Applied Physics for CSE stream

HKBK College of Engineering

Name of the Faculty: Dr. Chandrakumar. K

Professor & HOD
: Mrs.Chethana. N
Asst. Professor
: Mr. Raja P
Asst. Professor
: Dr. Mohsina Taj
Asst. Professor

Department: Physics
Subject: Applied Physics for CSE stream
Subject Code: BPHYS102/202
Applied Physics for CSE stream

Module 3
Quantum Computing
Introduction:

David Elieser Deutsch

David Elieser Deutsch (born on 18 May 1953 )is a
British physicist at the University of Oxford. He is a Visiting
Professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at
the Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) in the Clarendon
Laboratory of the University of Oxford. He pioneered the field
of quantum computation by formulating a description for
a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm
designed to run on a quantum computer. He has also proposed
the use of entangled states and Bell's theorem for quantum key
distribution and is a proponent of the many-worlds
interpretation of quantum mechanics. His work on quantum
algorithms began with a 1985 paper, later expanded in 1992 along with Richard Jozsa to
produce the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, one of the first examples of a quantum algorithm
that is exponentially faster than any possible deterministic classical algorithm. The
Fabric of Reality was shortlisted for the Rhone-Poulenc science book award in
1998.Deutsch was awarded the Dirac Prize of the Institute of Physics in 1998, and the
Edge of Computation Science Prize in 2005.In 2017, he received the Dirac Medal of
the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). Deutsch is linked to Paul
Dirac through his doctoral advisor Dennis Sciama, whose doctoral advisor was Dirac.
Deutsch was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008.In 2020 he was
awarded an Honorary Fellowship of the Cybernetics Society. In 2018, he received
the Micius Quantum Prize. In 2021, he was awarded the Isaac Newton Medal and
Prize.On September 22, 2022, he was awarded with the Breakthrough Prize in
fundamental physics.

Course syllabus:
Principles of Quantum Information & Quantum Computing:
Introduction to Quantum Computing, Moore’s law & its end, Differences between
Classical & Quantum computing. Concept of qubit and its properties. Representation of
qubit by Bloch sphere. Single and Two qubits. Extension to N qubits.
Dirac representation and matrix operations:
Matrix representation of 0 and 1 States, Identity Operator I, Applying I to|0⟩and |1⟩
states, Pauli Matrices and its operations on |0⟩and |1⟩states, Explanation of i) Conjugate
of a matrix and ii) Transpose of a matrix. Unitary matrix U, Examples: Row and Column
Matrices and their multiplication (Inner Product), Probability, and Quantum
Superposition, normalization rule. Orthogonality, Orthonormality. Numerical Problems.
Quantum Gates:
Single Qubit Gates: Quantum Not Gate, Pauli – X, Y and Z Gates, Hadamard Gate, Phase
Gate (or S Gate), T Gate.
Multiple Qubit Gates: Controlled gate, CNOT Gate, (Discussion for 4 different input
states). Representation of Swap gate, Controlled -Z gate, Toffoli gate.

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3.1. Principles of Quantum Information & Quantum Computing

3.1.1. Introduction to Quantum Computing
A remarkable integration of quantum physics, computer science, information theory
and is known as quantum computing. The goal of quantum computing is to alter the
notion of computation rather changing the physical substrate on which computation is
carried out from classical to quantum. The fundamental unit of computation is no longer
the bit, but rather the quantum bit or qubit. By basing computation on a quantum
mechanical framework, new cryptographic techniques, faster algorithms, and effective
communication protocols have been established.
 Quantum computing is a modern way of computing that is based on the science of
quantum mechanics and its unbelievable phenomena. It is a beautiful combination
of physics, mathematics, computer science and information theory.
 It provides high computational power, less energy consumption and exponential
speed over classical computers by controlling the behaviour of small physical
objects i.e. microscopic particles like atoms, electrons, photons, etc.
 Here, we present an introduction to the fundamental concepts and some ideas of
quantum computing. The basic working of quantum computing and the quantum
properties it follows like superposition, entanglement and interference.
 Before focusing on the significances of a general-purpose quantum computer and
exploring the power of the new arising technology, it is better to review the origin,
potentials, and limitations of the existing traditional computing. This information
helps us in understanding the possible challenges in developing exotic and
competitive technology. It will also give us an insight into the on-going progress in
this field.

3.2. Difference between Classical and quantum computing:

Sl.no Classical computing Quantum computing
Classical computation uses bits Quantum computation use qubits to measure
1. ‘0’ and ‘1’ to measure and extract and extract information.
information
Classical computers which can Qubit store multiple values at the same time
2. store either ‘0’ or ‘1’
Classical algorithms Quantum algorithms computation allows
3. computation allows N √𝑁operations.
operations.
Classical computation employs A quantum computation uses subatomic
4. stream of binary electrical pulses particles such as electrons, Photons
of ‘0’ and ‘1’ (quantum Particles for representing qubits.
Classical computation allow the Quantum computation allows the quantum
binary electrical pulses only in particles exists move than one state at the
5.
one state ‘0’ and ‘1’.No mixed same time.
state

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3.3. Moore’s law& its end:

Gordon Moore, Co-founder of Intel indicated that “the number of transistors on a
microchip will double about every two years, while the cost of computers is cut into
half”. This suggests the exponential growth of chip capabilities and immense downward
pressure on chips.
Statement: “Moore’s law states that the number of transistors on a microchip will
double about every two years, while the cost of computers is cut into
half”.
End of Moore’s law: Now a days nanometer circuits are attained further reduction in
the size of transistors is extremely challenging. Computer systems may have reached
their limit in transistor capacity and power. Hence, industry leaders are asserting that
Moore’s law has come to an end, and computers will no longer have many more
transistor every year.
James R. Powell calculated that due to the uncertainty principle alone Moore’s law will
be end by 2036.

