SPREY

Men-at-Arms PUBI ISPIiNe

The Russian Army

1914 18
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 3
• Russia'~ slrategic position

CHRONOLOGY 5
NIK CORNISH ",a. born In
ORGANISATION OF THE ARMED FORCES 11
CardiN in 11154. and currenUy
" " " and wortt. In the .cKrth of • Regional organis;.ltion - con.scription & lcrlllS of service
Eng'-nd. Fonnef1Y a t.achet", • inf.mt .... - corps, divisions. regiments. battalions
.... founded STAVK.A Militllry of Line. Grenadiers and Rilll:s; Russian, Finnish,
R....rch. -.peeie....... In
_tem European connlc:t. at
Caucasian. Turcoman. Siberian, C..ossack
the end of the la,t century. • c..walrv - Line, Cossack. 'Alien' • anillery
Thi. I. hi. first book for the • technical hranches· wartime illllOY;llions
O,p"r Men-at-Arm••erle•.
ELITE UNITS 15
• Guard\ Corps/Special Arnn· St Georgc'\ B::llIalion\
• 'SLOrm' and 'Oeath' B::llI:alions· the 's.·ml~e' Division

NON-RUSSIAN UNITS 19
• Belgian. British. Polish· Latvian· Serbian· C7ech

UNIFORMS & PERSONAL EQUIPMENT 21

• Sen'ice dress. winter clolhing • insignia tables
• personal cquipmelll • w;:lnimc innovatiom • nag~
AHDREI KAAACHTCHQUK was
born In 1ll&fl in the town of
Mith.hI, not far fTom Moscow
TACTICS 36
Vl'her. he now live. and work•• • Infanl!')' • cayalrY • anillery • \\m'timc innovalions
H. . . . _II-known arti.t of
• 111C BfIIsilov OlTellSi\'e· training
military .ubject. In Runia,
and I. active in ,e'enactment
circln. He Is also a sculptor
WEAPONS 39
who mak.... amontil other • Small arms· artiller} • armoured fighting \chicles
projects, master rno6eI' for
• aircraft
the UK-Oased Anglo-Russian
TO)' Soldier ~TSI Company.
His prft10us work lor Osprey
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 42
apport In Men-at·AmI. 2113 &
305, AuuJan Citrll War Armie. THE PLATES 43
(1J Aed Anny, and (2J White
AmI/e-. INDEX 48
rnllltlbW'«! in Greal 8<iIa.., in 2001 by ~ 1'uiloliItIinv,
Dedication
En. Cc:ut. ~ W'Y. BolIey, O.l<In:l OX2 1lI.P. Uniled I(.ingdom
E....r.~.com
The author dedicates this book to Elizabeth,
and to his children James, Ale. and Charlotte.
C2001 o..-r ~ Ltd
The artIsI del;ticales hrs paintings for u.s book to the memory of
All n g N I _ . ~ IrQm "'" __ - . g lor m. ~ 01 .,.,.,.. SlUdy,
- . c:r.::.n Of _ . _1*'I'trned..- m.~ ~.-.I ~ Z~OW. It Russlan j:)atriot, who devoled his Iile 10
popt.Jlansong the history of the RussIan Imperi.lII Almy_
"-'tI/Jd. 1988, "01*1"'_
~..-yr..~_in.
_ _ .,-n.Of _ . . , "",!arm Of tII'..,. ~-=aoon.c.

~--'-'apI>(:aI.~~'Cl,~Of_ _•
-..... .... _wnn.n~"'IN~_ Enq..,. _ r.. Acknowledgements
_ l O I N .............
The 8tIIhor WIll'.- to 8llt8'ld $IllCE!ffl !hanks for u- _ta'lCe
ISBH 1 &117$ 303' to 0mIIJy BeianoYski, Stephen ConnoIv. AndnIi Sirnc:Jnoy .-Ill
Stephen Petry..-Ill 10 CotAKNikoncN. Owector of the Centrel
Museum of the AImed Forces. Moscow, and to his Statl,
partlCuIllr1y Ms HAGmyrya.
The III1ISt wishes to acknowledge the kind help 01 A.Oeryabin,
M.Khv06tov, S.LaptfIY, A.Palasios-femandes and A.ValkQVICh.
~ by M.-.et ~ U.bn<lg&, UK All photographs not specifically cnldited otherWise are the
Pnnt«l in et-1tYough W;)o1d Prim Lid property 01 STAVKA Mit~ary Research. The credit (CMAF) lndicates
images kindly supplied by the Central MlI5eUm of the Armed
0102 03 04 05 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Forces, Moscow.

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 THE RUSSIAN ARMY 1914-18

INTRODUCTION
HE RUS.SIAN AR,\lY orlhe First World War has for decades suncred an

T image problem compounded by politics. secrecy and ignorance.

The memoirs of those commanders 1\'110 survi\"cd to write them
ohcn lend 10 be apologist or self-seeking. Russia's withdr,lwal from the
waf is blamed upon politicians of varying shades of opinion. Shell
ShOftLlges, lack of Western support, traitors in high places, Russia's
S<lCrifices in the interests of France in 1914 and haly in 1916 - all th(~se
factors have credibility, but none tells thc whole story.
Many Weslern historians tended to fall in with one or other of these
schools of thought. until the publication of Professor Norman Stone's
TIJI' 1~(fS11'T'/I Front 1914-17 in 1975. Stone delliOllStr.llCS that by late 1916
Russia was producing sulTiciem munitions; but that her inability to adapt
to wartime imperatives such as feeding the urban population and
developing a viable supply system led to hcr collapse into revolution.
• • •
At the beginning of the 20th century the Russian empire covcred eight
million square miles, I\'ith a population of some 170,000,000 people, and
was ruled oler by one man: T.~ar Nicholas [I, whose Romanov dynasty
had celebrated 300 years of powcr in 1913. The 'llllhority of the Tsar was
absolute but, as the revolution of 1905-06 had shown, it rested on the
support of the anny..Japan's \iCLO!)' in the Rusm.Japanese War (1904-05)
led to a review of Russia's armed forces during the years leading up to
1914. \Vhen Gen.Y.A.Sukhomlinov was appointed Minister of War in
March 1909, reform became a malleI' of priority.
II. became clear Ihal reform of the armed forces and industrialisation
would han~ to proceed together. Domestic production of small arms and
field arlille!)' was sufficient, but for heavier artillcry, communications
equipment and other modern necessities it was woefully inadequate.
It was necessary to import these items until Russian industry could
produce what was required. The period 1910-14 saw change on a scale
ThiS relued Image of an unprecedented during peacetime: rates of pay were increased to
Infantryman In 1914 clearly encourage the retention of experienced men, hundreds of officers were
shows the summer shirt-tunic,
retired as incornpetem, conscription was expanded to create a larger
service cap, water bottle and
mesa tin. lacking only ammu-
reserve pool, <lnd the milit<lry budget was increased.
nition pouches to complete his Inevilably there was opposition to these reforms, which polarised into
field kit, pte.Pavel Zherdev has hostility between those who supported Sukhomlinov's modernisation
his greatcoat rolled ac:ross his programme and the more lraditionalist <ldherent.s of the GrAnd Duke
chest in the distinctive Russian
Nicholas, uncle of the Tsar, Comm<lnder of the Imperial Guard and the
manner. During Sialin'. purge. of
the 1930. Ztlerdev, by then the St Petersburg Milic.ary Districl. Consequently reform was implementcd
Flr$t Commissar of a region on only slowly; and in the mal tel' of artillery it was cOlltplicated by stralcgic
the Volga, was 81l00Ute<l. as well as industrial problems. 3
 Russia". wt.'stern defences were based on the assumption of an
invasion from Gcrmam or Au.;;u;a-Ilungar.. ~Iobilisatioll at the
olllbn:al of war would be slow. due LO Russia',) \~lSl size and under-
dcn:lopt,.-d rd.il s'~lem. To hu' lime for lIlobili'i;.llion a line of COIOSS<II
fonrt.~'S, brislling \,';Ih .lftillcr~, W;:b buill during the lauer pall of
the 19th centun .11 I..C\ points throughoul Russian Poland.
Ilowc\{'r. I.he range and power of 20th (emun field ;lI1illen
outclassed l.he fonrl'~ 'lrtillerv. \\'hich required up·gr~.l{ling.
Owing the five \"ear~ before 1911 a large percentage of the
arliller)' budget \\~IS invested in modernising Ihe fortress guns-
at the expense of the mobile hea\)' arlillery of which Ru-.sia \\~\s
pal"licularly in m:ed.
Ilowe\'cr, \\~lr seemed a long \\~l)' ofT: and the 'Creat
Programme' of modernisation approved in 1914 was due for
completion ill mid-1917. Russia and Frallce had been allicHince
1893. and through the Anglo-French treat\ this also linked Russia
to Uritaill. A French loan ",IS arrangl.·d. spedficall} to constnlct
I<lilw.H's in Poland to spct-'(I up mobilisation. It was amidpatL'(1 Ihal
when "II the pieces of the Cr('al Programme w('re in place the armed
force,> of Russia would be prcpar('d for am scale of in lernationaI conl1ict.

