Raghavendra D

Module–2 Assistant Professor, ME Dept

Solar Energy MIT Thandavapura, Mysore
 Solar power captures radiant light and heat from the sun and converts it into clean energy
that can be used to power homes, businesses and machinery.
 Solar power is expected to become the world’s biggest source of electricity by 2050,
according to the International Energy Agency.
 Solar energy is reliable and efficient, producing electricity during peak periods — hot afternoons
— when the demand is highest and air conditioners are going full blast. On highways, the
sun’s energy is captured during the day to enable highway signs to shine at night.
 All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear reactions remain
behind on the sun, while only pure radiant energy reaches the Earth. Energy reaching the
earth is incredible.
 By one calculation, 30 days of sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the
total of all the planet’s fossil fuels, both used and unused.

Applications of Solar Energy

 Space heating or cooling for residential building
 Solar Water heating
 Solar Cookers
 Solar Distillation on a small scale
 Drying of agricultural and animal products by suitable solar driers
 Food refrigeration
 Electric Power generation
 Solar Ponds
 Direct conversion of solar energy into electricity by using photo-voltaic cells
 Bio-conversion and wind energy, which are indirect source of solar energy

Two Types of Solar Energy

1. Thermal Energy: Thermal Energy is everywhere. It’s lights up our days. It heats the earth,
our bodies and our homes. It dries our clothes. All for free
2. Electric Energy: Electric Energy uses the power of the sun to produce electricity through
solar cells, otherwise known as Photovoltaic’s (PV)
Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface:

1) Diffuse Radiation: is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been
changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.
2) Direct or Beam Normal Radiation: Radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and
reaches the ground directly from the sun.
3) Solar Constant: The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere. 1.353kW
/square metre
4) Extra Terrestrial Solar Radiation: Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth I ext
5) Insolation: Total solar radiation energy received on a horizontal surface of unit area on the
ground in unit time
6) Solar Irradiance(W/m2): Amount of radiant energy incident on a surface per unit area per unit
time

Solar Radiation Measurements: Measurements of solar radiation are important because of the
increasing number of solar heating and cooling applications, and the need for accurate solar irradiation
data to predict performance.

Two Basic types of instruments are employed for solar radiation measurement:
1) Pyrheliometer
2) Pyranometer

1.Pyrheliometer: This instrument is used to measure only the direct solar radiation on a
surface normal to the incident beam. It is generally used with a tracking mount to keep it
aligned with the sun.
Working:
 The instrument consists of a long collimator tube whose axis is aligned with the direction of sun rays
by using two axis tracking mechanism and alignment indicator.
 The inside of the tube is blackened to absorb any radiation incident at angles outside the collection
solid angle
 It operates on thermopile effect. Sunrays enter the windowpanes and are oriented onto an instrument
called a thermopile.
 A thermopile consists of thermocouples, which are connected in series and commonly in parallel. A
thermopile transmutes thermal energy into electric signals. A Pyrheliometer uses a formula to convert
signal voltage to calculate watts per square meter W/m².
 It is used in combination with a Solar Tracking system. This helps in keeping the instrument aimed at
the sun.
 The tube contains a sensor disc at its base and the arrangement is made such that the diffuse
radiation is blocked from the sensor surface and hence the device measures only beam radiation, the
value of which is obtained by subtracting the shaded (diffuse) reading from the unshaded (global)
reading.

Pyrheliometer Usages:
A typical Pyrheliometer is used for meteorological, scientific and climatic observations. It also
evaluates and assesses the effectiveness of Photovoltaic instruments and solar collectors.

The Pyrheliometer which are commonly used are

i. Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer
ii. Abbot silver disk Pyrheliometer and
iii. Eppley Pyrheliometer

2. Pyranometer: It is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal surface

but can also be used on an inclined surface.
 Pyranometer are used to measure global and diffuse solar radiation (from the halfspace).