3.4. Concept of qubit and its properties

The bit is the fundamental concept of classical computation and information. Quantum
computation and information use an analogous concept, quantum bit, or qubit. Just like
classical bit has a state either 0 or 1, a qubit also has a state. The two possible states for
a qubit are |0 and |1 which correspond to the states 0 and 1 for a classical bit. These
two states are known as computational basis states.
Eg: The two states of an electron orbiting a single atom.

3.4.1. A qubit can be in a state other than |0 and |1

The difference between qubits and classical bits is that a qubit can be in a linear
combination or superposition of the two states |0 and |1 as:
| =  |0 +  |1
Where  and  are coefficients of both the states

3.4.2. Properties of Qubits:

Mathematical representation of qubit:
A Qubit mathematically represented by two states |0 and |1.
1 0
i.e., |0 = ( ) and |1 = ( )
0 1
|0 and |1 are the column matrices.
| =  |0 +  |1

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The most important properties of qubits are:

1) Superposition – The ability of existence of two states 0 and 1 at the same time in a
one state. Superposition means showing all the possible states of the qubits.
2) Entanglement – The quantum measurements on qubits are perfectly correlated
and they cannot be untangled into two individual qubits.
3) Interference – Quantum interference is a byproduct of superposition, is that it
allows to bias the measurement of qubit towards a discrete state or set of states.
4) Tunneling - Which means that phenomenon of quantum particle can travel to the
opposite side of a barrier which is impossible by classical particles. Quantum
tunneling allows quantum computers the ability to perform tasks faster than classical
computers.

3.5. Representation of qubit by Bloch sphere

In quantum computing, a state of a qubit is represented on a sphere is called Bloch
sphere. It is a sphere of unit radius.
Only single qubit quantum states can be represented by Bloch sphere. The state of a
qubit is represented by a vector
𝜽 𝜽
|ψ= cos ( ) |0 + eiФ sin ( ) |1
𝟐 𝟐

Where, θ and Ф define a point on the Unit three dimensional sphere as shown in figure
of Bloch sphere.

State of Qubit on the Bloch sphere

For θ =0 and Ф = 0, the state |ψ corresponds to |0 and it is along + Z- axis.
For θ =180 and Ф = 0, the state |ψ corresponds to |1 and it is along - Z- axis.
1
When θ = 90° and Ф = 90°, | ψ = (|0 + i |1) is a superposition state along + Y-axis.
√2
1
When θ = -90° and Ф = 90°, | ψ = (|0 - i |1) is a superposition state along - Y-axis.
√2

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1
When θ = 90° and Ф = 0°, | ψ = ( |0 + |1) is a superposition state along + X-axis.
√2
−1
When θ = -90° and Ф = 0°, | ψ = ( |0 + |1) is a superposition state along - X-axis.
√2

3.6. Single qubit: It is a vector | =  |0 +  |1 premised by two complex numbers
satisfying ||2 + |β|2 = 1.Operation on qubit must preserve this norm under described by
2 x 2 unitary matrix.
The basis states of single qubit are |0 and |1 or linear combination of both states.

 |0 +  |1 are mathematically represented as

1 0
|0 = ( ) and |1 = ( )
0 1
Binary representation:

|0 = 0 X 20 = 0 X 1 = 0 {|0 , |1}

|1 = 1 X 20 = 1 X 1 = 1 {0 , 1}

0 1
Take as all basis as column of matrix then we get an identity matrix I = ( )
1 0

The most general state | of a single qubit is represented by a vector of the form
𝜃 𝜃
|ψ= cos ( ) |0 + eiθ sin ( ) |1
2 2
A single qubit represented by operators on the two dimensional vector space as 2 X 2
matrices.

0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
Ex. σ x = σ 1 = X = ( ) σ y= σ 2 = Y= ( ) σ z= σ 3 = Z = ( )
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1
All Pauli matrices are single qubit state vector operations.

1
3.7. Two qubit: It is a vector represented by | ψ = √2
(|0 |0 + |1 |1) , and the
state is entangled with these number of particle values. 0, 1, 0, 1.

| ψ = (0 |0 + 1 |1 ) (0 |0 + 1|1)

The above state is called as EPR (Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen)

The basis states of two qubit quantum gates are,

|00 , |01, |10 and |11

The binary notation of the basis vector is written as follow

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|00 = 0 X 21 + 0 X 20 = 0 + 0 = 0 |01 = 0 X 21 + 1 X 20 = 0 + 1= 1

|10 =1 X 21 + 0 X 20 = 2 + 0 X 1 =2 |11 = 1 X 21 + 1 X 20 =2 + 1 X 1 = 3

Take as all basis as column of matrix then we get an identity matrix

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
( ) = I 4 =D [1111]
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

3.8. N – qubit: N –qubit is quantum state vector represented by

| ψ = (0 |0 + 1 |1 ) (0 |0 + 1|1) …………..(0 |0 + 1|1)
in the computational basis will label the 2n basis vectors inn the Dirac notation using
binary string of length n.
|00……00, |01……01, |10……10, |11…….11

1 0
0 1
. 0
. .
|00……00 = |01……01 = etc.
. .
. .
. .
(0) (0)

1 0 . . . . . 0
0 1 . . . . . 0
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
I8 =
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
(0 . . . . . . 1)𝑛𝑋𝑛

3.9. Dirac representation and matrix operations

The state of quantum mechanical system is described or represented by a wave function
ψ (x, t) or as a state vector. Wave function is a Schrodinger representation of quantum
mechanical system (more generalized form) state vector is a matrix representation
(Heisenberg) of quantum mechanical system.