TNr Nichola. II appointed his The strategic situation

un<:1e the Grand Duke Nicnol•• Both Gl'rmall\ and Austria-Ilungarv were, OV ('arlv 1914, extremel),
Nlehol.....hch Supreme concenwd about the lIIoclcrni-':11 ion of RlI~~ia'~ fC)l'Ct."s. The necessi1)' for
Commander of the Armed Forces
01 Runla on 2 August 1&14. The
action Ix·fore Russia's ill\·(·~IIll{·nl.'> bore frllil \\~IS becoming cliticaL as
Grand Duke I. pictured here " GenTIan}"., plan fClI' European \\~lr rested on the prerequi~ite of Russia's
STAVKA - Supreme Headquarters mobilisation being slower Ihan Gcrrllany's conqul'st of France. Gel'lllall)'
_ at S.... no...;tchi during 11115. planned to commit the grl'ah:r pan of her al'lll~ in the \\'est to o\er-
ENect"'a command was In the nmning Fl<Illce, lea\ing "Olin- IWO anny corps and local forces to defend
hands of Nicholas' ",.rloua
chklfs-of-ataff.
her easlern border. Th~ troop". combined ,,'ith the Austro-!-IulIg<lrian
armies, \\('rl' Ihought lO Ix- ~ufliciell1 lO hold Russia until \ino....: in the
West releaS(,'d the hulk of C'.ennOllH 's forces LO lUi'll :lg<lin... L her.
Re-alil\ dio.lled !.hat Ru~sia would f<lce Gcnnam and Austria-Ilung'otr'
10 the wesl .Ind the Ouom.1Il Turks 10 the south: il \\,IS therefore csscnlial
to decide \\here to place the main \\eight of the Russian anm during tile
mobilisation period. The Anm of the Caucasu~ \\~IS deemed capable of
dealing with Ihe Ouoman Ihrcal: Ihus il \\~lS a choice betwl..-cn German)'
and AU.'Sllia-llung-Oiry. Clead) Austria-Hullg;:lI), \\~lS temptingly the weaker,
but GenTIan}' posed the gre;llt:r threat. Two plans had been drawn up:
Plan 19 g;:\\'c g-realer weight to an ol1cnsi\'c illlo East Prussia, and Plan 19
Re\'i.'Sed, drawn up in ~Iar 191~. reduced thc forces commiucd to East
Prussia. slrc'i.<;ing Austria-I hlllg<u)' as the main large!.
Plan 19 Re\'ised neces$i(all'd the creatioll. allhe outbreak of\\<lr, of
two 'Fronts:, Olle to command each operation - the 1'\'orth-\\'estcrn ,md
the South-\\'estem. both to be merseen b\ a ~upreme head<luartel1i
known as STA\1\A. The AU~lIia Gcnnam dilemma \\'as one that the
Russ-iam ne\er fulh rcsohcd. To further complic-.uc the issue the
Russians had gh·en an assurance 10 their French p.,nncrs that thc\ would
launch an ofTensi\'e into Easl I)russia during Ill(' carl, weeks of ,Ill\' \\'lI'.
Following the assassination of the heir 10 the Austro-Ilungarian
throne ill June 1914 and tlu' illfensc political aCli\·ity that en~lled
4 throughout Europe, Russia's mohilisation was carried OUl according 10
 Plan 19 Re\i~cd, resulting in the invasion of both Easl Prussia ;lnd
Allstria-Ilullgan. Despite the dist,lllces imuhcd and the incomplelc
rail netwurl.. near the western bordcrs the lIlubili....ltion \\"as carried
om with ft-'marlable efficienC\. much to the horror of the Ct:lllral
Power~.
l·nsUlvri~il\gh. lhe \Ieather \\,I-S (() pla\ an imponam pan in till' war
on the Eil-<;Iern Front. The St."H.. ril\ of the wimer<; and tilt.' incredible mild
generalcd b\ lhe thaws limited til(' campaigning ~t.'a~on to thc period
~Ia\'-Oclober. The sheer scale of Ihi<; front dominatcd the thinking of
Ihc Central Powers. as they did not wish 10 repe,1I Napokun\ failuf(' b\
ad\,Jllcirlg: lOll far into Russia. The plains of Poland cuded al lilt·
Carpalhian i\lolllllains 10 Ihe.: sorllh, pro\'iding a natural ddt:rlce.: lur
Allstria-lllll1g:;ll-y. To lhe casl of lhe Carpathians tal' lhe eudkss sleppc~
of the UkmilH:: and the alnwst illlp;lssable Prip\al ~lal1;hes. Ru~sia\
Baltic provinces. bordering Easl Pru~sia. wert· sc,lIuih de\·dopcd. fttt
;lIld largch featurele~, but prmiclt'd the 5hone~t rutile to the c;'pitat
This palntln; of the 3rd
Squadron of the Horse Gllards Petrogr.ld (;15 St Pelersburg was l"('named at tht· uuthreak of war). ;lIld
captllrin; a o.nnlIn blIttery on the hasc5 of the Baltic Flee!.
19 AUilust 1914 quite Kc:u,..tely
rept'Oduces the uniforms, the
t8C:tic:s and the elan of this elite
unit. The cap and shirt-tunic: are
CHRONOLOGY ,\'1;: 17J, 1\1'5(""1 ml"uJur;5I1W.
119ht summer khaki, the breec:hes
are blue1re)' striped with red, 1914:
the c:ro.. belts white lind the 1 August Germ;Ul} dedan::s war on Rll~sia; mohilisation gathers
shouldar .trap. blac:k piped with mOlllellllllll. 2 August Graud Dllh· Nicholas Nicholac\itch appointed
red. All non-Cossac:k c:avalry
SuprcIIll' C(lrlllll;lrlder-ill-Cllicf" wilh Yanushkc\'ilCh ,lS Chief of 5t;111"
slun" their c:arblnes oyer the left
shoulder; hall 01 eac:h retliment ;md Danilov as Quartermaster Ccneml. 5T,\VIV\ l'slahli~hcd at I<lil\'.a>
c:arTIed the lanc:e and in ac:tlon junction of 1}(Il,IIlO\·itchi. 7 AUgtl5l Russian 9th Anm hegins 10 a-,,>..st'l11bk
formed the lront rank. Bayonets at \\'ar";1\\ to im,ulc 5ile..ia. 15 August Russian l~t Anm cros.st'S into
we,. Is5l.>ed lor dismounted East I>ru~ia from the east. 20 August Russiall Ynd Anm crosse<; illlQ
fightin;. The Horse G\oards ~
IXac:k horN. and used the
East I>russia from the south. 1st Aml\ defeat:. German hI
sblndard da.... brown horN COqlS at Gumhinnen: German COlllmander !);Il\ics and is replaced
fumitu". b\ Hindenhurg and Ludendorff. Russian 3rd Anm crosse<; into
Austri<l-J I unga..... .\ustri'lll
and Russian <"avaln clash
at J,lruslawice. 21 August
Russian 81h Army cross-
es into Auslria~llungar'...
23--24 AUb'USt Russian 4th
ArlllY defealed hy A1ISlri;uls
at Krasnik in SOluhcl"ll
Poland: 9th Anm 1ll0\es
south: Silesian invasion
!:MlStponed. 25--30 August:
Battle of Tannenberg Russ-
ian 2nd. \nm encircled and
destrO\ cd in E..'lSt Pru~ia.
26-28 August AU'mo-
Ilungarian 3rd I\nm
defeated on Ri\er Zlm,l
Lipa. 29-30 August Auslr()-
Hungarian 41h Arnl\ 5
 defeated at Gnila Lipa. 30-31 August Russian 4th and 5th Armies
defeated al Zamosc-Komarow.
3 September Lcmberg (L\'Ov) falls lO Russian 3rd Anny. Situation on
Austro-Hungarian eastern nank becomes criticaL to the north their
advance towards Lublin stalls. II Scptcmber Austro-Hungarian forces
retreat towards Prlemysl; bad weather slows Russian pursuit. Germans
semi lroops to support Alistria~Hllngary. Mid-September: Baltic of the
Masurian Lakes ill East Prussia: defeat and withdrawal of Russian 1st
Arm>,. 16 September First siege of Przemysl begins. 25 September
German advance following Masurian Likes victOI)' is ched;ed.
October German ad'",HICe on Warsaw begins; Russi<ln counter-altacks
succeed. Germans begin to rClreat on 20 October. At the same time
Austro-I-Iungarians advance across River S<ln, but by 26 October they are
dcf~ated and driven back. 14 Octobcr Siege of Przemysl raised. Late
October By now Russia has deployed 82 infami)' divisions aga.inst the
('..emral Powers, with a further 16 defending Baltic aud Black Sea coasts.
November Declaration of war on Turkey; C.'ucasian Front prepares for
Turkish iuvasion. II Novcmber Russia's pl<lnned invasion of East Prussia,
Trern;:h warfare, a forward betrayed by Germau breaking of wireless codes, is pre-cmpted by
artillery observation post. German attacks, but these are held. Invasion of Si1csia indefinitely
The officer viewing the enemy postponed. First serious discussions at STAVKA regarding withdrawal
lines through stereoscopIc
from Poland. 12 November Russian S\V From defeats Austro-Hungarians
binoculars passes the
infonnation to his colleagues in C.'rpathian MoutHains; advances on Cracow but is held all Rivcr
who relay the information Dum~jec. Pt~lClllrsl. with c120,OOO Atlstro-l-Iungarian troops inside, is
to the gun position by field besieged again.
telephone. The landlines were Early December Lodz falls to Germans, who are again held before
naturally vulnerable to artillery
\\'arsaw. First entrenching begins as weather detcriorates. AUSlro-
fire, but were more secure - and
available - than wireless sets.
Hungarian atlempt to relieve Pl~lelllysl fails. Turkish invasion of the
The telephone equipment was Caucasus ends in disaster at baltle of Sakrimash.
usually manufactured abroad.
1915:
Early January First. recorded lise of gas at Bolimov
in Poland (cflects negligible). 23 January Attstro-
!-I11ngari<lns recapture Carpathian passes.
7 February German attack from EaSl Prussia
dewlops into Second BaltIc of lhc Masurian
Lakes; Russian 10th Army destroyed, Germans
begin siege of Osowiec, which is raised aher a
month. Russial1 cOltnler-olTensive in Carpathians
and alollg: the Dnieslt'r Ri"er pushes Austro-
Hungarians back in snowstorms.
Early March Coulllcr-offcnsive by remains of
Russian 10th & 12th armies drives Germans back
into East Pt"llssia. N\V From sl..abilises bill its
commander, Gen.Ru7.ski, resigns as he is allowed
neither to im",ltk East Prussia nor to withdraw
from Poland. 22 March Pl-lemysl falls to RUSS1<lllS
who take over 100,000 prisoners. End March
Gen.MVAlexcyev replaces RU"I.ski and adopts his
ideas.
April Continuing success of Ivanov's SW From
renders Attstria-I-Iungary's situatiOil critical. To
relieve pressure Germans advance against thinly defended Courland
(western Latvia). 10 April Ivanov halL" S'W From's progress and calls for
rein forcements.
2 May Germans open m;~or offensive belween Gorlice and Tarnow I\'ith
(for the Eastern Front) unprecedented weight of artillery support. Brunt
of German altack directed al Russian 3rd Army - short of artillery
ammunition and poorly entrenched. 10 May After losing nearly 200,000
men and 140 guns, 3rd Army is given permission to retire to River San.
16-19 May Auslro-German t.roops attack Rher San positions. Russian 9th
Army attacks and ovcrruns milch of the Bllkovina. 23 May Italy joins the
Allies (this docs 1I0t immediately affect Allstria-H ungary's strategy). 20-25
May Russians hold all the San, bill 91h Army retreats to River Dniester.
4 June Przell1ysl recaptured by Austro-I-Iungarians. Gen.Alexeye"
ordered by STAVKA to defend Courland: German advance stopped.
Mid:June Celltral Powers resnme offensive which, because of anillell'
tactics employed, is known as 'Mackenson's wedge'. Russian Minister of The realltte. of war: wounded
War Gen.V.A.Sukhomlinov arresled for 'treasonable negligence' and men are being helped aboard a
replaced by Gen.A.A.Polivanov. 20 June STAVKA orders relrcat from ho.pltal train. The battered
appearance of their dress t. a far
Galicia. 22 June Lemberg recaptured by Austro-Hungarians. The cry from the studio portrait. of
six-week Gorlin,....Tarnow olTensive has cost Russia c300.000 men and 224 1914. The medical attendant on
guns. STAVKA decides t.o defend Polish fortress line. the train I. wearing a fleece cap
13 July German attacks in COUl'land and northern Poland make slow with cockade; the .Ide flap.
progress for heavy casualties. 15 July Premature Austro-Hungarian could be let down to protect the
ears - cf Plate 03. The lHICond
advance beaten at second battle of Krasnik. Third battle of Krasnik and fourth casualties from the
brings Austrian success; Lublin and Cholm fall by end of .July. 19 July left art! wellring peakless field
GenAlexeyev given permission 10 abandon Warsaw. and on the 22nd the caps, the thtrd a btack fleece
Russians begin to retire from both northern and southern Poland. cap, ponlbty of natural wool.
The majority of medlcat
5 August Warsaw occupied br Central Powers. 7 August \Vith Osowiec
personnel wore Red Cross
fortress as the hinge, Russian forces retire tOI\"Mds Brest-LilOvsk, pursued branard •• Wealthy Indlvlduat.
by Germans under Falkenharn. Accompanied br hundreds of thousands privately supported many
of refugees the Russians retreat, 'scorching the earth' as they do so. hospital train ••
Appeals for help to Westefll
Allies are ignored. 15
August Under political
pressure to defend Baltic
coastlinc and rOllle to
Russia's capital Petrograd,
Guards Anny is moved to
defend this area from
seaborne attack. 17 August
STAVKA di\~des war zone
into three Fronts: North-
ern, North-Western and
South-Western. 18 August
Kovno fortress falls to
Germans with loss of 1,300
gUlls. 20 August Novo-
Georgie"sk fortress falls
with loss of 1,680 guns. 21
August Osowiec and Kovel
fall. STAVKA relocat.es to
~:logilcv. 24 August Brest- 7
 Lito\'~k IOrlress abandoned, End August AuslrO'-
Ilungarian 'Blad-Yel1o\\' ofTensive takes milway
junction of LuISI...
I September The T~r lal..es lhe role of Supreme
C.ommander-in-Chid and appoints Grdnd Duke
:"\icholas 10 the \'icerovalt\ of the Colllcaslls.
Cen.Alexe)e\ becollle~ Tsar's Chief of SLaff.
,lIld effeC!he commander of Russian armed
forcl'~. 18 September \'ilna falls to Germans.
22 September . Ulack-Yellow' olTensive hailed by
Gell.Uru~ilo\'·s Russian 8th Army: SW FrOllL
~tabili~es. 26 Seplember On North and NW FrOllL~
RlIs~ian resistance hardens and Gt:rmall attacks
,Irt: GlUed off. I~Olb ~ide~ entrench as Ccnu-,d
I'(Men. consolidatt: their gains,
October Russialls lo~ lhe first baule of l..'lke
~arOtch. Mid-october C'.elllral Powers, aided 1)\
Uulg;lria. im.uk Serbia. Russians fl·org;.llli'IC, The
Icn~1I1 of lhe E::tslern Front has been CUI from
1.;00 to 1,000 miles: dmnC'iLic production of munilion~ i~ growing and Following the IoU of PolIncI and
sLlpph is impro\'inJ;", 1,000.000 refuJ;"ees ha\"t~ 1ll0\'cd illlo the Russian ltMo adYanca of the Austro-
Germans Tsar Nicholas took
heanland, as have slI;:uegic indltslrial concerns.
personal command. Enactiv.ly
No\'ember STAVKA di'iCus~s possible se;llx1rI1C ill\';l$ion of l~lIlgaria. lINt pow.r resled with his
\\'hen Ihe admirals fl'fusc, Gen,Alexc\c\' threatens to lum Black Sea Chl.f·of·Staff G.n.M.V....I.ltly.v,
Fleet into 'an infant!') brigade'. His thrt:al h<ls no eIT('ct, and Iw proct:eds b.tween september 1i15 and
10 ('re:tle 'Army of Dl''Icl·nl' around cOl"e of 7th Army based Ilt'ar Odessa, May 1i17 when h. was replaced
by S""sllov. Alelleyev clime fl'(lm
December i\'!casuI"l''I 10 rl·place hean' lo~st:s among oOicer cnrp~ lead to
• v.ry humbte backil'(lund, end
recruitment of many di~alTected mcn. who are frequenth pill in charge hi, lather had risen from url to
of depot unilS ill Kie\. i\loscow and Pt.:trugrad. Russia l'XLr:lCts promises offic.r; a ilfted adminIstrator,
th;ll during 1916 Wt.:"lem Allied elTorts will be sVllchroni.'>l:d and support INt had 'only the good of Ru""
giH.'n .1I tilltl'S of crisi". 27 December Russia bunches limitl'd ulTenshe in .t heart'. During ltMo swnmer
of 1i15 ST"'VKA relocated to
thl' Bul..O\ina in "uppon of Serbia. Although a failurl'. it i~ carefulh
Mogllev, when:! it ...e. to remain
anal\"sed b\ stafT officers of SW From \\ith a vie\\ 10 inco")Ol'alill~le..sons until the enc:I 01 the war.
inlo Ile\\ laclic..1doclrinC'.

1916:
January Cen.Alexcyc\ ailnOUI1Ces a front line slrellh'1.h of2.000,OOO men.
February Turki~h city-fonress of Er/llrulIl !:llb to Russians. 21 February
SIMt of German onclIsi\'c al Verdun, France. 24 February S-C'\\'KA
consider" Lake NarOlch as site of next ofTensive, lO lake placl' ill April.
March Trabzon laken by Russians follo\\ing combirwd I,rnd ami St:a
operations. 18-19 March Russians auack at Lakt.: NarOLch ill response to
French requests fOl· di\l~rsion. Results or bombardment poor due to
s;lIU1"i1ted ground; infalltl"\ iluack as weather dCLerior.ut.·'L End March
Narotch operdlion «tiled off after 120.000 «Isualues.
April Germans re«lpture ground IOSI at L.'1ke Narotch. Gc.'n.A.ABmsiIOl
becOlm:s commander of SW Front. 14 April STA\'KA. decides main
ofTcnshe of 191610 lx' carried oul b\ W From \\ith subsidial'\ opel<luons
by SW Front.
20 May Success of AllslrO'-llunganan ofTcll'ii\'e in Itah lead~ Italian king
to app("allo T...ar 1'01' help. Western Frolll'~ preparalion:. are incomplele
8 hili Brusilov agrt:es 10 allack earl)'.
4 June SIMI of the '8rllsilm' Offensiyc' ..\11 l(mr '1I111il.:s of S\\' Fronl -
Hlh. 9th. 7th & Illh - Illllllbard .\Il~tro. . llul\~arian lilll.:~: il11l()\~lIi\("
Ru,>,.iilll anilkn fin' plan (amI.:'> dl,lH'i a~ Ru,>,ians brl.:<lch lir'lt and
'!.'('oll(1 \u~lro-llun~,1l i,lll lille~. 5 Junc Hlh Arul\ breals .\lI~lro­
11t11l~ariall Ihird lilll·. 6 June.\ustro-I hlllffolrian IIh & 7th Annie,> Ilcar 10
collap~'_9 June \lhll 0-1 hltll.f.lrian 71 h \l1m ll'lreaL~ illlo till' Bulm"ina.
12J\lne Ilru~ilO\ IMh~ ,uhallre aftci lalin~ (-200.nno priS()Ill'I"o ;tnd 216
Kum, 24 Jllne\u~lro. . llllnKarian Onen .. hl· ill 1I,lh i<; called on; Ll'nlr;:l)
PO\\l'I" (Olllllehll\;lll.. Ull Rher SlOlhid lail.
1 July III Fl;lllCt'. Bri!i.. h olltoll.. i\(' 011 IIw ~llllnl(' hegin... 2 July ~lail1
Ru....i;t11 ,11Llrh h\ \\' Fll1111 IX'g-in: h\ H .I11h Rll.... ian ra..u"lllt'" reaeh
HO,OOO 101 IH'gI1g-ihk g-:Iin... 3 July (;en,BIU'iilm' all,leks agaill, dri\"illg
bM\.. (;t'r111;\n Sud .\l111l'e,
Mid-July III Fmnn', ('l'lm,lll'- rail 011 \'l'nhlll allarb. (;t.·lI.lJrmilm is
!{hl'lI mOll' troop" hut. dill' to rOllrt illlrig-IIt·. dot'.. nOl ha\(' ,llllhorilY
0\l'1 Ih(' {'Il;\nb .\rlm. 28 July SIan of ..nit.·.. 01 ..Iliridal all,lc\...... thwugh
1I1;\I"h("> ,md ..\\,unp.. 1ll'.11 Kmel. in \\hidl (;Il,lnl~ .\rlm i.. decinJ.ll(·d.
Augusl Rlh..i;1l1 Hlh \nm ("(HllilHle~ ath;l1\u' l\t·<;twards. bUl ..upph line,;
1-\"1"0\\ 1(1lIg"{"r ,lIld rl·"l.. 1<.. I«· h,lIdell'-. 91h \nm dri\e<; into the Uulmina;
Rlh .Hul ~hh \l1l1il'" 1,I\..t· 11.11it!. End August Romania dedarn war on
Cl'l1tl,ll l'O\\el" and 1I1\;tc!t-.. Ir;mql\,mi'l. I:h Ihi~ lime Ct:II11~11 Powers
lo....\:'.... wnd at 0\ el ;-)O().UO(). and \l1sl1ll-lltlllWlrian lroop" are being
11<111..lt·llt'd from 11al\. 111)1\('\('r. Bru"ilo\'.. 'Bl"():ld Front' approach has
btTll di ..rolllinUt:d ill 1;I\Ollr 01 the 'j\"anol\' Fronl' as u ..ed with .,urh
di..;",'I011" con~eqllt:lln' .. al 1\.00'el.
Scplcmber Cell,,\kxe\l'\ 't'lld, one C:t\~lln ;llld 111'0 inC111ln' dhi'iiom to
..ttppOI! Rllrll,tllid. 6 Scplemher (:('lltral I'()\\('r.. move again ..t Rt)lll:1nia
from the --<)lIth. 15 Septcmber Rornani,m, 1II0\ {' troops fro111 TI~III"\ I\~lllia
to Iht· --<)luh.
3 October Rll'>'>tI-Ro111.mi.11I ofkmiH' ag;:lill'-1 l~lIlg-;:lIia f<lih. 6 October
(;t'I1I1,11 I·owl"'" re-(xTUp\ TCIII'i,I\'llli.l: t'nel 01 Ru~ian ofTen ..,\{' in the
BlllO\ill.l. 21 October {,('llll<ll Powef"'<;. 1Il.lillh Blllw"ian and Turkish
IIlli",. dri\e b.lek Romani,lll ,md RU'i.'iian ll"l)OIl'- in soulht'fI1 Romania. High In the mounteoin" on th<I
End October (;en,.\lt"..,·\(·\ .. elld~ Rlls'ii<ln It.·inlorCellll'IIL'i 10 Romania: Cauc...... front " group 01
BIIIg;:lriall.. Tur\..i,>h a(I\,III(t.· II,tlled. oni<:.,. disc:uu the sit.... llon.
Th. landscape ...aried from
Novcmber \u.,tm-(;l·rlll,lll ,roOlh brl'<I\.. lhrollKh C."l'll<lthian passe,;.
bl.... and barren to ....rd.nt
23 Novembcr CI.:IIII~III'O\Il·I"no..:. till.: Ri"'r D;uHlbe. and wooded nearer the Blatk
Deccmbcr R0111:l11iall counlt·r.. allatk l;lil-. .111([ army Lllh back into Se.I;O•• t.
i\lold'l\i;l. 7 Deccmber ROIl1alliall Glplt:!l
BlIrll,llt"1 Edl .. 10 Ct'l1rr;t1l'owt'r... End Deccmbcr
R0I11;llli,111 lillt' Qahili"',, .dollg- Ri\t'r Sin'!.