 It consists of Two concentric hemispheres (Inner & Outer), 30 & 50mm in diameter
respectively, made of optical glass having excellent transmission characteristics, are used to
protect the disc surface from the weather.
 It consists of a Black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its
temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by the solar radiation equals the rate of
heat loss by convection, conduction and re-radiation.
 The hot junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are
located under a guard plate so they do not receive the radiation directly.
 As a result, an EMF is generated ( in the range of 0 to 10mV) which can be read, recorded or
integrated over a period of time and is a measure of the global radiation.
How solar energy is used
1. Solar Thermal Energy
2. Solar Heating
– Solar Water Heating
– Solar Space Heating
– Solar Space Cooling
3. Electricity Generation Using Solar Concentrators
4. Photovoltaic Cells

1) Flat Plate Collectors:

 A Flat Plate Collector is a heat exchanger that converts the radiant solar energy from the sun into
heat energy using the well known greenhouse effect. It collects, or captures, solar energy and
uses that energy to heat water in the home for bathing, washing and heating, and can even be
used to heat outdoor swimming pools and hot tubs.
 For most residential and small commercial hot water applications, the solar flat plate collector
tends to be more cost effective due to their simple design, low cost, and relatively easier
installation compared to other forms of hot water heating systems. Also, solar flat plate collectors
are more than capable of delivering the necessary quantity of hot water at the required
temperature.
 It consists of an absorber plate on which the solar radiation falls after coming through a
transparent cover usually made of glass.
 The absorber plate is painted black to absorb solar radiation and the transparent cover helps in
reflecting the incident solar radiation back to absorber plate. The glass cover permits incoming
solar radiation having shorter wavelength but largerly opaque to the longer wave length reflected
from the absorber. As a result, heat remains trapped in the air space between absorber plate and
glass cover.
 The absorbed radiation is partly transferred to the cold water flowing through the tubes.
 The heated water being lighter compared to cold water rises and flows into top of the solar water
tank.
2) Evacuated Tube Collectors:
The Evacuated tube collector consists of a number of rows of parallel transparent glass tubes
connected to a header pipe and which are used in place of the blackened heat absorbing plate

as in the previous flat plate collector. These glass tubes are cylindrical in shape. Therefore, the
angle of the sunlight is always perpendicular to the heat absorbing tubes which enables these
collectors to perform well even when sunlight is low such as when it is early in the morning or
late in the afternoon, or when shaded by clouds. Evacuated tube collectors are particularly
useful in areas with cold, cloudy wintry weathers.

How do Solar Evacuated Tube Collectors Work?

1) Evacuated tube collectors are made up of a single or multiple rows of parallel, transparent glass
tubes supported on a frame. Each individual tube varies in diameter from between 25mm to 75mm
and between 1.50m to 2.4m in length depending upon the manufacturer.
2) Each tube consists of a thick glass outer tube and a thinner glass inner tube, (called a “twin-glass
tube”) or a “thermos-flask tube” which is covered with a special coating that absorbs solar energy
but inhibits heat loss.
3) The tubes are made of borosilicate or soda lime glass, which is strong, resistant to high
temperatures and has a high transmittance for solar irradiation.
4) Unlike flat panel collectors, evacuated tube collectors do not heat the water directly within the tubes.
Instead, air is removed or evacuated from the space between the two tubes, forming a vacuum
(hence the name evacuated tubes).
5) This vacuum acts as an insulator reducing any heat loss significantly to the surrounding atmosphere
 either through convection or radiation making the collector much more efficient than the internal
insulating of plate collectors.
6) With the assistance of this vacuum, evacuated tube collectors generally produce higher fluid
temperatures than they’re flat plate counterparts so may become very hot in summer.
7) Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or copper fin is attached to a metal heat pipe
running through the inner tube.
8) The fin is covered with a selective coating that transfers heat to the fluid that is circulating through
the pipe. This sealed copper heat pipe transfers the solar heat via convection of its internal heat
transfer fluid to a “hot bulb” that indirectly heats a copper manifold within the header tank. These
copper pipes are all connected to a common manifold which is then connected to a storage tank,
thus heating the hot water during the day. The hot water can then be used at night or the next day
due to the insulating properties of the tank.
9) The insulation properties of the vacuum are so good that while the inner tube may be as high as
150°C, the outer tube is cooler to touch. This means that evacuated tube water heaters can perform
well and can heat water to fairly high temperatures even in cold weather when flat plate collectors
perform poorly due to heat loss.