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3.9.1. Dirac Bra and Ket notations:

Wave function ψ (x) is represented as a column vector called as et vector |ψ and read
as “ket psi”. A state vector or |ψ is written in matrix form as
ψ (x1 )
ψ (x2 )
|ψ = .
.
(ψ (xn )).

The notation |  indicates that the object is a vector. |  is called as “ket vector”

The complex conjugate of ket vector is represented by “Bra vector “. ψ| read as “bra
psi”.

Hence the bra vector is a transpose of complex conjugate of ket vector & vice versa

ψ| = [ψ*(x1 ), ψ*(x2 )........................... ψ*(xn )]

Hence ket and bra vectors are transpose of complex conjugate of each other.

The scalar or inner product of bra and ket vectors can be represented by matrix as

(x1 )
(x2 )
ψ| ψ = [ψ*(x1 ψ*(x2
), )........................... ψ*(xn .
)] .
.
( (xn ) ).

ψ| ψ = [ψ*(x1 ) ψ(x1 ) + ψ*(x2 ) ψ(x2 ) +........................ ψ*(xn ) ψ(xn )]

Which is a scalar quantity and matrix representation of wave function in quantum

mechanics.

3.10. Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states:

The state of a qubit in quantum computation is represented by |0 and |1.
1 0
The matrix form as: |0 = ( ) |1 = ( )
0 1

3.11. Representation of Identity Operator:

In quantum mechanics identity operator is represented by identity matrix ( Î ) with cap
read as identity operator

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1 0
Î=( )
0 1 2𝑋2

Operation of Î on |0 and |1 states:

Consider |0 and |1 states expressed in matrix form as

1 0 1 0
|0 =( ) and |1=( ) and identity operator Î = ( )
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1+0 1
Let Î |0 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 …… (1)
0 1 0 0+0 0
1 0 0 0+0 0
Î |1 = ( ) ( ) =( ) = ( ) = |1 ……… (2)
0 1 1 0+1 1
From the above proof of equation (1) and (2) it can be concluded that when Identity
operator Î operates on any qubit, basis states left unchanged. The Î operators doesn’t
change the state of the systems.

Hence when identity operator operates on any input state of quantum logic gate of
quantum circuit, the out state remains same.

3.12. Pauli Matrices:

Pauli matrices are the 2x 2 matrices defined by the following matrices which are very
useful in the study quantum computation and quantum information.

1 0 0 1
σ0 = I = ( ) σX = σ1 = X = ( )
0 1 1 0
0 −𝑖 1 0
σy = σ2 = Y= ( ) σz = σ3 = Z = ( )
𝑖 0 0 −1
Most of the cases σ0 = I is excluded because it is generally used as identity matrix.

3.12.1. The operations of Pauli matrices on |0 and |1 states operations of Pauli
matrices on |0 State:

1 0 1 1+0 1
(i) σ0 |0 = I |0 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) =|0 I |0 = |0 No change
0 1 0 0+0 0
0 1 1 0+0 0
(ii) σx |0 = X |0 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |1 X |0 = |1
1 0 0 1+0 1

The |0 state changed to |1 state

0 −𝑖 1 0+0 0 0
(iii) σy |0 = Y |0 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = i ( ) Y |0 =i|1
𝑖 0 0 i+0 i i

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1 0 1 1+0 1
(iii) σz |0 = Z |0 = ( )( ) = ( ) =( ) Z |0 = |0 No change
0 −1 0 0+0 0

3.12.2. Operations of Pauli matrices on |1 state:

1 0 0 0+0 0
(i) σ0 |1 = I |1 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |1 I |1 = |1 No change
0 1 1 0+1 1
0 1 0 0+1 1
(ii) σx |1 = X |1 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( )= X |1 X |1 = |0
1 0 1 0+0 0

The |1 state changed to |0 state

0 −𝑖 0 0−𝑖 −𝑖 1
(iii) σy |1 = Y |1 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( )= −𝑖 ( ) = - i|0
𝑖 0 1 0+0 0 0

The |1 state changed to complex of |0 state

1 0 0 0+0 0 0
(iv) σz |1 = Z |1 = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( )= - ( ) = - |1
0 −1 1 0−1 −1 1

|1 changed to - |1

3.13. Conjugate of matrix:

The complex conjugate of a given matrix is defined as that matrix whose elements are
the complex conjugate of the corresponding elements of given matrix. The elements of a
matrix are either real or complex

1 𝑖 1 −𝑖
Eg: Let A = ( ) A* = ( )
−𝑖 1 𝑖 1
All the imaginary elements of a given matrix are replaced by opposite sign i.e., + i to – i &
-i to + i

If all the elements are real, then A* = A

If all the elements are complex then A* = -A, the matrix is purely imaginary.

3.14. Transpose of matrix:

The transpose of matrix can be obtained by inter changing rows and columns of given
matrix. Let matrix A is defined by m x n columns Amn then its transpose is given by
AT = Anm

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1 2 4
Ex: A= (6 9 10)
7 11 0

3.15. Unitary Matrix:

A square matrix is said to be unitary if its inverse is equal to its conjugate transpose.
𝑰
Then Unitary matrix of A is A† = A-1 =
𝑨
In general A† A = I =A A†

All unitary matrices are Hermitian

Ex:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃

A= ( ) A† = ( )
𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃
A† A = ( )( )
𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)= (1 0

)=I
𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 0 1

A† A = I

Note: The symbol A † (read as dagger) represents the transpose of complex conjugate
of a given matrix A. A† = (A*)T

Note: The inner product or multiplication of two unitary matrixes is again unitary
matrix or dot product.