1917:
Earl" Januar,' Ru....i;Jn.. in ,I, jf/rlO ("(mlrol of
ROIII.mi,l1I .\rnn: ROllldni,1lI Front cft·,Hed.
January RlI"-...i.m X\\ Frolll lallnche'i 'iUCCt.. ~flll
0lx'I~lliuli lIear .\1i1'1ll 011 U"lhic xa. Di'iCII~..ioll';:1I
ST\\h..\ rq~<lrding olkn..iu· Oil SW Front ,md
J<ldi(<l1 n'or~lIliS:llionl'( <trilled forel'S. Inh·r.. . \lIied
con!('n:lIct' rl'ill·r.l1e.. polin ollllulual 'illppon ,111(1
prollli"t'" ddi\en of 1II11llilioll.,. including 1](::1\,\
arrillt-n' and airrclft. -- •
 Fcbruary-March Strikes and demonstrations in Petrograd are supponed
by replacell1Clllllnits in cily; military and civilian authorities lose control.
Councils known as Soviets spring up across Russia, acting as alternative,
radical form of1cadership,
12 March Provisional Governmcnt established in Petrograd: revolution
accomplished \\'ith little bloodshed. 14 March Order No.1 issued hy the
P(~trograd Soviet, dramatically reducing powers of ollicers, influences
whole armed forces and leads to breakdown in discipline.15 March Tsar
abdicates in favour of his brotlwr ~'likhail, who rejects the throne. The
Petrograd Soviet calls for an end to thc war, and world revolution.
April Regiment;.11 revohllional1' cornmiuees exert increasing power ovcr
mililat1' operations and appointments, The front remains quiet as the
Central Powers obscne the situation. 16 April VLLenin. leader of the
UolslwlIih party, returns from exile to Petrograd and calls for 'Bread,
Peace and L1nd'. 30 April To secure financial and milit.;111' aid from the
\\'esL J\liliuko\', for the Prm'isional Go\"enlt1H:nt, declares illlention to
continue lighting. (He is fOfced to resign on 18 J\'!ay.) Russian aCli,'ityon
the Caucasian Front C(~ases due to supply crisis.
May The charismatic Alexander Kerenski becomes Minister of \\'ar.
Fighting again hreaks Ollt ;H IIw front, Brusilov replaces AJexeyev as
Supreme C(Il11mander-ill-Chief. Rttssians withdraw in Anatolia.
June Preparations for snmmer offensive 011 S\V Front stepped up t1I
aTtempt 10 emulate success of 'Br\lsilov OOensive' of pre"ious year.
I July SIan of Russian slimmer offensive, which becomes known as thc
'Kcrcnski Offensivc', July Under lhe g-realest weight of shells used by
Russian anille'1' durin~ the war the defences of f(nccs facing SW FrOIl1
crumble. Russian 7th & II th Armies advance through 30km breach
Another photograph from the towards Lemberg. Both W & N\V FroI1L~ attack ill support. Ilowever,
Cauc:a$u$, Ihough II could be within a few days tllorale erodes; when facing anything but negligible
anywhere on the Ea$tem Front: opposition troops refuse to attack, or withdraw. 19 July Gcrman counter-
a group of troops, dressed for
offensive; Russian troops la11 back, losing: cohesion and discipline,
the bitter wealher, brew tea,
Greatcoats and fleece c:aps
I AugUSl Gen.L.G.Kornilov replaces Brusilov as Supreme Cotllmander-
are clearly e$$enl;al in the$e in-Ch ief lI'ith intel ttion of reslUril tg discipli lie.
conditions. August The frollt line stabilises as Centr,ll Pm,'ers encotlmer firmer
resistance, particularly on
R0111anian Fronl.
3 Septcmber Russian 12th
Army abandons Riga on
Baltic coast. 7-9 September
Failure of 'Kornilov's
COtlP', bungled attempt to
overthrow Provisional
Government; Kornilov
imprisOlwd wilh other
sctllor officers. 14
Septembcr Russia declares
it.self a republic.
12-19 October 'Operation
Albion' - Germans take
coll1rol of Gulf of Riga by
capturing Moon ami Oesd
10 islands.
 7 Novembcr Lenin leari~ Bolshcvik.inspired coup in Pctrograd which
uuu~ the PrU\i~ional GO\t'rnmelll. Mid·No,-ember Kt'rt'll~ki tlil, In
ralh "uppor! for PrO\-i~ion;l1 Gmcrlllllent. and got'~ into ('sill'.
18 Novcmber Declaration ofSuldier'~ Rights includl'\ ,Ihulilion
of r;lIlks and e1eClion 01 COlllln,lIldt'I.... 20 Novcmber Irots"i,
Commissar for FOIdgn ,\rrair~. formall\ 1l00ilie" ,\!lied
I'owers of change of gll\('rTlmelll and Decrt:'l' of I'eilct'. 21
No\'ember Fratellli I,iul\ on all fronlS is "lUtl!Oli"t·d h\
K.... len"o. COmmi lr for War. 23 'O\'cmber (.l<Idll<l1
delllobilis.'1tion of tht· anll' is declared. 26 NO\'cmber
Irot~"i formalh 'Ipproac!w'i LenlTaI Power.. for ,III
anniSilce.
3 December Gen.N.DII"!ulllin, last Suprenw (A.)lnnMluler·
in Chit'f of Russian .\nlled Forc('\, is murdered ,It i\loghilt·\
h\ Red Guards. With :Hlll!oril\ collapsing, the arlll\ lX'gim to
drin home. 15 December Rll~sia signs $O-d;l\ <lr11li~lin' with
Celltl~lt Power..,.

1918:
January I'e;lce talk... with Central Powers begill al Brnl Lito'"k. 28
January Formation of Red Ann\' ;lllllOltll("{·d.
18 February Fr\lstl~lted 1)\ Russian llq;:otLttors, Centml Power' ach,UlC<'
The Image of the fr'Of!fOllilt, the ;lloll}{ entire E,L~t('m Front. occtlp\ing \,Lst tracl.'; 01 \\estefll Rus..~ia.
typlc:al fronl line soldier; he hill 3 March Rllssia ~igns Treat\ of I~re..,t 1.i1O"~ and \\'ithdr;:l\\"'> from tht' \\,11'.
iI WOrn greatc:oat and ragged
_slllyk lcowll wrapped ac:ross
the c:hHt and tuc:ked Into the
ben, with the hood hanging ORGANISATION OF THE ARMY
60wn the bac:k. The co.... WilS
issued 10 all ranks end branches In pc.'ilcelime the empire W;:L'i di\'ickd into 12 milita..... di~tricb. eacl!
of HfVic:e; rnan)' units piped the
under a conllllander·in--ehief: St Pt'\('!'l-burg. \'ilna. \\'OIr",l\\. "-it'\. Odt,.......I,
seams in reel_tal c:oIourw.
~lo-.co\\. K.M..;:JIl. Ihe C'..'1\1GISIIS, lur"t'\t.lII. Omsk Ir"UL'i". <lnd Ihe
a.ards _ ... permitted In mosl
units. The shouldet" straps are Pri·Amur. Ru..." ian land forcl''i con~i<;ted of III(' Standing ,\rIll' and Ill('
plain khaki. T1Mo HtYk:e eap Imperiat ~Iililia (Opolrlimil'), TIlt' Swnding Arlm compriwd Iht· rt'glll<lr
seems 10 be the par.cie arlm and its reo;e..... e; Ihe CO<;S;ld.,S: ,lIId Ihe 'Alien' troop'i (1110,.0(/1\1) -
"e~, whk:h would h.iI"e
lIW'it' ttltt'r Ix"ing non·SI:wic Impt'rial "llbjcClS. The 'itrt'ngth 01 Ihe
been dan.. g....n. with a red
band and red crown piping
.U'1nt·d lorce, illlllledialdv prior 10 mobili~,llion was officialh t·~tilllaICd
fOf' the fl ...t reglmenl In eac:h :ll 1.1~~.(}()O 11len; after 111ohili~.1Iion wa~ complete lhis would incr('a~(' 10
Infantry dl¥lslon; the othe... ..,C)llW 5.noo.Ooo - the Russian 'sll',mlroller' which was n'lit'd UpOll 10
had blue. white and green cru~h allY 0ppollelll by sheer weight 01 lIurnbers.
bands respectl"el)'.
Liability lor cOIl\Criplic)ll began at the agT of21 and lasted ulltil 4:t
The lil";t three rears (for the infal1ln and artillery) or fOlll' \e<ll'~ (lor
olht'J' hnlllChes of senice) were serH·d with tht, colour;; the ne)l.t "e\Cll
\l·"lr; \\t·te sl)t'll\ in the Iirsl class rc~cn·c'i. and the linal t'ighl in Ihe
sl'cond chLss. J\lell could al'iO \OIUllleel. in which ca-.e tlwil conditiom
of 'i('n iet' wert.' pri\"ileged. Recruill1lt.'1II W;:LS in the main frOIl1 Ihe
Ru~ian. Christian population of Iht' t'lIlpir~. thus excluding ~lo~lellls,
\\110 IMid .1 tax in lieu. (L'nits rl'ft'ITl'd to as 'Finnish' \\t'rc RLI~sian
formatiOIl~ based in Finland. as Ihl' Finm Ihem'ieh'es \\ere e,('mptcd
from con-,criplion.) Generalh 50 JX'r ('('Ill of lho'ie call1'd up in ;111\ \ e....
\\en> e't'mptt'd on ph\"~ical. pt>l",ollal. economic or educational
ground~: ,lIld rt:'tt'lIIjon of expcri('!lccd IIH,"n who could providt, Ihe

:-':CO class \\i1S I)()()r. 11

 (:(I~S<lCl.. .
!lel....ed from 20 until ~8, doing 12 years in the 'field class'-
IOUf \l',U"l each in the Ii!">!. 'lCcoll(l alld lhird c.negory regimellb - 'lIId
the fl'IIMining time in tITl' n'')Cnl'. The 'Alien' troops were \olullll'cr
irregular Cl\aln unilS renuiled from ~loslem lri1>es.
TIlt' 11II1)t.'lial ~lililja ("nmpfi~d till' 1Il,~oril\ of the Illen granted
e"empliull Irom tile regul:1I <11111\ Ixlween Ill(' agl'~ 01'21 and 43. "nl(' fi ....l
calegon \\<l!l U!lt."{110 slH'nglllt'1l or complcte lhe Slallding AJ1U\ ,lIld W;:b
di"ided according 10 age. 1he 'lCcond. k-ss phnicalh capable group. \\"as
USl"d 10 forlll rlon-<:ollllxll.Hll lI11its, PrO\;sioll l'xisled for the organi"'lIion
of fl'1O balt:llion~ (dru::.hmfl) 01 militia. During ,Il(" \'ears preceding ,he
fe\'olllliOrl (If ,\larch 191i sever;:11 milliOTl militiamen of all cla:..ses
wt.'re Inobili'ed.

Infantry
The 20H n:nuiting area~ in Rll~~id prmided mt'!l for the 208 line infallll1'
regilllt'nl', Th(, Guard, Glcn<ldicfS, Rilk~, aniller\'. ca\,,,l .... , and
l'nginCl'r, drew recruih Ii'om .1Il\, di~u·ict. The minimum Iwight
requirl'lIlt-'m W;:I!I S feet ancl hall ,Ill inch.
eo..-eks crossin<g a riv.r In
Tilt: lit-'ld arnl' W;:L" di\ided ;IltO 37 :-Irnl\ COIVS: the GU:lId, Ill(:
East Prussia In -.ummet' un. - Grenadit"r, I 10 XX\'. I 10 III Caucasiall. I ,md II Turl..est<lIl. and I 10 \'
not a m.thod to be uHd und... Siberian. TheM' included ,111 the infantn di\i,ions wilh Iheir auached
ri,., but _ thaI is obviously arl;lIcn. I he Ilonnal COIIII>tKitinn 01 an anm corps \\<\5 t,,·o infant ....
.ffectiv. for men who w.,. di\"i..ions, olle dil'i::.iml of lighl hO"'il/cN (IWO f.-gun baucrics), and a
noised In the saddl. from Infancr,
Suppon for lhe rider was gl n
ballalioll 01 ~appcrs: IIII' lI'rm flllll?.iol/ feler'l !lell' 10 a hall~regilllellt. An
br eroaslng the stlR'LIPS o r the infanll" di\'i,ioll COIl'\i,led of 10111' regilllellL'\ ('aell of four hallalions, ;lTld
uddl., Cossack ho....s w.,. a field artillery brig:l{k of '1ix $·gull hallerit.'s.
...nown.d for th.lr stamina and Of IIw 2:~6 infantn rcgillTl"llb 12 were (:u,lr(l\ and 16 Cl'elladicfs.
ability to II.... on shon raUons; The Gllolrd~ reginwnt.. \\t'rl' lJ.lllu:d. lht, Crt'lladiers numbered 1-16,
ther w.re specially b~ on
gov.rnment stud fanns oul on
and lilt." Line named and 1lI11llbered. The 41h or C:lllcasian Gn'nadier
the st.ppe. The Cos.-eks w.... I)i\"bioll \\,1.'> permanellth \1.lIiOlied in til(' C:IIIC:LSIIS.
f'e98~ as Irregular ~ ,\11 inlanln ft>gimelll \\d~ m;tdl' up of kllir I);:lllalions each offou! com-
which allowed them s 0119"" panic,. plus a non-coml"'11,IlH compam. Infalllr\ rt-'f,rimenLs wen' alloul'd
01 freedom not ....allabl. In the serialh II) di\'isions: 11m" 11!l' 17th Infallln Di\"i..ioll would include the
G_rd and Line "",airy I.,g.
the quit! or ''oYeIoek' hal... tyI.
&,lh 10 (~th Reh';'mellts indusi\t'h. A w;:u1ime compan\' would llumber
l _ ~ by the Don Cos.-eks,
240 men and four or fi\t, uOice..... At regimclltalle\t:lm:lchinc gun, com·
.. In Plate 83). municatioll' and <;("ollting del.lcllIncnlS. I..nowll 'b hOlllmalldos. broughl
IOlal rcgimental strength
lip 10 aboul 4,000 IIlt'll. In
191'1 e:tch regirnt'lll had
eight Illachint' gUlls; 14
mouliled messengl'l'" and
21 tcll'phonisLs in lhe cmu·
municalion<; dCl,lchmenl:
and 6-1 specialh Irained
'I("OUIS including fOllr
C\disL~.
Inf:lIlln' regimems from
~ilX'ri;t and TlIrl..{'~lan were
I..lIl)wn as Rjlle~, but org·
aui-.cd lil..e olher illt:llltl"\
regiments with lour hal·
12 I.diOlh, The Rille regiI1H>IIl$
 prupt:1 had onl} twu
banalium each. Thert: were
four Guard~ Rifle rq~illlt:llts
funning the GUMds Rifle
Brig;:lck: 20 Lint: Rifle
regimelll', IlUIllOCH.'d 1-20.
fOllning the bt 10 5th Rifle
Bligade': 12 'Finni~h' Rifle
regimenl', numbered 1-12,
forming the ht to 3rd
Finland Rifle BribF,ldes:
<lnd eight Clucasian Rifle
regimell1.s numbered 1-8.
forming lhe I~I <lnd 2nd
Callca~iall Rifle Briwulcs. The 22 TlIrkc~tan Rifle regimclUs \\crc The crew of this Mtl102 Plltflov
Tllllnocl'ed 1-22: the 1st to 4th Turl...t."l,tll Rifle Brigades had lour 7.62cm field gun weer the dat1F.
green pre-war breeches striped
batlalion~ each. the 51h and 6th tlln.'(·. Each Rifle brigade conlained a
red, with summer khaki Hl'Ylce
Rille Anillery Brigade of three R-gllll baltl'rit·~. Br 1914 lhe.: litle Rille cap and shirt-tunic. Tha shouldar
signilied nothing: l\lOl"{' ,han tire llrlil\ hi~t(Jrical role. straps ara worn coloured sIde
On l\lohili~'Hioll, 3S rt.'sel'\'e inlalllr) divi~ions were formed up, showing scanet with crossed
1ll1111hered f,:lrd '0 8·llh, and l:!lh to 14th Siheri"n. TIl(' est"bli,lllll(:rll cannon barrels stencilled In
vallow,
of lhe~e di\'i,ions was identical 10 lhat 01 tilt' regulars, thOllg-h lheir
Whlla the field artltlary was
anilien' W;l~ ofl('11 equipped with In~ l11o(krn ordnance, adequate, the lack of tMlavler
('.o'-';ICI... infallln were I...nO\\11 a~ IJltH/lilli. Initialh onh lhe Kuban artillery In the field armies was
('.ossack 1I0:lt I<li-.cd infantn. hut tile pl~lCtice laler spre;ld 10 olht.'N, s.erious. At the outbniak of war
The\ were l)rwmised illlo htigadn t."teh of ,is: ballaliom, withoul some 2,813 modem gun, plus
3,000 older confl~