3) Concentrating Collectors: Focusing Type

 A schematic diagram of a concentrating collector is shown in the above fig. The
collector consists of a concentrator and a receiver.
 The concentrator focuses the sunlight on to its axis where it is absorbed by the surface
of the absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flowing through it.
 A concentric glass cover around the absorber tube helps in reducing the convection and
radiation losses to the surroundings.
 In order that the sun’s rays should always be focused on to the absorber tube, the
concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called tracking. Cylindrical parabolic
collector is used when the temperatures above 1000C are required.
4) Solar Ponds:
In a clear natural pond, the solar radiation reaches the bottom of the pond and heat the water. The
hotter water at the bottom becomes light and hence rises to the top surfaces. Here it loses the heat
into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the atmospheric temperature.
The solar pond suppress the convection currents between the upper and lower layers by dissolving
salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it to heavy to rise.

Working:
A Solar pond is a large area collector of solar energy with internal heat storage for supplying
thermal energy. Typically, a salt gradient soalr pond consists of 3 layers as shown below:

a) An Upper Convective Zone called Surface Zone of clear fresh water that acts as solar
collector. It is relatively the most shallow in depth and is at atmospheric temperature.
b) The Lower Convective Zone have the highest salt concentration and is the zone that
collects and stores the solar energy in the form of heat. It is also called as storage zone. Salt
concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this zone.
c) Separating the upper and lower zones is the Gradient Zone or non- convective zone.
Here the salt concentration increases as depth increases, thereby creating a salinity or
density gradient. Due to density gradient, the water of a layer within the zone cannot rise or
fall by natural convection. This gradient zone acts a transparent insulator between the upper
and lower zones. It permits the solar radiation to reach the lower zone, and entrapping it
there.
To generate electricity, the heat stored in the salty hot water in the bottom zone is piped to an
evaporator. Liquid Refrigerant in the evaporator is heated and converted into gas. The pressure
generated by the gas spins a turbine and electricity is produced by generator. Gas refrigerant is
then cooled in a condenser and recycled.

Applications:
 To generate electricity
 Textile Processing, dairy and cold storage
 To dry agricultural products, timber and chemicals
5) Solar Photovoltaic’s:
Solar energy can be converted to electricity by photovoltaic conversion. It is a direct conversion
technology that produces electricity directly from sunlight without the use of a working fluid such as
steam or gas.

Working:

 A single crystal silicon solar cells are commonly used and its theoretical highest efficiency is 24%.
For commercially available solar cells, the actual efficiency ranges from 10-12%.
 The thickness of the single crystal silicon cells are about 300microns, sliced from a single crystal of
P type doped silicon.
 The back side of the solar cell is fully covered with a metallic contact, thus removes the charges to
the electric field. The metal fingers on the front side aids the collection.
 A module of solar cells may be obtained by combining the solar cells side by side, in series and
parallel connection. This module helps in developing higher voltages and currents. An array of solar
cells is formed by interconnecting a number of such modules. This cells may be circular or
rectangular in shape.
 When silicon is doped with phosphorus, arsenic or antimony, it becomes an N type semiconductor.
– More Electrons.
 When silicon is doped with boron, aluminium, indium or gallium it results in P type semiconductor –
More Holes.
 Some combines and forms Depletion Region, PN Junction (No free Electrons and Holes).
 N – side Boundary becomes slightly + side, P – side Boundary becomes slightly - side. Electric Field
is formed. This produces the necessary driving force.
 When photons penetrates and reaches on the PN Junction, generates the Electron Hole pairs.
Electric Field drives the force to move the Electrons and holes to move out of the Depletion Layer.
 Concentration of Electrons in N side & Concentration of Holes in P side becomes so high and
Potential difference is created between them.
 When loads are connected, electrons starts moving from N to P side. This process continues and
Direct Current is generated. DC is converted into AC with the help of Inverter.

Advantages:
 No moving Parts and No pollution.
 Solar cells have long life and are highly reliable.
 No fuel consumption, as cell operates on solar energy.
 Cells have high power to weight ratio and hence more suitable for space applications.
 No sun tracking is required, hence it possible to operate cells in a wide range of applications.
 Solar cells are more suitable for space applications, as they work with less or almost no attention.

Disadvantages:
 The cost is High
 Because of Day-night cycle, a necessity becomes to store the energy