3.16. Row and Column Matrices and their multiplication:

(i) Row matrix: A matrix has one row and n columns is called row matrix. Thus the
matrix is the order 1x n. Represented as
A = [ a11 a12 a13 ……….a1n]

(ii) Column Matrix: A matrix having one column and m row is called column matrix.
Thus the matrix is of the order m x 1 represented as
a11 a1
a21 a2
Eg: [A]= . = .
. .
a a
( m1 ) ( n )𝑚𝑥 1

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(iii) The matrix multiplication (inner product):

The matrix multiplication between two given matrices exists only when the number of
columns of first matrix must be equal to number rows of second matrix. In vector
space this is also called as “dot or inner” product of two vectors which must be scalar
quantity. The reverse multiplication

2
0
[A] = (1 2 0 4 5)1𝑥5 [𝐵] = 4
5
(6)5𝑥1

A.B = 2 + 0 + 0 + 20 + 30 = 52

3.16.1. Inner Product

Suppose, we have two states
1 
|⟩ = ( ) | ϕ ⟩ = ( 1 )
2 2

One way to multiply |⟩ and | ϕ ⟩ is by taking their inner product as

⟨ | ϕ ⟩ = (⟨ |)* ( |ϕ ⟩)
1
= (1 ∗ , 2 ∗ ) ( )
2

= 1 ∗ 1+ 2 ∗ 2
⟨ | ϕ ⟩ is called the inner product and the result is always a scalar product.

3.17. Probability
1 0
Consider a quantum state |⟩ = α( ) + β ( )
0 1
|⟩ = α|0 + β|1

|⟩ =(  )

Let us take inner product with itself

α
⟨ |⟩ = (* *) (β)

= * + β*

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= 2 +  β 2
We know that *= 2 represents the probability
We have ⟨ |⟩ = 2= 2 +  β 2= 1
This implies |⟩ is normalized.

3.18. Orthogonality
Consider the inner product of |0 and |1
0
⟨0|1⟩ = (1 1) ( )
1
= 1.0+0.1
=0
If the inner product of two abstract state vectors is zero, then they are said to be
orthogonal.
i,e. ⟨0|1⟩ = 0

3.19. Orthonormality
Two states |⟩ and |ϕ⟩ are said to be orthonormal if
(1) |⟩ and |ϕ⟩ normalized
(2) |⟩ and |ϕ⟩ are orthogonal to each other.

3.19.1. Quantum Superposition:

Quantum superposition is the ability of a quantum system to exist in multiple states at
the same time until it is measured.
Let us consider Dirac notation of quantum system
1 0
|0⟩ = ( ) and |1⟩ = ( ) which are state of quantum mechanical system or
0 1
physical object which are called quantum bits or Qubits. The qubits exist not only at |0⟩
and |1⟩ but in the states of linear combination also, often called “Superposition”.
i.e, |⟩ = α|0 + β|1
Where α and β are complex numbers, |⟩ is a state of quantum system or wavefunction.

3.20. Quantum Gates

The basic purpose of a logic gate is to manipulate or process information at the bit level.

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3.20.1. Single Qubit Gates:

Consider a unitary operator U represent operation on 2 dimensional vector space of a
single qubit as 2X2 matrix operators on a single qubit (Unitary) gate. A linear operator
is specified completely by its action on the basis vectors.
Every quantum gate is a unitary operator which satisfies the conditions
(i) U† U = U U† = I
(ii) | det | = 1
(iii) Columns satisfy orthonormal condition. i,e. self-product is equal to 1 and different
product is equal to 0.

3.21. Quantum NOT Gate:

A quantum NOT gate is one which maps |0 to |1 and |1 to |0.
Being a linear operator it will map a linear combination of inputs to the corresponding
linear combination of output. Hence the NOT gate maps the general state as

α1|0 + α2|1   α1|1 + α2|0

NOT operation
Input Output
In terms of the matrix representation, the
1 0
NOT operation on ( ) =( )
0 1
0 1
NOT operation on ( ) =( )
1 0
From the above, the matrix of NOT gate can be obtained or constructed in the
0 1
computation as basis by 2x2 matrix as ( )
1 0
The quantum NOT or QUNOT gate can be represented as

I/P  NOT  O/P

Fig. quantum NOT gate

Table Truth table of NOT gate:

Input output
|0 |1
|1 |0
α|0 + β|1 α|1 + β|0

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3.22. Pauli –X, Y and Z gates:

3.22.1. Pauli X-gate:

When Pauli X gate operates two states |0 and |1 which can be written in outer product form
as follows
i)Leave zero products
ii)All bra vectors changes to ket and ket vectors changed to bra vectors
iii)Follow orthonormal conditions for bra and ket state vector i.e.,

⟨0|0⟩ = 1, ⟨1|1⟩ = 1

⟨0|1⟩ = 1, ⟨1|0⟩ = 0

0 1
X=( )
1 0
Inner Product:
0 1 1
 X |0⟩ = ( )( )
1 0 0
0 + 0)
=( )
1+0
0
X |0⟩ =( ) = |1⟩
1
0 1 1
 X |1⟩ = ( )( )
1 0 0
0 + 0)
=( )
1+1
0
X |1⟩ =( ) = |0⟩
1