i1nillcn. III 191·1 thfl-'t' bligade, Wt'1"(' ;ts~igll(.'d In til(" Caucasbn Front.
to the fortresses. while the army
in the flekI had only 240 tMlavy
Cavalry guns and howltI.ers ben..en
Russia had tilt' largf'<;1 G!\'aln <."labli,hllll"1l1 nfalllhe bellig:efl'l1I n"li()n~
ill 1914. Then' wen'" four group~: the GU.lI'd (see oclow undt'r 'Elilc
"'""'.
Units'), the Line, lhe Cossacks ,md lhe ,\li('11 troops. Line (";I\,lh, ,Ind
CossacL. l"('gillleIlL~ were all cOlllpo~d of ~is: squ,ldrons. hri\ing a com hat
strength of "Ixlllt 850 men: a Co,~,ack ..quad ron '\,b known as iI w/n;a.
Ahhough the historical lancer, hms,u and dlOl~oon lilies ,,-ere rel;tined
lhe)' had no 1,IClicai significanCl·. Spedali~l dl,tachments for :-'COlllillg-,
cOlllll1tmications and demolition W('I"l.' as per Ill(" infantn. Allached 10
each division was a lllachirw gUll detachllwrll of eight guns.
In 1914 there were 20 dr<lgoon. 17lanCt'r and 18 hllSsar rt:g-il1lClll$
of Ihe line. On l1lohilisation 2'1 cavalr)' ami Cossack divisiorl'l were
forllled. and an additional II independl'nt cavalry and Cm.,ack
brigades. Clvalry di\1siolls w('re IUl"tllt'd of two brigadt·s, lhl' fi''''l
grouping- a dmg"oon and a lallet:r reg-illll'lll, lhe :lecolld a hu~s.ar arid a
C.oss,"lcl... reg-imell!. The regimellts \\'t:rt: or/-{anised :lcriallv: t11l1~ lhe ~rd
c.-l\";lln Division would include the 3rd J)r.l/-{oon, Lancer and Ilu,,-sar
Regilllems. There \\";:IS also a drag(K)l\ di\"i~ion wilh the Anm of lh('
G.IlIC;lSllS. thc C.aucasian C.a\";lln Oi\isiun.

Cossacks
The CoS-\;ICk.s \,'cre di\ided into two broad groups: those of the .,Ieppe,
Sl1J1UI)·. and those of lhe CallC"".lSIIS. Kfll,km. The Caucasians ..plit into two
L'ouko.J ('1105l','). the Kuhan and the Tercl...: the S,eppe, into the Don, 13
 Siberia. Orenburg. Urnl. AStl'lkhan. Tr.ln....naiJ..al.
Semirclchi, Amllr and Us~urski l'oiskoI. The
largl..'St Iiosl was thai ul the 0011.
-nlC fil~t G1tcgon regiments were maintained
in peacelime. the St'Cond ilnd third categolies
being aCli'<tll.."(1 when Ihe need arose. TIle Don
Host raised !)4 reg;mt;nb, ..he Kllb.'1n 33. the
Orcnbnrg 16. and the Olhers in ProlX>rtion 10
..heir pupUI:UiOI1S. CO'i;s;.lck di,i~ions wcre cre:lloo
in the main from a single Ilost. but Combined
Divisiorl~ f01"1l1ed from din'crent 1-losL~ wert; rai~d
during' tht: \\~lr. &"(olld C,llCgOly squadroll'i; were
allotted lO infallirv divi~;olls for usc as e~cot't'i;.
messengers. local sc("urit\ lroops. etc. Some 50
balleries of lAlS..-':lCk horse arlillcI) wert.' t'li:>(.-'(\.
mainh from the Don 110'1.
The Alien c;u'aln were ,·ollllllet.'I'\: the
Daghe'tan Native C.'1\.lln Regimenl. lhe
O,~'liiln C;l\<llrv 1)/11':1011 (half-regiment). and
the Tlircoman GI\';:II..... /)111':1011. The fil....l IWO
wen' Moskm Iribc'1l1en rrom the GllIcasllS, Ihe
laller from the Tekin tribe or Tlirkesiall. During
AllglI~t 191·1 it wa~ ekcided to raise a llCI\' cavalt)"
di\i,ioll uf six J'('gitlll'IIl" among the r-.lo~lem
peopk" of lhe Cauta~lls: this CilllCils;all Nalive
This brother and sister are Cavalry Didsioll was nicknamed lhe 'S,wagc' or 'WileI' Di\'i~iol1, and
pictured In January 1~1e. The earned a hi~h reputation (,,('e helow 1111(kr 'Elill' Ul1iL~·).
lady holds the rank 0' praporsh/k
(ensign' in the 9th Sibs"",n
Ri,,". her bf'other that of caplaln
Artillery
In the . .me regiment; he wea,. The OIllillen was divided into :.pecialist tvpe'S: lidd and moullIain: hoThC
an _ani of the ero.. 01 St and hor~,:-rnollnt. ..in: field howiuer and hea\"'\.
Stanbl--. Female aoldle,. Fidd anillcn was grouped into bligade\ or two dil'i:.ioPlS t.·;lch with
WMe not common but WMe ...
Ihree 8-g1111 balleries. A hlig<lde was aIlOGltl..'t! 10 cach infanu"'\ di\ision:
a«:epted pert of mititary life.
Note that his 'French'-style
this g;l\e lhrec Guard bliga(\(-s. four Grenadier (1-3 and the l.;llIcasian).
tunic has a stand-and-fall collar, 52 lint.' brigades. II Siht'rian Rinc. fi\'e Rinc. lhree Finnish Rinc, 1\\'0
while she wears a wm_s'lor*a Caucashll1 Rifle and six TurJ..e\I,1II Rine hrig;l{k~.
buttoning the lemale way. right Mounlain ballerit."S wcre disu'ibliled 10 the Caucasus. Siberia.
to lefl. Finland, Tllr\...('swn and Kiev for use in the Clrpalhian r-.10Utllains. The
m01l1l1ain j,{IUlS could be dnl\l'l1 or hroken down fot' pack It,llupol'l,uioll.
Hurse and hot"s<'-tllOlllllain artillery was (lrl{allised into divhioll.s or
t\l'O 6-gllll halteries. other than in lhe Guard, ,llld were allached ol1e to
each Gwaln division. The lhree horse-mOlllllaill lIniLs were diSlribllll'd
one each to Ihe Caucasus «('. IlIGLsian Cm"ln Divi.'>ion). Siberia (Ussllli
C..'1\<lln Brigade) and Kie\ (IXlh Arm\" Corps).
lliere were 33 dit'i;:.jollj of field hO\\iuer--s (mortlnli,) each of two 6-gUll
battelic'i;. One each was allolled to Ihe GilaI'd. the Grenadie....... each of
the 25 lIumbered al1m COil).'>. l'i;t-3rd C'1ucasi'lII. Ist-3lh Siberian. and
aile !l;.1llt.'n wilh the lSI TurJ..e\tan Rinc Anillen J)iviuoll.
\\11,11 hea\, a11.iIIen there \\<lS was organised into st·\·en tlll'iziu1i.I each
of three (li,"111l batteries. f)i"i:.;OIH 1-5 were :.l<tliulleci in the west alld the
Siberian lSI and 2nd ill lite t..,\.~l. The fir'i;t ami ,{'rund ballcrk-'i;;n {'ach
14 ullil wen:: t;quipped wilh 6ill. howitlcrs and Ihe lhird with 4.2ill. gUllS.
 Tht: t:'labli,hllH:rll or rurtrn~ "nill.,. .... \\~IS (ktl'rtllincrl 0\ till' 'jilt: 01
lhe fortn:~ ami the gun.\> il llloulltpd, A largt: Ixl.\>l' ,uch il" \'ladi\'O'locI...
had two blig-ldl''', a smaller 011(:' a .. ingle compam,
Technical branches includt:d <;;'pper, railw'J\. and pomoon Ixllt;llion..,
field and ..ieg(· l'nKineer park<;, ,llId w'ireless tdq-:raph compani<."S. 'I1te
field enginC('N numbered 39 IXllIalions. Olle for l'ach anm corps and
twO extra for the Sibo.:tiall t"'itahli..hlllent. Ol.her than the Guard engilll'('r
hallalion (\\hich had four). each hatlalion had thrl'(' cOlllpanil."S - Olll' or
two telegr'lph companies and a "t'archliglll '>ection.

Wartime Innovations
The experielln: gained dllri111-{ the war C<lu~ed orWllli";Hional ch:lItl-{t:~
lhroul-{holll lht: ;,rmed force~. Acros.\o the board lechnical t:qlliplllt:lll
'iuch as It:kphones occamI..' common al all level .., The llllllllx:r of
machine glln, \\';:IS hugely increased 1)\ illlpor~, caplon:s and expanded
domeSlic production. to lht: point where :\oIG uniL~ ol)foUlised lhemst:h'e,
.It almost loc.lllc\el.
Reform of the c'l\,thY di\i"ions \\'a.\> undertaken ;It the beginning of
1916. wlll'n each had anached to it an inf;mll'\ battalion of three
dismollllll'd 'i(lliadrons. l""lll'!' in 1916 it reduCtion in the mounted
slrenglh of l'ach c""lh....· and Cossack rq~illl('1lt from six to fOllr
.\>qlladrons \\';1" apprm"ed. The dismounted ltwn werl' IN:d to increase
l.he infanu'\ ('!enu:1I1 to a thrt·t"-h"llalion regimt'lli. Artillery support for
lhe c,,\~... ln' wa, ll) be increaS('d h\ the prO\ision of howiller ballali()n~ of
eight gun .. - ~evel,,1 hUlldt'{'d British 4.sin. howillers wen.' importcd
during that ~e;l1' with lhe promise of 1110re to follow.
During witHer 1916/17 STAVKA 1.x:j.f<Ul reorgani'ing- l.lte infal1ln',
reducing the divi..ional est;lbli~hrnent from 16 to I~ battalions and using
the surplus lo crcate SOllll' 60 !lew divisions, which were auached to
existing corps 'l" a third di\ision. Ilowe\"er, ,he m;~jor prohlem \\.c.
shol1age of di\i!lional art iller,,; and to O\"ercome thi.\> it W'<1." decided to
reduce til<: llumber.. of field gUlls ill !>;L...."i\'e areas and allocate the 'iurplus
10 the ne\<, divisions. The artillen was to be pro\'idcd with more hean
l,rtillS and ,hesc wl.'rc to be a-'iSCmbled illto a 46th C0'1>s. to be known as
TAON - the C}rillic initials for I lean Artillen on SIx:cial Dmil."S. TAO;\,
was to be al lhe dispo..,,1 of lhe Suprcmc Commander-in-Chief;
equipment con,i,t('d of weapons of mrying calibres. induding m;lIl\, frolll
Fr.mcc and Britain, which had agreed to /{in' priority lO their ,upply.
Tht:st: wt:re scheduled 10 arrive during the t:arly I11Otllh.. of IYI7.

ELITE UNITS
Guards Corps/Special Army
At the outbn:ak of the war the ditl.' force of the 3nm was the Guards
Corps. a ~lf-eo1lt'lined fonnation including units of all branchl."'S. \\ith
their own je310llsh g-uarded u';:tditiolls. C";ot all of th<.'SC \\"ere based on
their fighting record OVCf 300 \ears - lhe Pa\·lm'SI...i Guards Rej.,>imell1 \\lL"
notable for itS recruiulll.'nt of men \\'ith snub no$<'5... )
The Guards infamry were divided into three divisions each of four
regimellLs brigaded in pairs, the Guards Rifle I~rigade of the 1st to 4th
Reg-il11cll!l;. i!5
 lsi Guards Infanlry Division
III lJngru{, Preobra/lll:n~l..i 8: SculI:mn"ki Guards Rq.~L"';
2nd 11ngml, 1£llIailo\''il..i 8: Egerski GlI'lrd~ Rq{ts
2nd Guards Infantry Di\'ision
lsI lJl1grul, Mosl..o\"iki 8: Grenadit:r GIl,If(I~ Regt.-.;
21ull1r1gadl' Pa\ 100'Ski 8: Flnlamhki GlI.mls Regt.-.
3rd Guards InfiUllry Dilision
III lJngfld, LitO\...ki 8: Kexholm~I..i GlIard~ R(:gb;
2nd nrigad, St Petl:rsburg (I'etrob,,"ad. 1911) 8:
\'OI\'ll,I..i Guard" RC/-:l".
The two Gllard, ca\'alr~ di\'isiolls e..-:lch had
tinT..: brigades. The..- Guards c;\\'alry rq.(i111t·tll~
w..:rt: organised ill four ~qlladrons CilCh of I:iO
tlU:l1, other than tilt: Ilors(' Grenadkr" ami the
("..o"sacb, \\hich had ,ix 'quadrans.
ISI Guards Cavalry Division
ht 111'11'(/(1, Che\,llier Guards Regl: I-Io,",e Guards
R(:g1. 2,u{ lJl1gadl' Ilis ~I:~e<il\ '" Coifil~icr GUMd~
R..:gl; Ill'r M<Dt"~!\\ Cuil"assier GlIilrds Regl.
;rd l1ngad, His ~Iajem's Cossacl.. Guard~ Rl'gl; The
Alalll'lll·'i. HH the T~ilr('\il('h's COss.....d Gu.. rds Regt
(IX>lh lheSt' regimt:llb l"('crui!ed from Ill(: Don Ilo~,); ~
Cmllhitled (".os~ack Guards Regl (thi, ullit \\~IS d"I\\·ll
from all the smalkr C()'~,lCk I-Iosts ill proportion tu lh..:ir
POPU1;\lions) .
2nd Guards Cavalry Division In the SUmmer 01 1914 there was
/ ~I Ul7gmll' HUN,.'-Grt:lladicr Guards Rc,l.(l; I ieI' ~h!jt:s(y's LlIlc('1' C;u.trd" Rcg-t one avtatlon com pan)' for each of
the 2S arm)' corps, one each for
2nd Urigm/r Dragoon Guards Reg-I; Iii" M:!je'I\'s 111I~,ar C\l.tr(I~ R..:gt
the Guard and Grenadier corps.
JI7/ 1111J.,7(I(/' His ~laje'it\'~ I.ancer Guards Rt'gt Grudnu Ilm..-•' •lr (~u.ll'd, Rq:.,'1.. th.... Siberian companies and
Ilis :\1'Yest\'\ Pel....ml.. l Escort. lhl: Kml1«)/. recruitt:d four 'qll<ldmm.. eight "'located to the fortresses..
1\\0 each from (he "ul>;\11 and (he Ter('I.. (:O'''''ICl.. IlosL~. T1MI numbH of airer.lln available
rile lSI 10 3rd GU;lrd Anillen Brig-;l<le~ wnt: altaclwd to L!J(' to the army was 244, the nIIvy
tt.vlng only 20 or so, HoweY"',
appropliale infallln di\;~ion,. tht: Riflt: .\rtilk.... Brigadt: w tilt· Cuard.,
Kcording to _ . .timales the
Rifl(' I\ribrade. n,ere wef(' six 6-gun Guard IIOIW r\J1.ilkn h.lth'rie".. lilt' Air SetYk:e had Io$t _ 140
"ixth lX'ing the DOli <:.O.......;lCI.. Gll.lrd B.llle..... The Guard, Ilml"iu:er planes by the autumn of 1914,
IJ,11/Z./(Jt/ (of 1\\'0 ~'l.11l h"lleries) compkted the anilien. the Inventory 01 the SW Front
The Guard EqlllJHlgror Crew, naml P(·1....0tll1el dr.:l\m fmm Ih('lIn~t 10 alone being reduced from gg 10
8 alreraft, By the end of 1914
1Il,1l1 the 1"0\,<11 \'t:.....el". \\ ..... expanded at lilt' OIJ1hreak of war ((J tortn t\\'o
Aussla had established the
halt.diOlh each uf two COlll panit:s: the"(' \,'('n' gi\'en infant r\ train iIIg ami so-calle<! AIr-Ships Squadron
~e111 to the frullt. to operate the lour-engine<!
BI Ihe ,Ul11mcr ()f 191G li't: I~Laml :!nd (;llard" Infanln' Dj\i,itlll' had heavy bomber known as the
I)('('tl united 10 form Ih(' ht Guard (".orp:-, ,lnd Ihc ~rd . tilt' Rith:, ,ltultht' lIt)'a Muromets.
AilhoU9h the air war over
t.l/III/HWf', Ihe 2nd Guard Corp". Each corp' h,ld an ,u"ialiOll <!t'ladllllel11
the e.slem Front was active
and .. hean anilkn dil'iz.um. Tht:St: corp<> \\('re (0 1x: known. frulIl 21.Juh and li<trce It w;as a somewhat
1916. as the Guards Aml\. 1100\e\'('''' follm\'ing the los~c~ "u"l.lined 1.1\ the __ sided affair, dominated by
Guards during tht: BllI"ilm OAt.'llsin: Iheir numbers wert' "uppkl11t:llIed the Central Powers. Russian
,,·j,1I line alll1\' ('()JV~ ,md Ihe whole became in ScplclIll)t;'r 1916 tht' producUon and repair facilities
were limited: and between 1915
'Sp«ial A.!11W· ..
and the end 0' 1911 Aussla
rhc llIilitan mU5Ck Iwhind Ihe ~Iarch 1~)17 re\ulUlioll \\,,~ pn.\·ided Imported, mainly from France,
h\ th(' rC.'>t'rve llilltalion" of I..he Guard in Pel.rog-md. 11I{kl'd, til(' 1,800 alre,,"'t and 4,000 en9lneS,
1-'j/tIlJx1w, I..:d h\ it-, commander tl1l' (;l<\lId Duke Cuil I{omanm, TO ease production difficulties

