube is built in
and concrete is poured around it and allowed to set hard. Pressure that can be exerted by subsoil water
should never be underestimated, when working in deep excavation.
Perimeter Trenches

When a large excavation has to be dug in a water logged or unstable soil, it is often difficult to
keep the level of the surface water down. In this situation a perimeter trench can dug all around
the main excavation. The trench should be half a meter below the main excavation to enable the
water to drain into it from the main work, water can then be pumped from the trench with very
little difficulty.

The trench should be narrow in width, with just enough room for a person to work, it is
important to provide a well timbering to prevent any possible collapse of the sides. When the
main excavation is completed and the basement constructed, the timber can be extracted and the
perimeter trench filled in.

Another type of perimeter trench can be used; this is done by excavating the trench within the
main excavation, laying the foundation and part of the floor of the basement, then building the
walls and asphalting the sides. The earth is refilled at the back of walls and the dumping of earth
in the centre of main excavation to be excavated.

Care must be taken to ensure that there is a good joint between the concrete floor and the asphalt,
it is very important that the reinforcement is correctly lapped or linked together at the
construction joint in the concrete, if the basement floor is to be constructed of reinforced
concrete.

De – watering system

This is another very efficient way of extracting the water from a saturated sub – soil; it allows the
excavations on site to be carried out under dry and safe conditions.

Well Points
Well points are tubes fitted with filters, which are jetted into the ground by means of high
pressure from a jetting pump. The water is forced out of the bottom of the tube, removing the soil
and causing the well points have reached the required depth (for a single stage work the
maximum depth would usually be about 7m) each one is connected to a suction pump.

The water is then sucked out and discharged for enough away from the excavation to keep the
immediate ground dry. The distance between the well points will depend upon the amount of
water that is to be extracted from the ground.

Two stage works must be used, if the excavation has to be taken to a depth greater than 7m

There are two basic systems that can be used for de – watering;

(i) A ring system, which is used for excavations of basements, in this the well points are
jetted at interval all around the excavation.
(ii) A progressive system, used for long trenches often needed for laying a new sewer
scheme. Well points are placed along the sides of the trench in this system and as the
work progresses forward. The well points are correspondingly jetted ahead of the
excavations. The well points are extracted from the ground as the work is completed.
Both of these systems provide extremely efficient method of lowering the table level
of the water contained in the sub – soil and allow the work to continue under dry and
safe conditions.
Excavating Machine

These are a number of types of machines used in excavating, and each other has special
advantages for various conditions of work. These machines include the following:

(i) Back actor

(ii) Face shovel
(iii) Dragline
(iv) Skimmer
(v) Grab
(vi) Continous bucket trencher

Back actor or drag shovel

It’s used from top of the excavation where implies it is necessary for the excavation always
to be bottomed up, hence it implies that is has to be leveled off by hand and thoroughly
rammed. This is important because a machine cannot do that task, stop board should be
provided to prevent the machine from falling in, and mostly where the soil is not stable. The
time cycle for loading a lorry with a back actor is rather slower than it is with a face shovel or
skimmer. This type of machine usually has a bucket capacity of between 0.25 and 0.75m 3
and is only usually in trenches which are 1 – 2 meters and 5 meters deep.

The use of this type of machine allow for ease of access for the dumpers or Lorries to remove
the spoil from the excavation.

Face shovel

This machine is used in the bottom of the excavation; the work is done by sliding the bucket
up to the face of the sides of the work. The Lorries or dumpers have to get access to the
bottom of the excavation by means of a ramp in order to allow them to be loaded. This
method is best in sloping sites, but in some cases there is no need of a ramp when Lorries can
travel along the bottom of the excavation while the machine is working. Extra cost is
incurred where a ramp is to be constructed.

And on confined sites it’s most difficult and more so impossible to use a back actor. The
ramp should be steep and should be kept clear of soil to prevent it from being slippery in wet
weather.

A face shovel will dig soft or reasonably hard materials, including soft chalk, shale and marl
and it will produce a fairly clean bottom in most materials.

Dragline

Its suitable for wide range of reasonably soft or loose soil materials, the operation has to be
carried out by hand after the bulk of the excavation has been dug, because it does not leave a
clean bottom. This machine works from the upper surface of the excavation, digging below
its self. Where it is difficult to provide an access to the bottom of the excavation for
transport, the dragline working in water logged soils, its bucket capacity is between 0.25–2m3
Grab

A grab bucket may be used with dragline or crane, it’s particularly useful for excavating in
water logged soils, foundation trenches or pits where a dragline cannot be used and the
capacity of the grab is usually between 0.25 – 1 m3.