Outer Product:

σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 0 1
⟨1| 1 0

 X |0⟩ = [ 1. |0⟩⟨1| + 1. |1⟩⟨0|] . |0⟩

= [ |0⟩⟨1|0⟩ + |1⟩⟨0|0⟩]
= [|0⟩.0 +|1⟩ .1]
= 0 + |1⟩
X |0⟩ = |1⟩
 X |1⟩= [ 1. |0⟩⟨1| + 1. |1⟩⟨0|] . |1⟩
= [ |0⟩⟨1|1⟩ + |1⟩⟨0|1⟩]
= [|0⟩.1 +|1⟩ .0]
X |1⟩= |0⟩

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i/p |0⟩ X |1⟩ o/p

Pauli X gate when operates on |0⟩ flip to |1⟩ and |1⟩ to |0⟩, where two states are inverted.

Bloch sphere representations

3.22.2. Pauli -Y gate:

Consider Pauli Y gate

0 −𝑖
Y= ( )
𝑖 0
Inner product:

0 −𝑖 1 0+0 0
 Y |0⟩ = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = i|1⟩
𝑖 0 0 𝑖+0 i
Y |0⟩= i|1⟩----------------------------------------- (3)
0 −𝑖 0 0−𝑖 −i 1
 Y |1⟩ = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) =-i ( ) = i|0⟩
𝑖 0 1 0+0 0 0
Y |1⟩= -i|0⟩------------------------------------------(4)

Outer Product:

Write in outer product or tensor form,

σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 0 -i
⟨1| i 0

Y= [ -i. |0⟩⟨1| + i. |1⟩⟨0|]

 Y|0⟩ = [-i. |0⟩⟨1| + i. |1⟩⟨0|] |0⟩

=i [-|0⟩⟨1|0⟩ + |1⟩⟨0|0⟩]
=i [ - |0⟩ * 0 + |1⟩ * 1]

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Y|0⟩ = i |1⟩ -------------------------------------- (1)

 Y|1⟩ = [- i|0⟩⟨1| + i. |1⟩⟨0|] |1⟩
=i [-|0⟩⟨1|1⟩ + |1⟩⟨0|1⟩]
=i [ - |0⟩ * 1 + |1⟩ * 0]
Y|1⟩ = - i |0⟩------------(2)

Block sphere representations:

3.22.3. Pauli Z-Gate:

The Z gate matrix is
1 0
Z=( )
0 −1
Consider a Z gate operation on |0⟩ & |1⟩ state. Now the outer product form operation of Z
gate.

Inner product:

It leaves |0⟩ unchanged and inverts the sign of |1⟩ to give -|1⟩.

For |0⟩, the output becomes

1 0 1 1
 Z |0⟩ = ( ) ( ) = ( )= |0⟩
1 −1 0 0
Z |0⟩ = |0⟩

In case of |1⟩, the output is

1 0 0 0
 Z |1⟩ =( ) ( ) = ( )= -|1⟩
1 −1 1 −1
Z |1⟩ = -|1⟩

Outer product:

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σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 1 0
⟨1| 0 -1

Z= [|0⟩ ⟨0| - |1⟩⟨1|]

 Z |0⟩ = [|0⟩ ⟨0| - |1⟩⟨1|] |0⟩

= [|0⟩ ⟨0|0⟩ - |1⟩⟨1|0] |0⟩
Z |0⟩ = [|0⟩-0] = |0⟩
 Z |1⟩ = [|0⟩ ⟨0| - |1⟩⟨1|] |1⟩
= [|0⟩ ⟨0|1⟩ - |1⟩⟨1|1⟩]
Z |1⟩ = [0-|1⟩] = -|1⟩

Thus the state α|0⟩ + β|1⟩ is transformed to α|0⟩ - β|1⟩

α|0⟩ + β|1⟩ Z α|1⟩ - β|0⟩

3.3.3. Hadamard Gate: Hadamard gate is also called H-gate. The Hadamard gate is a
type of single qubit quantum gate a basic operation that can be applied to a qubit. Like all
quantum gates, the Hadamard gate is a unitary transformation on a vector space.

The Hadamard gate is defined as

1 1
1 1 1
H= √2 ( ) = (√2
1
√2
−1)
1 −1
√2 √2

Inner Product:

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1 1 1
1 +0
 H|0⟩= (√2
1
√2
−1) (0) = (√2
1 )
+0
√2 √2 √2
1
1 1 1 1 0
H|0⟩= (√2
1)= ( )= [( ) +( ) ]
√2 1 √2 0 1
√2
1
H|0⟩= (|0⟩ + |1⟩)
√2
1 1 1
0 +0
 H|0⟩= (√2
1
√2
−1) (1) = √2
(−1 )
+0
√2 √2 √2

1
√2 1 1 1 1 0
H|0⟩= (−1 )= ( )= [( ) +( ) ]
√2 −1 √2 0 −1
√2

1
H|0⟩= (|0⟩ − |1⟩)
√2

Hence Hadamard hate is a linear combination or summation of Pauli X and Z gate

1 0
H2 =I = ( )
0 1
Outer product:

Let us find the outer product form of H gate

σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 1 1
√2 √2
⟨1| 1 −1
√2 √2

𝟏
H= [|𝟎⟩ ⟨𝟎| + |𝟎⟩⟨𝟏| + |𝟏⟩ ⟨𝟎| − |𝟏⟩⟨𝟏|]
√𝟐

1
 H|0⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0|+|0⟩⟨1| + |1⟩⟨0| − |1⟩⟨1|]|0⟩
√2
1
H|0⟩ = 2 [|0⟩ ⟨0|0⟩ + |0⟩⟨1|0⟩ + |1⟩ ⟨0|0⟩ − |1⟩⟨1|0⟩]
√
1
H|0⟩ = 2 [|0⟩. 1 + |0⟩. 0 + |1⟩. 1 – |1⟩. 0]
√
1
H|0⟩ = 2 [|0⟩ + |1⟩]
√
1
 H|1⟩ = [|0⟩ ⟨0|1⟩ + |0⟩⟨1|1⟩ + |1⟩ ⟨0|1⟩ − |1⟩⟨1|1⟩
√2
1
H|1⟩ = 2 [|0⟩. 0 + |0⟩. 1 + |1⟩. 0 – |1⟩. 1]
√
1
H|1⟩ = 2 [|0⟩ − |1⟩]
√

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H = √𝑁𝑂𝑇 and NOT ≠ H2

3.3.4. Phase gate (or) S gate

The Phase gate or S gate is a single qubit operation defined by,

1 0 1 0
S=( ) or ( 𝑖𝜋/2 )
0 𝑖 0 𝑒
The S gate is also known as the Phase gate or Z 90˚ gate, because it represents a 90˚ degree
rotation around the Z axis

Inner Product:

1 0 1 1+0 1
 S|0⟩ = ( ) ( )=( ) = ( ) = |0⟩
0 𝑖 0 0+0 0

1 0 0 0+0 0
 S|1⟩=( ) ( )=( ) = ( ) = 𝑖|1⟩
0 𝑖 1 0+i i
Outer Product:

σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 1 0
⟨1| 0 i

S= [|0⟩⟨0| + i |1⟩⟨1|]

 S|0⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0| + i |1⟩⟨1|] |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩

S|0⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0|0⟩ + i |1⟩⟨1|0⟩] S
S|0⟩= |0⟩ + 0 = |0⟩ No change in output.

 S= [|0⟩⟨0| + i |1⟩⟨1|] |1⟩ i|1⟩

S|1⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0| + i |1⟩⟨1|] |1⟩
S|1⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0|1⟩ + i |1⟩⟨1|1⟩]
S
S|1⟩= 0+i|1⟩ = i|1⟩

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3.3.5. T gate
The T gate is a single qubit operation defined by,

1 0
S= ( )
0 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4
The S gate is also known as the π/8 gate

Inner Product:

1 0 1 1+0 1
 T|0⟩ = ( ) ( )=(
𝑖𝜋 ) = ( ) = |0⟩
0 𝑒 40 0 + 0 0
1 0 0 0+0 0 0
 T|1 ⟩=( ) ( )=( ) = ( 𝑖𝜋/4 ) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 ( ) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩
0 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 1 0 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 𝑒 1

Outer Product:

σx |0⟩ |1⟩
⟨0| 1 0
⟨1| 0 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4

T= [|0⟩⟨0| + 𝒆𝒊𝝅/𝟒 |1⟩⟨1|]

 T|0⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0| + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩⟨1|] |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩

T|0⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0|0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩⟨1|0⟩] T
T|0⟩= |0⟩ + 0 = |0⟩ No change in output.

 T|1⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0| + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩⟨1|] |1⟩ |1⟩ 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4|1⟩

T|1⟩ = [|0⟩⟨0|1⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩⟨1|1⟩] T
T|1⟩= 0+𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩

Cross Product (Tensor Product):

𝛼1 𝛽
|ψ⟩ = (𝛼 ) |Ф⟩ = ( 1 )
2 𝛽2

𝛼1 𝛽1
𝛼 𝛽2
|ψ⟩ ⊗ |Ф⟩= ( 1 )
𝛼2 𝛽1
𝛼2 𝛽2

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1
1 1 0
Ex: |00⟩ = |0⟩ ⊗ |0⟩ = ( ) ⊗ ( ) = ( )
0 0 0
0

3.3.6. Multiqubit gate:

Quantum gates are unitary operators
Two qubit quantum states:

The basis states of two qubits quantum gates are

{|0⟩ ⊗ |0⟩ , |0⟩ ⊗ |1⟩, |1⟩ ⊗ |0⟩, |1⟩ ⊗ |1⟩}

|0 0 ⟩ , |0 1⟩ , |1 0 ⟩ , |1 1⟩

|00 , |01 , |10 , |11

|00 = 0 X21+0 X20 = 0

|01 = 0X 21+1X 20 = 1

|01 = 1X 21+0X 20 = 2

|11 = 1X 21+1X 20 = 3

{|00 , |01 , |10 , |11 }= {0,1,2,3}

Two qubit quantum gates also represented as above equation 1,

Outer Product of basis states is given by

1
1 1 0
|0 x |0 = ( ) 𝑋 ( ) = ( )
0 0 0
0
1 0
0 1
|00 = ( ) |01 = ( )
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
|10 = ( ) |11 = ( )
1 0
0 1

Take column matrix of all above basis state write as column of matrix we will get,

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1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
( )=I4
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Three Qubit Quantum states:

Tensor Product of basis is given by

The basis states of three qubit quantum gates are,

|0 ⊗ |0 ⊗ |0 = n as |000

All the basis states of three qubit quantum logic gates can be written as,

|000 , |001,|010,|011,|100 ,|101,|110 |111

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(0 to 23-1)

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
|000 = |001 = |010 = |011 =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
(0 ) (0) (0) (0)

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
|100 = |101 = |110 = |111 =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
(0 ) (0) (0) (1 )

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
I8 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
(0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1)

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3.3.7. Controlled Gate:

In case of controlled gate “If A is true then do B”. A is generally known as the control qubit
and B as the target qubit.
 If the control qubit is 0, then the target qubit is not altered.
 If the control qubit is 1, then the target qubit is transformed.
 However, the control qubit remains unaltered in both the cases.