• marched thrOllgh I't:lrog-md sporting rl·d r('\'{,llltionan o)(I..ad(',. The (continued opposite)
the Ru..lans resorted to IhcI per..onal bod\'R"uard or the T';<Ir. lite KOlHlOi. (kclared lheir allegiance to
e.pedlent 01 using eaptured tl1(' lIew regime wilhin dav'S of the abdicalion. sVll1bolicalh removing the
enem, airenlft; at _ stage
Imperial mOlloW'1m from their shouldcr ~tmps,
the XVIII ~s Aviation
Complln, was openoting
e.elualYely with eaptured Grenadier platoons
maehlnes. On g Oec.embet' U\ the cnd or 191:-, trench \\,lrfare led to the developmcllt ofunilSwhich
la11 the Air Serviee nad 579 hecame known :h 'grenadicrlo': htll note that tlwse had no conllcction
operational aircraft. \\'ith Lhe t1';lditional Grenadicr Corps i.....elr. The XXV Ann~ Corps r'aised
OPPOSITE A typ;eallmported
lIu.' oriJ.:"inal unit in late 191:1, Such dct;lChrnents were to be a rOllrlh
seout type, a Morane 'Parasol' plaloOll in c;\ch company, con.. i~l ing of 'bravc and encrget ic lllen' armed
monoplane. Russia's leading ,\'ith tl'lI hand gTenades. a ~hO\el and wire-eutlcrs, Other ddachmenl..
aee, S~ff Capt.A.A.l(aukov (11 \\cre anncd \\'il h l"('\ohers. carbines. swords or short lan("e~. The purpose
eonflrmed vk:torin, but pc>s$lbly
of Ihe gren,ldil'N was 10 Icad illlelligence·gathering raid~. ,lSsallhs and
as ....n' as 32), new an MS5 as
eommandet" 01 the XIX Corps air
cOllnter-attacks, During ass..,1l11S thc\ were to be fOllnd o!X'I<ltinp; \\ith lhe
squadron, anc:I laler a Hleuport ~:Ippers. infihr.lling and expanding lhe brap) in thc wire. Thc cxtcm to
11 as CO 01 the 1st flghl8f" \\hich the b'Tclladier pl:uooll ~\"'lem was insliulled lhroligholillhe arnH
Group 01 foyr squadrons. i~ difficult to g;lllge. bill thcv were cenainh ('slablished in the Special
The pUot offleer Is dreased in
Arm~. the Grc..'nadier Corps and the XXV Arm)' COlVS.
the fI,lng kit issued from 1913:
el Plate f4. The helmet Is brown
leather with the usual offleer's St George's Battalions
pattem eockade, the leather Althollp;h not front line lI11it.... thesc hand-picked battalions wc..'r('
}ac:kel Is blaek, and thcl breeehes reg;mlcd as elill' Iroops in lhat all ratl~ had 10 have becn highh
a,. blac:k piped red, Indieating
dc..'Cor.ucd: cnliqc..'ti men ,.ith Ihe Sl Georg:l"s Cross or 1\.ledal. oAicers with
the Air Servic:e" origin .s a
~ of the Engi........ A double-
lite Order orSt Gt.·org:e, Forl1lcd as pml of the guard at SIi-\\'KA in 1916.
hea6ed eagle of the Englneet" the Olih>"in;11 ball.llion was increased to fi\(' dlllingJuh 1917. stationed al
pattem with a bronzed metal 1\.limJ.... Kic\". P..km and O{k-SS:1 and at SfA\'KA Their las\... ('\'oh'ed imo
twin-bladed propelJ.er was the that of instructors to the Slorlll I\atlalions and olher \'olunteer units.
shoYlder strap badge fOf" pilots;
Their uniform was thc standard field dn:_'~" with dblinniom in the
It was wom in gilt metal b,
observers. Other ranks had the
colours or the Order or St Georgc, Ol'lllge and black, based on lhe
same badge stenellled In brown llnirorm of Ihe 13th Dragoolls (itselr named the 'i\lililary Order
on their shoulder straps. Rcg:imctlt'), Oniccrs had Ol.IIIg:c:....piped breast pockeLs, hrel'ches and
culT~: other ...n\...s had or.IIlg:c..'--piped culT~ and brecchl's and also the
from edge of the llmic. The officer's cod,:ule had Ihe amcers' St
Gcoll;"c's Cross ..upelimposcd. and othcr r.\Ilk:.' lheir cross.

'Storm' and 'Death' Battalions

In the \\-akc or the March Rl...·olulion Ihe arllled rorces becamc a hotbed
of political discussion. active ,."rfare taking: a back seat. Ilow('v(·r. this did
not apply to ;\11: and by 1\.by 19li sevel~11 proposals had I)t.~cn put to
STAVKA to prl'vCllI Ihe rurther deteriOl.lliou of thc forces, Thc impcllls
behind thi.. mm'ClllCtl! GII11(' from the lower echdon~ and thdr
"Ilggc~lionswere not ah\~t~'S greeled 'Ii lit enthusiasm by higher command.
Ilowt.'\'er. it \\.\5 <k-cidcd to harness Lhi~ enthusiasm. and "'riom llJli~
were reemile<! dUling the build-up to the 1917 sulltmer olTensi\c.
Thcre \\ert~ lWO idcntifiable sources of such \,ollll1te('o: troolh
alt'ead~ sening in combat unitS, alld men either nOI ill Ilnif011l1 or
postcd in rcar .Ireas. The 'iCcond group \\~tS inspired 10 harness lhe
I'evolutionary fervour of the population ill stlppon of \\hat Kerenski
callcd 'the frc..'esl army in the world', Recruiting was carried out by
members of thl.: rabulou"ly tilled '[xt.:curivc Committe(' for lht.:
Formation of Rc\"olutiollilll' Battalions from the Rear'. and cnjoyed the
~llpport or "Orne leading gencl~lls - nmabh, Brusilov, DUling the next six 17
 lllOlllh, ~~J ~llch hattalion~ Iw:n.: fornu:d. SOllie, such a' thtN': org-allisc::d
b\ Cltkt 'ChllOl, or combat furlJ1alitlll~ (e.g. the 2nd Orenblll'g from
Siberi;l), lX'rfonned with grc::at \';.110111'. I\ruadh speaking tht::\ \\crC calkd
'~Ionn ll.lIlalioll", 'Shock Batlalion" 01 'Itltlaliom of DC::;1Ih'. Tllc::ir
pllrpo~e \.;l~ 10 group logt'lhc::r \,oIUlllt'C::I"" IdlO \\ere pn'pan'd 10 ,iliad.,
,md "ll ill~pire their cOIllI";.lde'l 10 follo\\.
The I~t l'.lonn or Shock Dc::t:lchmelll \\,1... fonned on Ihe South-
,,"e,lt'm Fronl commanded b\ C..t:ll.L.C.KollliJO\. TI,e IIIlil con~i~led of
I\HI 1.()()(~III;t1l h..1.lIalion~ wilh Ihree machine gun leam... of dJ.:ht h"'\lIl~
apil'n', ,md 011(' fool and nne mOUlIIl'f\ '>COlli delachnll'nt or 16 1II('n
each, II perfollll('fl \\'e11 dlll;ng: Ill(' ,um111('T olTen:;i\e bUI ~u'I;lilled \('1"'\
IIt';I\' ca"'II,lhie~. Whell KOlllilo\ IX'GUlU.' Supreme COllnn:lIltkr-in-Chief
om: of hi~ fil....t aClion~ 1\'aS to rt'orWlIlisi' Ill(' Ist Shock DeLlchult'1I1 inlU
thc Komilm Slorm RegimcTll of fllur battalion, (sec Plate 112). rhe
comhat n'cord of the It:gilllelil \I';.I~ 'llch that f()r all aCliun on 16 AUj.,'1.N
c\·e.... mall in ib 1":lnks \I~'S reCOllllllt'llded for the St ('o('org:l'\ ero",
Following- lite 1:lilure uf Kornil<l\'~ '(K';IIIl'l1 !JlIIse!l thc rq;:il11l'1I1 \I~IS
lTII;tllll·d 1111' I,I Rll~si;lll SI,ock, ;11](1 1;llt'r lile Sla\' SllOck Dt:t:ll'hlllt'III, II,C
lallt:1 Jlflssihk ill hOl1o\1r ullht: 111l1111>t'r 01 Clech nlellllx:r~ 01"11](' lillil.
\\'Ollll'll 's 'I~;rtlal ion~ or Dt'at h' \1'('1"(' also raised, bUI thc\ II't'n' lllai Ill\'
a propa/or,lllda t'xt"rcis('. 1I00\t'l<.:r, tilt' relllain, of the hI \fOUlt'l1\ The founder and commander of
1l:lltalilHl (",(' phu/' 114) prmiekd tIH'I>rO\i~iollal (;mernll1clll\ Ia'l tillt' the 1st Russian Women"
01 ckklln' O111~ide Ihe \\'intt'l I>abct: ill Nmcmber 1917011 tlte Ili}{ht 01 Battalion 01 Death, Lt,Ma.la
Ihe Hol,ht'\il coup. Na\'al 'Hall;.liom of Ikalh' (illcludill}{ 0111' of Botchkareva, ..view;rIiI lhe
baltallon In july t 9 11, Raised
\\o11len) \1('1"(' aho raised, bUI tklail, art' q-anl.
with the inlention of Shamirlil the
male sokIlers into H09ting a
The 'Savage Division' more aggressive altitude to the
Follo,,"ll1J.: Iht' <;IlCC("i.S of n:uin' \Ollllllt't'" ca\,II" uniLS dUl;ng lilt' RII....' u- wa' following the take-over by
.Iap,lIlt'i;(' War it was decided in ,\lIgl"l 191--1 10 rt-"Cl1.lit ;( "i,-rl'}{i111<,:1H the Provi$iornIl Govern...... t, this
battalion t ....... part In the'
('<1\;111""1 c1h;,inn from among"llht, ~ln~lem tribtc"men ufthl' C;lIIca.. u~ .md
Kerenskl Offensive of july 1911;
the 1:'1"1,11' uf 1l,I)..U. Tht, onici;11 lilk \\,h lhe C."luGbian :SO,uilt' <:'1\,111, see Plate tM, Similar women's
Di\i,ion, hilt il \."s ,11'00 kno\\'n <IS Ihe 'Wiler ur ·5;:I\'lg<.: Di\;,inn' - bOlh units were formed, bill only tnls
for ih ft'rndl\ in banlt.'. and ;Ibu bl'CIIIS<:' mam RII"i;m~ It'/.folrdt'd first, from Petrograd, NW ltCtion,
CIUCI,i,IIl' in lhal light.
Tilt, '1',11'\ hrothc'r, Ihl'
Cl<llld 011)..(' ~Iilhail, com-
111:\l1(lt,(\ Ihe di\'i~ion from
191,1 10 I~Jl(i. The oq.follli-
sal ion \1';1' Oil Iv chall~cd by
lhl' ;lddili(ll1 of a battaliul1
of O'~l'li:\l1 rifk-lIIl'll <.:arlv
in I~117.
I~I /Jri{(fldr n,t,l.(IIC~I,'11 Rcgt.
K:.lb.lfdial1 Re'~1
2//(/ BJll!'ufl' Checlwn Regt.
Tart.... Rq{1
JrrllJnKml1' Circas<;ian Reg!.
InKII~h Rq{1
.\ rlil'IUOII 01 moum'lin
hor-q' ,milk" (IWO 6t,'1.111
h.;utt'ric"j pI"I)\;d('(.1 SUPIXII1.
18 1l111il I!JIG, Id1('n Ihrt't'
 h;\lll·ri!.."_ lit Don COs.....'lck hor....(· anilll'n I\('fe added. Till' lIlachint' gun
del;lChllil'llt \\~IS dr;lInl from '\.ailol"l; of Iht' Black Sea Flel'!. \\'ho I\'ore Ihe
~aftall ;lIl(llllr or fleece cap but wit h Il;l\'al badges or r.Ulk. Till' "iJ.{ll,llkrs.
tr;.U1,lctTl'd from the enginel'fll. wurl' Ihe standard a1l1l\ field dr(·s,... The
oniCl'l"" had Iransferre<! frum olhl'r ca\'al ..... rCj;~iJ11l'nl.S and Wl're all()\\(.'(llo
\\eM tlll.' cap of Iheir origilMI rq.,';melll \\ hen off·dun·.
Tlw 'S:II'ages' rough I 011 the Solllh-We..lt.Tn and Romanian Frotlb.
ulllilll~IlHferred to lakl' 1:Kln in Ihe Kl'rem~i Offensi\'e Of ..ullllller 191i
" .. pan of Ihe 3rd ('.;I\'lln C.orp... Afler panicipating in the aborti\(.'
KornilOl coup the di\ision did not rl'lurn 10 thl' frolli. and \\.L~ finalh
sent hOIll<" 10 demobilise kller th:1I \e:lr.