Skimmer

This machine is designed mainly for surface excavation and will provide a very clean bottom
to the excavation. It’s only useful when clearing sites or removing top soil, it can also be usd
for loading spoil heaps into Lorries or dumpers.

Continous bucket trencher

It is fitted with an endless chain of buckets which scrape up the face of the trench and deposit
the excavated material on the side of the trench. The depth can vary from 1 – 5m and the
width is 0.5 – 1.5m, the soil should be free from large stone as these can reduce the output of
the machine by causing jam of the bucket and it produces a reasonably level bottom as the
boom can be raised or lowered to suit up any irregularities in the surface of the ground over
which the machine is operating.

Transportation of the spoil

When the soil from an excavation has to be transported to a storage space on site taken to
another site altogether, it is extremely important that the type and quality of transport
equipment is carefully planned. Excavators are expensive items of machinery either to buy or
hire and to operate.

Close investigation into the most economical method should always be made before
assuming that any well known traditional method will be used. The typical methods of
transportation include the following;

(i) Barrows
(ii) Powered barrows
(iii) Dumpers
(iv) Lorries
(v) Monorail
(vi) Skips
(vii) Belt conveyors

Barrows

They are general only used on smaller site where the rate of excavation is slow and the length
of barrow run is short or where the conditions on the site make it extremely difficult to use
any form of mechanical equipment. This is expensive method of transporting material, as it is
slow.

Powered barrow

These are a number of different types of powered barrow machines available and each one
has its own special advantage. Some are controlled by the operator who walks behind the
machine while other has a seat provided for the driver which would be able to travel faster
than the walking pace.

Dumpers

These are popular machines on most site and found on very large sites, dumpers are
motorized and therefore capable of more journeys per hour than barrow or powered barrow.
They are also easily unloaded by tripping the skip.

Lorries

These would not normally be used the soil is being stored on the site (unless the site was a a
very large one) as the dumper would usually be of greater use under most site condition. On
other hand, if the soil is to be removed from the site, Lorries would usually give the better
services. And their capacities vary from 5 – 10 m 3. All Lorries should have tipping bodies so
that the material is easily unloaded.

Monorail
This is a popular form of transportation as it is easily erected on site and does not need an
operator for each mechanical unit, because it can operate automatically and it is most useful
for transporting concrete. It can also be used for any material which is to be transported
within the site.

Skips

Although this is a similar method to the monorail, the skips are pulled by a locomotive on a
narrow – gauge track. This method has to a great extent been replaced by more mobile forms
of transportation but it still has its uses in special circumstances for example removing the
spoil from the tunnels or transporting materials on an extensive site.

Belt conveyors

Although this method of conveying excavated material has not yet been fully investigated by
many firms, it is finding increasing use on many sites for both short and hauls. Suitable
hopper must be provided to allow an even flow of material conveyors are extremely useful
when large quantities of materials must be excavated and transported over long distances.

Selection of Method of Transportation

Therefore the main factors to be considered in determining the method of transporting

materials on site include;

(i) The quantity of material to be handled

(ii) The type of material
(iii) The length of the haul
(iv) Where the material is to be tipped
(v) Excavating plant available
(vi) Ground conditions
(vii) The availability of labour for operating plants

Plant maintenance

Good maintenance plays almost important part in the operating of machinery and will.
(i) Extend the working life of the machine
(ii) Keep the replacement of worn parts to a minimum
(iii) Ensure that extensive overhauls are not required at too frequent intervals
(iv) Prevent breakdown which only too often occur at the most in opportune moment on
site and are always costly in times of money and production
(v) Ensure more effective production of output.

Therefore the routine checks should include the following;

(i) Oil in the sump must be kept at the correct level and changed at regular intervals
(ii) The radiator should be topped up every day if the engine is water – cooled
(iii) A clean can and funnel should be used when filling the machine with petrol or diesel
oil
(iv) Grease should be kept in a clean, airtight tin, so that dirt cannot contaminate the
grease and eventually find its way into the machine
(v) Petrol and oil caps should be properly fitted on the filler tube
(vi) Air filters should not be removed from the air intakes
(vii) The filtering media on the air filter should be changed at frequent intervals
(viii) The cooling system of a water – cooled engine should be drained off every night
during cold weather.
(ix) All moving parts should be kept well greased or oiled
(x) Greasing nipple should be wiped clean before applying the grease gun
(xi) Tyres on dumpers and Lorries should be kept at their correct pressures
(xii) Stationary plants such as mixers and hoists should be placed on firm base to prevent
excessive vibrations
(xiii) Wire ropes which have become badly worn should not be used on plant, but should be
replaced immediately.
(xiv) Plants should be kept clean, mostly machines for mixing and transporting of concrete
and mortar.