3.3.8. Controlled NOT (CNOT Gate)

The prototypical multi-qubit quantum logic gate is the controlled NOT or CNOT gate. IT has
two input qubits:
(i) Control qubit: This is represented by the top line in the circuit given below.
(ii) Target qubit: This is shown by the bottom line of the figure.

CNOT gate
If the control qubit (A) of the gate is set to 0, then the target qubit (B) is not altered. IF the
control qubit is set to 1, then the target qubit is inverted.
(a) Input state |00 (Control qubit = 0, Target qubit = 0): Both the bits remain unaltered.
Hence, the output state is the same as the input state or
|00 |00
(b) Input state |01 (Control qubit = 0, Target qubit = 1): Both the bits remain unaltered.
Hence, the output state is the same as the input state or
|01 |01
(c) Input state |10 (Control qubit = 1, Target qubit = 0): The target qubit is flipped to 1.
Therefore, the output state has both qubits 1, or
|10 |11
(d) Input state |11 (Control qubit = 1, Target qubit = 1): The target qubit is flipped to 0.
Therefore, the output state becomes |10, or
|11 |10

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The truth table of a CNOT gate is given below.

Input Output
|00 |00
|01 |01
|10 |11
|11 |10

It can be represented in the matrix form as,

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
UCN= ( )
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
The CNOT gate can be regarded as a type of generalized XOR gate since the action of the
gate can be considered as
| A, B |A, B A
Where  stands for modulo-2 addition, which is the same as that achieved by a XOR gate.
In other words, the control qubit and the target qubit are XORed and stored in the target
qubit.

3.3.9. Swap Gate:

The Swap Gate is a simple quantum circuit containing 3 quantum gates. The circuit is read
from left to right and each line indicates a quantum passage, maybe of time, perhaps a
physical particle like a photon or a particle of light to move from one location to another
space.

Swap gate
The output of the first CNOT gate is |a, a  b. This is fed as input to the second gate which
also does modulo 2 addition but the result is placed in the first qubit now. Its output becomes
|a (ab), ab = |b, ab.This is now fed to the third gate which performs modulo 2

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addition and places the result in the second qubit. The output finally becomes |b, (ab) b)
= |b, a. Thus, the overall effect is that the two qubits have been swapped.
The truth table of a Swap gate is given below.

Input Output
|00 |00
|01 |10
|10 |01
|11 |11

3.3.10. Controlled- Z gate

The Controlled-Z gate includes the operation of the kind “If A is true, then do B”. Below
figure shows a Controlled-Z gate.

Controlled-Z gate

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Uz = ( )
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −𝟏

Truth table of a Controlled-Z gate

Input Output
|00 |00
|01 |01
|10 |10
|11 -|11
3.3.11. Toffoli Gate
Any classical logic circuit can be built using a quantum circuit. Physicists believe that all
aspects of the world around us including classical logic circuits, can ultimately be explained
using quantum mechanics. Any classical circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

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containing only reversible elements, by using a reversible gate called Toffoli Gate. Below
figure shows a Toffoli gate and the truth table.

Truth table Toffoli gate

The Toffoli gate has three input bits (a, b, c) and three output bits (a’, b’, c’). The first two
bits are control bits which remain unaffected by the action of the Toffoli gate. The third is the
target bit which is inverted if both the control bits are 1, else it is left unchanged.

The toffoli gate can be expressed as 8 x 8 matrix

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
I8 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝟏
(0 0 0 0 0 0 𝟏 0)
Numerical Problems:

Problem 1:

Consider A be the linear operator from V to V such that A |0 = |1 and A |1 = |0 .Given
matrix representation of A.
𝑥11 𝑥12 1 0
Let A = (𝑥 𝑥22 ) and We know that |0 = (0) & |1 = (1)
21

Now

A|0 = |1
𝑥11 𝑥12 1 0
(𝑥 𝑥22 ) (0) = (1)
21

𝑥11 + 0 0 𝑥11 0
(𝑥 + 0) =( ) = ( 𝑥 ) =( )
21 1 21 1
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𝑥11 = 0 𝑥21 = 1

A|1 = |0
𝑥11 𝑥12 0 1
(𝑥 𝑥22 ) (1) = (0)
21

0+ 𝑥12 1 𝑥12 1
( ) =( ) = ( 𝑥 ) =( )
0+ 𝑥22 0 22 0

𝑥12 = 1 𝑥22 = 0

Hence the linear operator defined by its matrix elements

0 1
X=( )
1 0
Problem 2:
1 1

(√2 √2
Show that the matrix A = 𝑖 −𝑖 ) is unitary
√2 √2

1 −𝑖

A † = (√2
1
√2
𝑖
)
√2 √2

1 −𝑖 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ −2
) (√2 √2
A† A = (√2
1
√2
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 ) = (21 21 2
1 1)
−2 +2
√2 √2 √2 √2 2 2

1 0
=( )=I
0 1
A† A =I

Problem 3:

Find the Inner product of states |0 & |1 and draw conclusions on the result:
Solution:
1 0
We know that |0 = ( ) |1=( )
0 1
⟨0| = (0 1)

The inner product is given by,

1
⟨1|0⟩ = (0 1) ( ) = (0+0) = 0
0

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Thus the states are orthogonal.