NON·RUSSIAN UNITS
Belgian
Till' ..taJ.{llation on the \\"l'stern FrOIll made Ihl' armOllr('d car lI11ilS of
both I\ril;1 in aml Ikl,l,,;u111 surplus In requin.:menls. During SUllllllt'r 191:,
Ihe Rll~~i;lll~ requested thai Ill(' Bdg-ians Imllsfer a unit [0 llll: E'\.~lern
Frollt. 1\'Il\"rc:: llil'H.' was a prf"j,sillg lIet,d for ;,lIch \\'eapon~. I~\' DI'Ct.'llIht·r
1915 till: C(JIjJS d('t AlIlos-C(/1I01l,~-Mllmilll'rl.sI'~ Hu_\.tie wen.' pamdillf{ for
Nicho[;l~ I[ at Tsar"koe Sdo. The '·ehicle, \\'l're organised illlo a hailer" of
1"'0 ,eetimh. each or lin.' allllOlll'cd cal'~ - Ihrl'c ~Iors and IWo Pt·Ug-l'tll.'-
arllll'd wilh BlIlIn machine brtlll~ ;lIld 3imlll shon gun". Tilt,' Illt'n of all
The Navy WiI$ a hotbed of l<lllks wcre drc"SCd ill a mixture.' of Iklgian and Ru!'..,ian unil()llll with
poUtlcal acl!vtty fonowing the r.lI1k distinclion.. \\0111 011 the shoulder strap... The other ralll.~ wore
IWigtlon 01 the Tur In spring
\UIUllll'er cortls on their shoulder ~tr.lpS. which entitled them to C('r1ain
teU,in ~rt due 10 their
ncondlry role during the war, pri\ilegt·s. COI1(('mporar" photograph.. ,how Ihat the Belgian slahlt'-cap
n.. Billtlc. Fleet, based at \\,lS comlllonh W0I11. The G"IJ5 foughl 011 the Somh-\\"est('rn Frolllllllder
Krunsta<tt, wla largely limited 9th .-\run until sllmmcr 191i. 'Ilw majorit\ of the 360 men relurll(·d 10
to coas,,1 Qgerations under Bc.-lgiulll \'i.l \ 1.ldi\'ostock during summer 19 I R.
commarKI of Northem Front.. Its
sailon wera alTlOl'lSl the moat
f.rvent aupporten of the British
BoI......iklin November 1eU Shonh after tht.' ,lni\<l1 of the Belgi'II1" a Blili,h armoured car unit landed
land tlteir most couraeeou. ;11 AlexandrOl'Sk (~Iullllallsk) 011 New Year's Da\' 1916. Known a" 111('
opponent. In 1921), The Black Ru..sian Armoured Car Di\ision. RO\~11 ;\':mll Air Senice. it 1"1' led h\
Sea Fl.et, baaed at Seba.topol,
CUll1111ander l.oekc::r-L'll11pSOn r-IP. During- Ille Slimmer and alltlll1111 of
saw alightly more wide-ranging
action 3galn.t the Turila, 1916 it ,c::ned on lhe Caucasian Front li!{hting- the Turks. and g<linl'd
Combined operations in April \'alllahk expcril'llce beforc bt;in~ tr~lIhfcrrcd to the SOlJlh'\\'\"lcnl Front
1916 al Trab:r.on on the coast of in Romania. where it wcnt illlo aClion ill Decemher. Relncall'd in .JUllC
AnatoUa wera auccessful, but 1917 a, part of the bllilcl-up for tIlt' RII,siall ~lllnmer ofknsh·l'. thl' RNAS
the 1C0pe for mora Imbltloua
unit parricipalcd ill lxnh the ad\,IIICt' ;lI1d Ihe relreat. The \l'hicks l\l'rT
operationa Wal limited.
Thl. member of the cr_ 01 1Il0~tl~ lIl<lclline g-ull·armed I.aneht·stc..... supple men led b\ Pil'rCl..'-Arn)l\

the Oiana••i.t.r .hlp of the amloul'ed lorril's mounting 3-pOllllder g-UIl". Following lhe <kb;lClt· (If Ihe
cruiser Aurwa 01 revolutionary Kel'l'n..ki Oflell:,>i\e the British 1e.'hiclt'S were mpplemclllt'd \lilh Fiat
fame, .. dresMd In the al1noured caN :lIld 10llies. In autumn 191i the lIl;yori!\ of,hc Illt'll wert.'
tntditlonal nft'al manner. or
l\ithd...wl\ li:l Kun;~ and Arch;mgd 10 Britain.
particular int.....t .. the black
and wtm. t.lnJaahlla ..... t worn
During 1917 a mission \\,L'I selll h\ lhe RO\<II Fl\·ing Corps 1(1 lI<1in
unocIer the blue jum~r; when Russian air and ground crews in the use of British aircr.lfl supplied 10
.tripped 10 this vest in battle, Ru..si....\lIoc:lled 10 the SoUlh-We~tern From in time for Ihe Kt'rt'm~i
the man could not ratnlal or OITemhc::. ,h('\ I,ere 1\·ithdr.l\nl in December 191 i. (A Fn'nch ",\·i;llion
aurrenOer.
lmining mi"ion was abo opl'r.lting in lhe same area al lhe liull'.) 19
 A lllllnlwr of privately funded, wllulilary
medic,tl 11Ilit;<; from Brit~lin \HT(, ani"e with the
I{us~ian ;lnllY until the end of I~) 17.
, , ,
The unit.~ formed from Russia's "uhject races
1,IIT-I>, wore anything 10 dislinguish Ihem from
other Imperial lroops. The grudg'ing manner in
which they were raised trpified the Imperial
gon:rnment's distru"t of anylhing' that himed al
nationalist aspirations. The m;~jority of these
formations \l't:re no mort: than tokens ulltil the
March Revolution u"hered in a more liberal
atmosphere. En::n unib formed from prisoners
taken from the Allstro-Ilullgarian ,trmy were
trealed in the same manner.

Polish
Russia ruled the gn'ater part of Poland. and in
Octolwr 1914 unenthusiastic permission was
gin'Jl 10 raise a Polish Legion for service with the
Russian army. Iluwen:r. it was rdq;aH:d to the
Slatlls of a rt:"en'e infantry ballalion and two
squadrons of ];l1lcers. Due to 1I1e manpower
shortage it was agreed. in January 1917. to
expand Ihese units to ,1 Rilll" division ,md a lancer
n::gimenl. During Ihe Slimmer offensive of 1917
they werc hdd in reser\'e and some clemen IS
were used to control the retreat Ihat followed.
This lieutenant of Ihe Air Service The Provisional Government further upgraded the Poles to an army
Is an artillery observer, as shown corps, l\'Ilich bec<llne I Polish Corps in S('ptember In17. The corps WilS
b~ the crossed cannons on his
based in Byelorussia I,'hen the Ireaty uf Brest-Litovsk was signed in
shoulder straps. He is wearing
Ihe 1916 woollen shirt-tunic with
March 1918. Till.: Tl1<!jorily of the Polish lroops Sllrrend('I'(·d to Ihe
the Officer's Cross of SI George Gerillans, though some fOllglu with tlw anti-SOI'i('t forces in sOlllhern
and the Cross of SI Vladimir 4th Russia during 191 R.
Class. The 5t George, Cross
was Russia, highest award for
Latvian
valour. II came in two categories
A~ pan of Ru.ssia's Baltic terriLOries Lat\'ia was directly in the line of
- one for officers, one lor other
ranks - each of lour classes. Germany's advance lip the Baltic coast in 1915. On I August 1915 nine
Lll\illl Rifle bill1aliUl1~ were l';.lised. with Lalvian of!icen;, During 1916 the
hanaliuns W(TC ~rollpnl first illlo a sillglc blig-.lelc and then into 1\\'0,
each of 1.\\'0 rcgi1T1{:nL". Hy the beginning of 1917 the brigades "'ere
consolidated into a division as Pilrt ufVI Siberian Corps on the Northcm
Front. Throug-llOut their service in the Russi,l1l army the Luvians fought
un their home territol)'. However, Ihe di\'ision le11 under lhe inlluence of
Bolsht:vik agitators and played a significant role during the Ol'il \-Var as
part of the Red Army.

Serbian
During latc 1915 and early 1916 ptTlIlissioll \\",IS gramed to form a
Serbian infantry division from all101I~ the Slavs captured from lhe
Austro-I-Iungarian army. The divisi011 was asst:mhlcd Ileal' Odessa and
20 numbered sonw 10.000 men and oni,ers.
 Czech
Probably Ihe most falnous of the 'foreign' units, the CI(~ch l.t>gion was
r;lised in AllgUSI 1914. Initially consistillg of four companies, the unil
W<lS COrlllllill(·d 10 lhe Galician theatre. The Tsarist government did 110t
encourage its expansion unlil late 1915, when it became the
C/echoslovak I{ine I{egitllellt \\·ilh eight rifle companies and a trench
IIIOnar company, some 1,600 men in TOlal. Following the J\larch
Re\'olution the Provisional CO\'ernmcnt authorised lhe expansion of
till: regiment 10 divisional strength hy reCl"lliling from amongst Austro-
Hungarian prisoners of \1''11'. By The lime it went into action during the
Kerenski OrTen~i\'t' the 'C/.echoslovak Army Corps' Ilumbered 7,000.

This posed group portrait of

three privates of the 67th
UNIFORMS & PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
Infantry Regt is interesting in
showing three variants of the Until the early years of the 20th cent1l11' hoots and dothing" had been
shirt·tunic:. From left to right made by the troops thelllseh'es from maTerials provided by the
they are the M1910 in wool, the
gm'ernlllenlo This 'regimental economy' led 10 the \\F,-lste of mll(:h time
M1912 in wool and the M1914 in
cotton. Both the buttons and the
that should hal'e IXTn used in training; and poor quality control had left
position of the fastening vary many soldilTs COll\'illccd that tit" go\'ernmcnt was inditferent towards
from style to style, The private in them. Following the Russo·:lapanese War it was decided 10 phast: this
the c:entre is wearing a peakless SyStl:111 Olll.. By 1909 some 50 per cent of prodllction llad been Wkl:ll 0\'l:1"
c:ap with a c:hinstrap, indic:ating a
by contractors theoretically superviscd by the Qll;lnertnastl:r's
mounted role of S(lme sort. The
breeches were cut to fit snugly
Depanml:llL Oflicel"s pro\'ided fur thclllsch'es from military outfitters in
Into the boots, the larg-e cities, and the quality of their uniforms \\~lS ronsequ(·ntly mudl
better than that of the men's.
Cossacks werl· also expected to prO\~de their
OWII unifotlllS, as werc the other ira'glllar camlry
formations. The service dress of Caucasian
Cossacks \\~I.S bascd on their traditional clothing,
more native Caucasian than Russian in strle (st~e
Plate E3).
Clothing- the Imperial tllilitia was the
responsibility of Ihe local gO\'crnment in the
relevant district. The only rt'gulatiolls were that
the men had to be unifol"tnly dressed; and that
scarlet shouldt:r straps and the 'mililia cross· on
the.: servicc cap (jumshkrt) wen' compulsory.
COllSl:quemly. certainly during till' carly lllomhs
of the war. llIallY In en \I'ere dressed in obsolete
clothing suclt as tlte white shirt-tunic and dark
grel:n brel:clles (SIUlWVrtll).
Parade uniforms and other orders of dress
\\·Olild occupy volumes ill tht:1JlScll'cs, theHofore
an)' referellce to them will be limited to those
items that were worn by the combat troops - e.g-.,
it was conllllon for officers. and not only in 1914,
to \\"Car their parade caps in the fidel.

Service dress
In 1907 khaki of a light olive-green shade was
introduced as the scrvicc dress colour fur all ranks 21
 Siberian lnlantry regiments were all termed Rllte., The
private shown here I. dressed for cold wellfher In the
shinel gre~ish-brown greatcoat with the bashllk cowl neatly
a....nged aeross his chesl. The l>eadgear is the Si"rian
fleece hat, ml>Ch 'woolller< than the ,...,...ha, Collar patches.,
cowl piping and shoulder strap piping all show _II in this
e.cellent PGI'tr1lI1.

Table A: Guards tunic piping & lace

,., rwk$ 'M)l'fl cuft pop-og c. toce: otIiar.;. POCket PPld
flh ..... Cl:lb,q • the ~ ~ hi operw-.g lronl edge c1
Olna' 11O<s' stIIt·llIlI::s.

ISl'DvIsIon. Ms - while
PocIret & toni 151 Aegl- oca1et: 2nd -Iigll blue:
3n:t - whle: 4ltl- ~ glilel1
2nd 0vJs0l: cvffs - ff1(1
Pocket & lront. 15t Regl - scMllt: 2nd - 1i{;11 blue:
3n:t - whlll; 4th - dark glilel1
3td Division: ClJfI$ -)'6IIOw
PockeI & wr 1st Reg! - yeIow; 2nd -lIg1t bUll:
3n:t - whlll; 4ltl- dar\( green

1SI AegI - ClTTlSOrl; 2nd - wtlite

1st to 4th AegIs - cr'mIloo

a....a Fotx Ar!MIIwy.

CutIs ~: 1st Bde - whle; 2nd - bU9. 3rd - '/fIlION
Gua't1 Hotse Arty. III PiPIllI blad<
(Among GuIlrd ~ l.OIs 0I1ly the Q:mbrI8d CosSICk RiBgf
hl!Id cuft D. fl yeIow·1

--
Table B: Cavalry breeches stripes
and h'-'Illehe.. of the rq;l.1lar anm .. \fler washing

......
GlBt1 C8VaI'Y Sc:ariet. fIl<OIlpt;
alld h,l1d \\Citf the khaki would fade - "lllIo<;l (0
\\hile. in the Iwal of SliTIlmer on lht" Somh- I-b Ma!ISlY's c.as.s -
'/fIlION
H9r t.4afesty's ~ -lll1tt bUB
We~lCrn al1(1 Cauca:.ian Fron~.
Officers' service dress cOll,i'led of a tunic. LiIe~

klllrt. hn.'ccht:.. , km:e-lJig-h bOOL~ and peaked Glp.

The "ha", IlIllic was singk-hn·aslcd. ill colton for """""'
"""" " 1St. 3n:t. 4th, 9th, 10th, 13th, 15th. 15th, 17th,
18th. 19th RegIs
,umlller lUld wool for winter. wilh li\c huuons 6th, lllh, 12th Regts
either of IlH.'!;,1 or 1cathtT. [1 had I\\'O in..idc skin 5th, 71h, 8th. 20th Regts
14th Regt
and 1\\'0 olll... idt: brc;L~1 pockt:t~. Ihe flaps of the
lallt'J" nll (0 a point (>II (lrrnlflr!" The Illnie had a
'''' Roo<
~Iand collar 45rlllll high. fastened wilb 1\\"0 hooks;
1st, 5th, 9lh, 15th, 16th, 17th RegIs
the clifT.. were round for fool and (lined to a 2nd,6ttl, 12th, 14th Regls
poillt lor tnOun!c.:d br<lllchc.... Guards infanu'" 4th, 8th. 10th, 13thRegts
3rd, 7lt1, llthAegts
unicef"" breast pockclllaps were piped to indicate
the numbcl ul the rl.:'gll11clH wllllin the di\isioll.
and ClifT piping: idelllificd the di\ i~ion - 'it.'l-' Table ISl2nd..:td. 4th.!llh. 10lh, 11th, 12th. 16lh,
17lhAesJs
A. ,hi~ pag:e,
Omcer'; ,houlder ho.;l.rds or fX1KO"i - such a
-. 5th. 6Iti, 7th, 8ItI, t3lh. 14th, 1511\ 181t1 Regts

potl-'nl ~'ll1lx)1 of Iheir pri\ileged ~1.1I11~ lhal (ht' ~ QIvaty Regt - bUB tnled1es '<III'Ith SICaWl ~
Rt'\"OlutioIlM\ regime banned them in 1918 - Os:s8rJarIll\oozIorI- pieri
Tl#CO'IWl ~ - yeIow ~
22 "elt' .Il fir"" ,lifT, detachable items, faced wilh
bright llwtallic lact'. Tilt· l'lrl}..S wert' di,tillg"ui~hed h, a ''''It'l11 01
meL,llk ,tar.. and kllg"tlm,l'" linn of till: b<l~t· colour, and tilt' ullit
and branch of sen'ict' b, .tdditional in~iglli<l - ,ct' Tables F. G &
H, page.. :tl & 35.
Thc brecches werc Ctll (() lit COml()ll<tbh ill,ide tilt" boob:
the\ 'Icre dar}.. 'Ts~lr'" gn'ell' for inf;lIl1n and otht'r
dislIlQunu.'d troop:.. en.ll ..... oOict'r.; "01'1' bille-gre\. or
sol1letimcs rq:~illlel1lalh coloured brel'du"'i - crim~1I for
hUSS<ll'll .l1ld dark blue fur .til mht.TS. GI\.II ..... breeches wefl'
slIipcd in the re h';111C1ll;\1 colours - SI.T Table 8. Ilage 22.
L'mlripcd khaki brct'ehe' were clearl\' 111ure practical in tIll:
fidd and beculle all1lo~t lllliwrsall) worn ;\S Iht· war (klgged
011. ~IOllllt;\ill anilkry11le11 II'Ofl' plai11 blat-'k k~llher breec1It'~.
E;lCh Steppe CO"~lek 110<;1 l\l)re a di"illglli'hing colour: thi ..
WilS particular!} llotiet'ilblt' ,h a broad ~trip(' till IIwir dar}.. blll('
breeche... See Table C. thi.. p,lge.
Other ranks had bet'n i....ued a soldier'" \e...., ion or the ullicer's
mnic. \I'ithol\t brc;:m pOCh'b. ulltil 1912. Ollici,llh discontinued. it \\';:b.
ho\\(·\er. -.cen ill usc throughout the \\~r. I he .llmost ulliH'rS;ll \I,lnillll' " "'MY young member of the
garnll'lll Wits a pull-O\('I' ,hin-tunic. Ihe /{I'mmlllim*fI, hascd on till' \mocl..- 23rd Engl....' Bn; the number
iH>d the .nn-of-service NotV"'
lil..e \hin of the RlI.... ian 1>t.';I"'llIt ,md \lorn ulllucl..ed uler thc brel'c1ws.
Can be Men on lhe shoulde,
\\ilh I..nee-high boots ,md peal..ed C<lp. .trllp', Hi. gymrntsUo,*. Is the
Th('rl' were ..cn'fal \l." ...ion:'> of tilt' ,hin-llIllic. prodllcl'd both b\ cotton Ml~14 pattern.
()IlL~idl.' COlllt,letor, and the feg-i1l1ellt,11 econ0111ies. L"Il,llh \llCh

\~Iri;tlion, took the form of Ihe addition of mIt' or twu ore;\'1 pockl·t.... ;llid
the po~ition of the frolll b .. tl.'llillg: - eilhl'r wrtitally frolll Ihe n.'nlre of
lhe collar or ulf-set to t:ithef ~ide. Tht'f(' \l"l're
1I0rm;\11I li\e small front hulton~ of horn or Illetal.

-- ----
SUlllll11't' and \linter ~hirHIll1ics were produced in
Table C: Cossack distinctions
colton or wool rt.'~pc..'Cli\t:II, c.ulT.. wt'r(' either
plain. or ..hin-fashion with two tmllOllS. The onll -'II
-..-
-'II
line infantr\ who wore culT lace wert.' the machine
... ...,.-.
........ .-.
........
...."""
gunn{'Pi and the 'iCOliLI. in c,imsoll and green

.....
""""""
-
rC'>lx't'li\"eh. Cuards inEmlr\ wore clln' 1.lce 10

-,..,.
~ ~

idt.'lllifi. their di\ision. ,md lace down Ihe frolll .-.

,..,. ,..,.
opcniug to identif\ the regilllent \Iilhin the
- ..
""""
,....,,..,.
dilision - lhc colour., followed those of their
officet...· culfam! pockct flap piping: rcspl'C1ivt:ly. as
$eo, .echtIllSl< ~

,..,.1-
,..,. ,..,.
"""""
,..,.
in Table A. ""'"
Trans-Bailal

Shoulder straps indicatcd rank, hrallch of

service. ullit number and other information. The ""'"....
"" "" ..
""""...." ,"
~houldcr <;lI<lpS were rt'\l.'f',iblc. one side khaki
and the other appropriatell colomed. Thel \I'('I"C
worn on both greatcoat and IUnic. Sec Tables E &
........
"""" ........
""""
~
""""~
F. pages 21 & 33. for ba:o.ic details.
In had wcather all cm!..!. ,md most hCllIdu.'s Each regment ted an ir'octIIII;t.IIlTlOllOll"" worn on h !h:UcllIr
wore the greatcO;:lI. slli",1; ,I cap of namral fkece Sltap$; to lsi !hem alllere WlllJd be . , ~ bul sane

or al'lificial asmlkhan b1111)'iwooL fxlPflllfr. .u1<1 ,I

sha\II-li}..e cowl. IxlSMJk. In addition the CO"S;IC}..S
and other in·eh'l.llar ca\all'~ of the f'....mcaslls wore'l
slecveless black cloak of fl.'hed g-oal or camel hair,
-
~ IOl' ltelall'lle!lln ~ ~ lhll Cyrk ........

Kb • KUlerl, 0 • 0re-b.I'g, 'f • USllurskl. " • Nru.

em. Serrnlcn.:J) '" Tr.ns·BaiklII. BI • T8I8k. Tte Don ~
lisI:4ayed a 0yr6:; D. 10 cistJ:1gt.iSlllha'n 1l'cm Dragoons. ""'w:t1
used the Latl'1 ntIaI
the till rim. 23
 The grealcoat was made of blue-grey clot h for officers and coarse grt:y-
brown wool lor other ranks. It \\~IS double-breasted. with a fall colbr.
fastening on the right with hooks-and-eyes. An earlier model had a single
row of six metal bUllons down the front; although manufacture was
disconlinued before the \\".11" they wen~ worn as long as slocks lasted. The
coat \\'as generollsly cut, and gathered at lilt: back by a hall~bdt and two
bUllollS. For dislllollllled men the p;reatcoal reached 1Ialf\\".ly berween
knee and ankle. with a looselysewll tIlrn-hack hern which could be turned
down in extreme weuhcr. l'v!ounted troops wore a longer type. with cufTs
curving to a point <It front and back; one of these W,lS tl<lditiOll,llI}' worn
ullsewn. to (";llTy messages. Coloured collar p,l1ches were applied 10 the
greatcoat: in sollle units these were edged with coloured piping 10
idel11il)' the regiment ;\Ild br:anch of sen'ire - see Table D. this page.
OOicers' and NCOs' patchl:s bore a hUll on in regimental metal.
The peaked (visored) cap was a\'ailable in both coloured and service
\'ersions. The sen"ice type was khaki with a black peak - this was paimed
green in the fide!. Oni('Crs and mounted personl1d had chin straps,
others did flOt.
The basic shade of the coloured version for dismounted units was
dark green. In the Guards the band was coloured in reg-ir11t:lllal
sequence within the division - red. blue, white
and green f(n the 1st 10 4th Reg:il1lellL~. The
Table D: Greatcoat collar patches Grenadiers and Line infantry used the same
system. The band and crown seam were piped in
red. The artillery ,md technical branches had a
1st Gua'u"s In! Div: black band. and scarlet piping around the band
,,,"'.,,
1st Ragl

Table E: Other ranks'

--
3<d "'"
4!h Reg!
2nd Guards Inf Div.-
shoulder strap colours
1st Regt

'''' "'"
"'"
3<d R<o'
,~
3rd Guards Inl Div: Guard Infantry
"'"
scatlet regmeflta' (Table A)
1st Regt
"'""- ~

"'"
-,
as btooches stripe, regim!rn!ll pipjog
''''R<o' Goo<d ""'""
3<d
4th Reg!
Guard Rill8s:
"'""""""'" -,
"'"" M,.
Guard Erlgr.
regrnenta' cob.lrs

1st Regt
"""'" -.
1st Gron Div
-.
2nJ
3<d
R<o'
4th "'"
"""
"""
2nd Gran ON
-.
3rd Groo Div
4th Gren Drv -.
-
Ragt

"'""Co"" """
(mgwnental ooIcusJ l..Oe Inf Divs:

"'"" """"'" Iregrner1tal ooIcus) 1stBde

,..
""'"
"'""-
"'"" """"
2nJ Bdo
l..Oe Rifles
l..Oe Cavalry """'"
as breeches strVl. piped:
daO<. graen or white
I sr-4th Grenadier Divs. & aI /.ile Inf Divs:
"''''''''''' ""',..
1st Reg!
2nd Reg!
scar1Ill
blue """"
"""""
l..OeMy.
3rd Regt while
4t!l Regt graen l..Oe Engr.

--
Grm.Arty.
l..Oe Rilles Gren.Engr.
"""
"" ""'"" """"'"
(regirTlmtal oololIrs)
l..Oe Artillery Daghestan Cav

2. l..Oe Engneers T~"'"

STAFF
1: Captain, General Staff, 1911
2: General of Artillery Innanov, 1914
3: Adjudanl General 01 Cavalry Brusllov, 1916
4: Colonel, medical service, 1915-16

,
3

A
 GUARDS
1: Staff Captain, Grodno Ule Guerd Hussar Regt,
1915
2: Private, 5emenovski Life Guard Inl Regt, 1914
3: Cossack, Ataman's (Tsarevitch's)
Life Guard Cossack Regiment, 1917
4: Volunteer, Her Majesty's
Life Guard Lancer Regt, 1916

B
INFANTRY
1: Lieutenant-Colonel, 94th Yenls8iskJ Regt, 1914
2: Private, 404th Kamyshlnskly Regt (Opolchenle), 1915
3: Senior NCO, machine gun kommando, 8th Moscow Grenadier Reg!, 1917
4: Senior private, grenadier platoon,
4th Rille Bda ('Iron Brigade'), 1916

" .'..t:k. 3

• c
 LINE CAVALRY
I: BombBrdlet Layer, 20th Horse Artillery, 1915
2: Captllln, 5th Alelandrlyskl HlnS8l' Reg!
I'lmmortal Husaara1, 1916-17
3: Troopet, 16th T"erakol Dragoon Regt, 1915-17 3

D
COSSACKS
1: Cossad<, '.t ~ Regt, T....-a..iQl Ho$t
2: Cossack, K"**' Couack infantry
3: Ueutenant, 2nd Volg.kl Regiment, T_k Host
4: WalTant Otficer. 17th Don Co.sack Aegt
General Baklanoy, 1914

E
 SPECIAL TROOPS
1: Arrt'Ioured c.r drfYllr, 7th At.otomobi'- Mac"lne Gun Platoon. 1915
2: Stntcher bea....., 1915-17
3: Regl~tal Orthodox print
.: Pilot ome.r, AYlation Servlce, 191.
5: Cyr;Ii,t, 3rd ~ COmI*lY, 1915-17

F
NATIONAL TROOPS
1: Priv8te, 5th UlMan Rifle Regt, '&'6-17
2: Trooper, TuBmefl Horse HlJ"-Regt, '&1....'5
3: Trooper, '~ 0Msi0n', 1&1.... 17
4: u.uten8nt. Pohh ~ '&17

G
 EUTE UNITS 1917-18 !SA; COmmittee lor Recruiting Disabled SoIdlert
1: Ututenant, Shock Bn of R_ Echelon YoIunteM'$, 1917 6: Rev_' Naval Shock Bn
2: NCO, lit (l(orniIov'sl Shock Regt, 1917 7: 51 Ge<wge's Bn, STAVKA
3: R~ '1Agion of~; Fr8OCe, 1917-18 Georve's Bn,
8: 11t 51 KIev
4: 1s1 Women's Death Bn, 11117 t: Outh 80s
5: 2nd Vol.DeL of Cripp6ed Warriors, 1917 10; Shoctt Bns
11<: Shock Bn of Reiii'" Echelon Volun~

H
ami cro\,'n, TIll" Pl'f111llt:uions olth{" coloured ('<lP in L1w (";1\<111... hr;:lI1ch
\,'ere \"irluall\ ('n<ll(',,,, b",sed on incli\'iclual n:g-imental colours; for
insL.Ulc(', in Lim: lancer regimellt' the I:M~' colour w:as hhw with the
band and crown piping:as the trnu~'r ~lIi,x-,
I)ressed metal cocl.,:ulcs wcn' \,orn at the Irunt ("enlle ul the cap
band. There were three qualities. fUI ollict:"r..., :-':<:0.. and t"llli,tt'r! men;
lhe (olours were till' Romano\ or:l1lgt:", bl<lck ami white. :-'lililia units
WOI'C the 'Opoldwnie cruss' ahO\'l' the cock:,d{". rile c\Xkade was also
worn 011 flcece cap.. which
WCI'C the siandard "inler
headgear for tlit" :Ifill'. Table F: Shoulder strap devices
Siberian units ami olher
Otlic:ers had metal Of STbodered bJIon clEM::8s. lOt b:ll: .... nlhe SllrTIII rnatal lie b.Jnons an:!
groups \,ore \",lIiatioll" on il Ieoe, b" rro.ned .... n hi qJpOSIle metal au- ..... \\Of! It'e same cllMc:M ~ n
- sometimes larger. dar}...er ~ ~ ThI 0ClIDtn Islod bOOw lIPPfIInd U'I It'e kt'!;)IQ . . 01 h strIC&; ~ wore

--""'"
and shaggier. or ~maller ..,.". ~ on tte ~ SIde. "*- tI'IlS was \Oohfe. YfION c:. (jart( bUJ. .......",1hlI
like Ihe kub(mka of the Thl6UBpS bore a nrg& 01 dIMce:s.: Ill. tte 0UI8" end, ....... 1'U:'I'DIrs. olton wrlh ~ ntIIIllelle!s
Kuban Cossacks, which 01 calegones 01 tro::Jp$. 01 whom appropnate. rEI(lIIf8llaI.,Ooogoll'lS re6erTng to tte oolcJnels-....
dWlf: and Ill'9llr tte 1'l8dI, tor speaalIst btanchos. brarlc:tKlf.9llI'VIOll badges. Sometrnes
came inlO use due 10 a
00I'r'Ibini'lt1OOS were wom: e·9·, the 5th AdIe Artile<y wore crossecl SC3I1eI cannons above cMlsofi
shortage of malt:ri:,I. 'SC,' -the C befig the Cyrillic S for Sr$tsi, A.fIes
There were many perm-l1atlons oj category ntJallllulll'S; some~. agair'l U9In9 the Latil'l
leiters mosll'99lll'Obllog the actual Cvrt: torms, were: T z t'usears, y • lancers, Letn 0 z
Personal equipment
<tagoorIS (to iNOid COllusion wrlh the Don Cossacks, ...no
used the C¥IC form\. K • Caucasa1.
III 1912 the ollict"r'" field T • T~. Cb • Sobenan, t.WIao l.nl8 wore M pnIC8dBd by tte l8lter of the distn::l. but
kit was designed ;Irotmd a dentdiciitxln was problernatr.: SlIlC8 !O ITS'rf cislncts beg8rl w#l the same ntas.
bro,,'n Sam Bnn, Ill'·"I\ Ie
belt. "ith IWO br.tce.. \,om
Yerticalh at the front and
crossed at Ihe back. The
""""...
Lrorl
"""",
Corps
tnt no.
I.I'VI
no , Flonwl runeraIs
Of OI0lO9'aOi.
no.. & badge 01 crossed niles on I:lic',Qe
sword hlln~ from the left
-..."'" <.oM no.. & macl'wle ~
hip in the Oriell\:tl manl1er.
On Ihe left slrap I,'as a
Gre<1.nf.
Gr'er1.arty, -"""
9'flMde on crossed cannons, LIlIt no.
no. 01 110109'(1111
whistle. on the light ..ide a """
""My
I.Ol
f~~
pistol holsler. Map ClSl.'S and anegory .... 1nt no,
""'"
Of IiOlOQlan

binoculars. often pli\',u<:l\-

purchased. complcted Ihe
,.,..,
"""""'" ~ 1I'lIbaII, tnl no. Of i1000g0al1llSOO 1ablI!I CI
crossed awroons. bde.no. n Romen runeraIs.
hOlCYam' '""up....
F..-...,
..
--
outfiL \\11en moulllt"d the a08!Il!Id caY'IOIIS iIblMI ~ II'lIbaII
greatco;lI was str:lppt:,c1 10 """" ..., CI'OII8lId caY'IOI\$, .... no

the front of Iltt" ,addle.