Problem 4:

0 −𝑖
Given A = ( ) Prove that A † = A
i 0
0 −𝑖 0 +𝑖
Solution: A = ( ) A* = A = ( )
i 0 −i 0
0 −𝑖
A † = (A * )T = ( ) =A
i 0
Hence A † = A

Problem 5:
|ψ = A [ 2|0 + 3i|1 find ⟨ψ|ψ⟩

1 0 2 0 2
Solution: |ψ = A[ 2 ( ) + 3i ( ) = A [( ) + ( )] = A[( )]
0 1 0 3i 3i
⟨ψ| = A [ 2 3i]

2
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = A [ 2 -3i] .A[( )]
3i
⟨ψ|ψ⟩=A2 [4+9] = A2 .[13]

|ψ|2 = A2 .[13]

1= A2 .[13]

A=1/√13

Problem 6:
1 1 1 1
Check the orthogonality |i = ( ) |-i = ( )
√2 i √2 −i
1 1 1 1
⟨i|-i⟩ = ( ). ( )
√2 i √2 −i

1 1
= 2 (1 + 𝑖 2 ) =2 (1 − 1) = 0

Problem 7:

Show that (1,-1), (1,2) & (2,1) are linearly dependent

Solution:

1 1 2
α1 ( ) + α2 ( ) + α3 ( )
−1 2 1
α1 |v1+ α2 |v2+ α3 |v3 = 0

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α1 + α2 + 2α3 = 0 -------------------------------(1)

-α1 + 2α2 + α3 = 0
__________________
3α2 + 3α3 =0

α2 =-α3 ------------------------------- (2)

Equation (2) in (1)

 α1 – α3 + 2 α3 = 0

α1 + α3 =0 => α1 = - α3
Put α3 =1 => α2 =-1

α1 =-1

1 1 2
α1 ( ) + α2 ( ) + α3 ( ) =0
−1 2 1
1 1 2
=> (-1) ( ) + (-1) ( ) + (1) ( ) =0
−1 2 1
−1 −1 2
( )+ ( ) + ( ) =0
1 −2 1
-1-1+2 =0 hence they are linearly dependent.

1-2+1=0

Problem:8
α1 β1
Given |ψ⟩ = (α ) |Ф⟩= ( ) Prove that ⟨ψ|Ф⟩ =⟨Ф|ψ⟩*
2 β2
α1
Solution: |ψ⟩ = (α ) ⟨ψ|= (α1 ∗ α2 ∗ )
2

β1
|Ф⟩= ( ) ⟨ Ф | = (β1 ∗ β2 ∗ )
β2

β
⟨ψ|Ф⟩ = (α1 ∗ α2 ∗ ) ( 1 ) = α1 ∗ β1 + α2 ∗ β2 -------------(1)
β2
α1
⟨Ф|ψ⟩ = (β1 ∗ β2 ∗ ) (α ) = α1 β1 ∗ + α2 β2 ∗ -------------(2)
2

⟨ψ|Ф⟩* = ⟨ψ*|Ф*⟩

= ⟨ψ*|=|ψ⟩ , ⟨Ф*|=|Ф⟩

=⟨Ф|ψ⟩

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Applied Physics for CSE stream
α1
⟨ψ|Ф⟩* = (β1 ∗ β2 ∗ ) (α ) = α1 β1 ∗ + α2 β2 ∗ ------------ (3)
2

From equ .2 and 3

⟨ψ|Ф⟩ =⟨Ф|ψ⟩*

Problem 9: Show that Hadamard gate is Unitary

Solution:
1 1 1
Consider H = ( ) unitary operator means H †.H = I
√2 1 −1
1 1 1
H † = (H * )T = ( )=H
√2 1 −1
1 1 1 1 1 1
H †.H = ( ). ( )
√2 1 −1 √2 1 −1
1 1+1 1−1 1 2 0 1 0
= 2( )=2 ( )=( )
1−1 1+1 0 2 0 1
H †.H = I

Problem 10:

Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T gate in series

Solution:

The S gate is also known as the π/8 gate

1 0 1 0
T=( ) = ( 𝑖𝜋 1/2 )
1 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 1 𝑒( 2 )
1/2
1 0
=( 𝑖𝜋 ) = √𝑠
1 𝑒( 2 )

T= √𝑠 or T2 = S

Problem 11:

Using matrix multiplication show that on applying Hadamard gate twice to a |0⟩ results in its
original gate.

1 1 1
H= ( )
√2 1 −1
1 1 1 1 1 1
H.H = ( ). ( )
√2 1 −1 √2 1 −1
1 1+1 1−1 1 2 0 1 0
= 2( )=2 ( )=( )
1−1 1+1 0 2 0 1
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Applied Physics for CSE stream

H.H =I when H2 operates on |0⟩ or I operates |0⟩the resultant will be original Qugate.

|0⟩ H
Hh H |0⟩

Problem 12: Using two gates that two N0T gates in series are equivalent to a quantum
wire.

Solution

Two Qugates NOT operation on basis state |0⟩ and |1⟩ from a quantum wire

Hence show that,

X.X|0⟩ =|0⟩ or X.X =I

1 0 1 0 1 0
X=( ) and X.X = ( ). ( )
0 1 0 1 0 1
0+1 0+0
=( )
0+0 1+0
1 0
=( )=I
0 1
X.X|0⟩ =|0⟩ or X.X =I

Hence two N0T gates in series are equivalent to a quantum wire

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