Horge mtrUl'ty.
""""~
crossed ~ & stlMlI, .... no. OI"0lO9'81 ••
Ha\el....lCks were u~llal1\' Gnln.8O;jI'S. grlll'lllOO on crossed podo; & 1ltocMll. \,RI no.
carried with the ba/o(l-{'Ig(·. ''',,''~ crossed pICk. axe, St1'N &. stlo\I8I on a'1Chor
crossed Il>le, stlCMlI & <n:::hor
Other ranks' cqllipmelll """'" '"
_.
Am10ured cars'
consislcd of a leather waist 1914-15 green
1916-17 ~
belt I ..hite for lhe Guards
""'""
--
A"""'" ""'"" .."."...-
and bro,,'n for "II Olher !'NO enr-Jed IiItJIrw1g IXlI$
troops, supporting on ~ lJIdoI br!;IrrMI wroged *::u:n on .-.t'mlId Ii(tIlnrlg bolts

--
00ISII!Id ... & lWlChor........ no.
each side of the bell
plate 30-roulid ammu-
~ & Trspt
"'"'
....-.e
Cn;.hosplaI trlrISJ
-7-

nition pouches. and on Ihe

tighl side Ihe Linnemann --.. ..,..
.,..
entrenching tool slung • Artier; SI(1\lIIllr$ ShOWed their speciaksm by a doth badge 01 crossed sigoalllags in reel wom
with the handlt: down. above the left elbow; artile<y telephonists - later aI lelephonists - by a srnb" bilcIge of en1Wined
Suspended o\'er thc right ~boIls.

shoulder was a 1\~lIt"rproof 33

 canvas h,wersack (replaced by a knapsack slung behilld the.: shoulder\ in
the Guards), \\'hich contained clothes, food and other person;ll item~,
Tile ~rc,ltco,1t was rolled and carried horseshoe-El\hion onT Ih(' kit
shoulder. I\'itll a spalT pair of hoots and the cowl rolled lip ill it, An
aluminium water botlk and the O\'al me~s tin wert" su\pemkd on'l'
the ri~ht shoulder, though Ihe laller is often Se.:t:ll with tht'
greatcoat e.:nds tucked into it. Each man carrinl ollt:-<;ixth parr of
a tent and its polt:s allached to the coal roll. The weight of all kit
including ammunition was S0111C 56Y, poumk

Wartime Innovations
Tht' funnional design of the fidd sep;ice dress in llSl,' in 1~1I4
meant that I'ery liu[e alteration \1~lS necessary during the war: the
changes introduced wcre 1101 lle.:arly as sweeping a~ those ill olher
Ellropean annies. A syslelll of wound stripes wa.s inlruduCt:d ill 1916,
and some other insignia such as those marking the ·grenadier platoon"
(sec Plate C4),
Oflicers in lhe field made the.:mseil'es less ronspinloll~ by ttlodil~'illg
their sholilder Siraps. During: the war a hshion dt'\'e!oped replacillj.{ the.: One 01 the variations of cotton
stiff detachable shoulder boards with soft Sll~IPS thaI were \eWI) into the.: shIrt-tunic, tn this case the
M1916, The peak 01 the khaki
shoulder seams. The conspicuolls mctallic lacc was repbcf'd by a \ubdut'd
service cap has been painted
khaki equi\~\I(,nt; or rank insignia were evt'll dl~lwn onto plain clolh ~lrap~
green to cut down on reflection,
with indelible pencil. [I became CUlllltlOll for officers in the Held lO we.:ar and the shoulder straps are
the soldier's shin-wnic and to discard their s\\'Ords; another [;\(1 wa~ 10 wom khaki side up, The M1904
rClTlO\'C lhe stiffener from the cap to give it a sofieI', more Hriti,h l(lok. belt had a metal other ranks'
During the war years many officer.. also purchased wuics whidl. while buckle plate with the Imperial
dOUble-headed eagle for the
relaining Ihc stand collar, were.: otherwise modelled on the Bri(i~h oflil'N\
Infantry, an ImperIal eagle with
service dre~sjacket: gcnerously CUI, \\ith two large. pleau:d palch pock!'Ls crossed cannon for the artillery,
on the breast and two \'CI)' large 'bellO\\1i;'-slyle expandable pocl.:.e.:ts on lilt' crossed altes for the engineers,
skin. This was confusingly known as the 'French', in reference to Gen, Sir and a flaming grenade for the
John French, who comllianded the British Expeditionar} Force.: in Fl<ll1("t· grenadiers. Guard regiments
had their Own distinctive pattem,
in 1914. Cenel<ll Staff ullicers also heg;lll 10 I,'ear a special black lIlnic
which, Ihough apparcml}' ullolliciai. existed in sel'era] I'ersioll\.
At the end of 1916 the army adoplcd the /Ji/n/lw, based on the IOI~l~e.:
cap of the Aviation Service, to be worn under steel helmets. From the
spling of [917 Ihey were issued to all ollicer GldeLs. Steel helmets of till.:
French Adrian pattern, with an Imperial eagle badge adcl<:d to the lront,
were imp0rled from 1916 until domestic production r,lCilities could IX'
established. Although they were a\~libble, steel helmets were 1I0t popular
and gt'lwrally seem to have lX'en \1'Orn mainly by grenadier unib ami
'death billt:llion' personnel during 1917.
A shortage of Ic:lther lIt'cessitated the introduction of allklt: bOOb
worn with puttces, The only items of cquipmenl introduced during Ihe
I\~H- were a g;l~ mask, a fabric ammunition hag- \Hlrtl sllspetl(led from lhe.:
shoulder, and a 60-round cam"s bandolier.
Following Ihe Re\'Olution of ]\'Iarch 19 [7 men of all ranb. dependillg
on their political persuasioll, remm'ed '1[1 TsariSI s)mh()ls frUlII their
nniforms - particularly thc reg-imcntal mOllogmms on the shoulder
straps associated I,'ith members of Ihe imperial family, The Provi,iollal
Governmelll inlroduced all alternative sy~lel1l of rail).., indicator~ for
oflkers similar to the cull' rings of the navy; however. Ihe.:sc do not SI'('111
34 to have enjoycd widespread acceptance (see Plate HI).
 Flags
E.ach il1l~ultn It.'g"iment had ,I colour. which \\;lS carried to the front b\
tht> ] ~t Itlll,llioll. ReKimenl" aho had a camp colour. mcasUl;ng 50im. ;..
:tjim.. culouf('d .lCcordill~ 10 the r('giment'lo pl.lce in the dh'iloiollal
:.('(llIeIlCe .md bearing i1.'> llUlllbt'r in blad. ill tht.' celllre, a.'utaliom ilnd
companic' .Iho had nag... which \\ere carried 011 til(' I>;\\onets of the I1lt'll
aClill~ <1\ m....I.eN. Those of l"lu,llion\ had thfl'l' hori/ontal stripe.. of
black. ()r~H1K(' ,md \1 hiu: I\;th til(: h.lItalion lIumber on the ct:lltl~11 \1 ripe.
Comp.ul\ n<i~" I\crt.' colollf(·d .t('cordillg lO lhc number of the rl.-'g-illll'lli
within Iht· di\,i ..ioll. and had a \ LTIiCill ;l1Id a hori/ol1lal sU;pt.' w'hich
cro"\cd l·l'llIl~llh. Thc hori/unla] \tripes werc red. bille. white ami dark
g-rt'l'll luI' 1111' hI-4th ballalion' n"IJeclhely: lhe \'t'nical stripl·. ill Ih('
..a111e culollr '('qllenc<:, idelllilkd the lsl-'Ilh companies in each
baHaliull. (For in.. lance. a whill' flag with a no's formed by a ..carle I
\ertical .lIlt! ,I hltw horinl1llal 'lripe was that of lhe 1'1 Co, 2nd Ill'. 3rd
Kegimelll ill it .. di\'bion,)
.\11 Linl' Co,s;lCk regiml'lll' canied two IXlIlllerok", into action. Olll' 10
nMrl. llll' rq{imelltotl COml1l,IlI(!l-r. Iht' uther tlle 'i<JuMlron. -nle reWllll:Iltal
lllMI.l:r W,L".I :~:)il', ~llMre in llll' "arne colour as till' "houlder \u-aps. TIlOse
or lhL' Siht:n,III, Orenburg. &lIlirelchi and Tr.m....ltlika] R-gil1leTllS Ixm'"

Table G: Officers' Table H: Rank insignia

shoulder strap
lace colours Rank was st1l:7M'l on the shoUdar strap!lat alllEMll5, (1l1a Coasac;:k$. a"Id n lIOfTlll cases Ihe
C<Haky. used the alIllfnatMl titles shown in the notes baIow. bullhe SlnlElIllSlgl"Oi),j Other rank.
wore stnpa of lace attached across the top ot the shouIclar st~: pre-war lhesa ware r1 ElIlhef
"" yaIow 01' white, In! ~ 101' the Guarcls. bulat the beginning of the WlII red replaced the OIhef
coitus. Ofllcefl' $l'Ic;lOOar bo<ros had rlCM'rQW Iangthways s~ ol base (Xlku showing
betwoon the s~ of mataIic lace lacing - 0W11ra1 SW1gIa stnpas. In! ~ sl\'1leS dvidng the
151 G.IlWds W DiY G
WIdth IntO thrd8 -In! adOOd fMl.--p;)nl melal stars, General otlic.... tIIId metallic lace Iacrlg in a
2nd GuIwds W Div G

--
Zlg-lag pattern. WIttnA lllngIt1ways ~ at b8se cob.r_ h was a ~ pecUiar1ty lhallhe
~ Glads W DiY S
SfI'"ia. rather hWllhe "..0' ran< WIltwl a g-aOe wore no stars.
GuIrcl RilleI:

,-
1st 3o:)'d RegIs S

-- - 2_
2nd & 4th AlIgls G
""'" e->, _
......
""""- - '-
Ayat:1o::woI (1)
G..-d Foot Arl*"Y G
GuIrcl HorlI8 MA!Jty G
" "Cossadls
"'_ S
-'" . ....- .-
GuIrcl
t st. 2nd. 3rd
l~
G
FaIdlOOel (4)
Pod·f'I~,apoo";"~'lCId''''ik (5) .......,.,. """" 1 wld!I t r . . - mataIc ~
1 wda Ierogthways mataIc Sl/1)e

""" ""
,,-
4th Gt8'I Div Pod·Po.-uchI< l61 2nd Ilanenant 2 stars. 1 str'\?e
S
""',,."'"

---_ ....-...........
Lne Infantry -(7) 3 stars. 1 s~
G
stars. 1 Slnpa
""- Shtabs-Kaprtan 18) stall ClIjJtaf1 4
G
Kapitan (9)
""""
""-
""e->, lregomemal)
2 statS. 2 stnpes
Lile MiIllfy G
Pod-PI:lItl:Mli< (1~ _,col, 32 stars. 2s~

-
_
S
-..

-
iTIIllgllll·
, """
--
2 """

G aroaraI--felcll,."

35
 SI Amlu..w ·s cross in while, and lhe AIIlur Cossacks in yellow. All showed lhe
reg-ime11lalnu11lber in the centre.
The Mluadron markers were SI'~llIow-tailcd. 22Y,ins" in the hoist. 3Sins.
in the lly to lhe tips of the taib and ISins. in the nOlch. The upper halfl\~L"
ill the regiment;11 colour, the lower in that of the squadron. with a white or
,"CIloI'" median stripe if the rq:.,'imelltal bannerole had a 5t Andrew's cross.
Squadron colour... \,"ere scarlet lighl blue, while, dark ",rreell. yellow and
browll filI'I "t-Gt h squadrons respeclil'dy.

TACTICS
Infantry
Oflcnsh e in ran try tactics pre\'alenl in mOSl of the armies of Conlinen tal
Gas warfare began on the
Europe at the OUlbreak of the First World War blissfully ignonxl the
Eastern Front at Bolimov
during January 1915. Russia dc\'ClopnH::IH~ in weapons lhal had taken place during the previous 50
ekperlmented with a variety of year~" lIkn and their ollicers would line up, in close formati01l, and
masks. The most commonl~ mow at '<trying "peeds across more or less open ground, 10 drive their
issued was perhaps the foes bcfor(' thcm with dan and the baronet. Russia, with thc recent
Koumant-zelinski made from
l'xperi<·nn:, of the Rllsso~Japalwse War to draw lIpon, had Iheorelically
the second hall of 1916, which
is worn b~ the two right hand institll1t·d some tactical changes, hut these were not in widespread use
men here. The device consisted hy the outbreak of war.
of II reddish rubber hood and Before 1\)14 Gen.Lesh had dewloped a system based 011 platoons
a rectangular tin respirator ild\':lnring in groups of three men wit h rol Igh ly 111'0 mel res space be1\\'een
canister supported b~ neck
each man, Each trio mO\"t'd independently so that no more than tl"O
tapes; when not In use the hood
was stowed inside one end of groups were on their feel at once. The depth was three lint'S, with other
the canister, which was slung plaloons extending lhe line on either flank. ny con1rast, the usual
over the right shoulder. Other melhod ofatl<lck in 19H \I'as the 'chain'. I,'ilh some lWO 1I1I::tres between
respirators were based on mine each man and SOrTIe six metres deplh between each 'chain' - basically
rescue equipment" The Russians
~tr:aight. extended lines. TI1(' bayonet charge began at 50 metres from lhe
used ps themselves, and b~ the
end of 1916 had 15 chemical enemy line. Lesh's syslem was slow but ellident: the 'chain' was a recipe
(gasl detachments. for hen)' ca~ualtjes. i\bchine gUlls were 10 be pushed well forward to
SllPP0r1 the advancing rroops, and hand grt'nades
\\"(-'1'(' also 10 he lIsed. Ilo\\'('\'er, rhe firepower

a\~lilahk to defenders - and Rus.."ia's weakness in

artillery support for mIlch of1he war - was such as
to render all but lhe most carefully prepared
attacks suicidal, as was so tragically the case across
Europe during 1014-1(1.
The 1912 cavalry regulations slressed the
importance of 'initiative and resolut ion', and thaI
each trooper "must be prepared 10 fight with his
rille in his hand as well as any infantryman',
1100\'e\'er, the lll,yority of cavalry otlicers still
dreamed of knee-to-knee charges with sahre and
trumpet. Ca,"alry-vs-cavalry anions \\'ould
rornrnellC(' by trOlling In extended order,
breaking inlO a charge and dosing ranks at
betwecn 100 and 50 metres from the enemy. The
'swann', Iml((, was an old Cossack formation that
had been adopled by the regulars 10 disrupt the
36 enemy formation, break through il pickel line, or
 These 'ronto..il</ at leaal ha..e lhe
to e1l\'t.'lop ,111 c..:nc..:mr force. A ti\t.··111t.'trl: g-ap I\~IS
lefl hetween the ridt.'r'
benefit of dry weather. The lIeece
in the front 1,1111.. the second r-':l1lk lilled the gaps "OI1W 20 Illt'trc'i caps ahow Ihat it .. either autumn
behind. II W<lS again:'>t the Austro·1 hlllgarians that the Ru'\..,i,m'i lought or winter. The man Ma....t to the
their laSt great ca\.lln-\·Ha\.lln ballII..', including knee-to-\...nt"l' chOlrg:e" camera .. drawing lWe-round rille
atJaro<;.I'llicc ill Calicia on 20 .\ugU'it 1911. ammunition dipa, aome 01 which

r\ GU<lI,... 'tfluadron auac\...illK illl,lInn ur ani lie,... would il<h;ulIt· ill will be kept in the waiat POUChes.
singlt' ran\... estended order. It is illtt'rl''iling to note th;ll '>l'H'ral
some in tt.. c.,...," ba~
KI'OS$ his cheat - an item u...t
succe~flll ,ltIac\...s were canied uut during the 10<11' against ,ldl;ll\cillP; be<;ame . . - . common" the war
illf."1ll1n .. b Gen.Oanilm said. ·inf;l1It,... naturalh lire ;11 Ihe lidt·... lIot drawed on. At 11ft righl hip can
the ho'-"'t·'. be seen • floas mask containef'.
Hta entrenching tool .. near at
I)i~motllucd action was also nutt·d in IIIl' reglilatioll'>. with one-third
hand, and from the shine on its
of the mCll bdng detailed as hor"dwldt'pi. It len rapidh 1x.,t';IIIW edge it is well sharpened In
oh\'iou~ th,1I IIItxlcrn weapon" madt' till' old role of ca"ll,... ledunll,1I1I. ~ ...tion for uH " • hatchet
To di'imUUllt the men and turn thclII into infanln was one 'olll!ion in close combat. The prilIate in
but. until it hClpn to be adopted illl"'tt, 1911i. the ca\,lln II;.' g-ellt· ... lh the background ha. taken the
precaution of covenng the bree<:h
kept wailing: ill all1icipation 01 l'sploitinp; a br('akthrough th;.1 m'\('r
of his M1891 Moaln-Nagant IifIe
really GI111l·. 10 protecl the mechanism from
The artillery was supposed to act'ompan) infallll)' atla<:k,. l·l1~l,l.(e mud. This sturdy, simple rifle
hostilc :trtilit'ry and ma<:hine KIlll'>, de,>twy obstacles and 0]lPIl'l' was Ihe slandard Infantry weapon
counter-atta<:ks. <:onditions during thc 11';11' deman(kd a difkn'llt of both the Imperial and the Red
annies. As the shoulder a.raps 01
approach. and artillery tllnlt"d i11lo a E.irh stalic skdgt"h~nn11ll'l to
all the men in this photo are wom
pound elll'lII\ defences, in the re\/1lf1S8 (khaki upward)
fashion it is imPOlISibl4o to tell
Wartime Innovations their ranks Or unit.
Thc illllO\;t!i\C use of the 11e\01\ formed
grenadkr 1I11iL' 10 'ipearhead all<lc\...:, \0-;.' mw of
Ihe waH ill which lhe Ru~,i;tll' '1Il1gllt to
merCOlllt'lhl' murderous obslack:. 10 Ill(" ..uccess
of frontal assaults. Another \o'as the liSt" of
parti'iall \o-;lrf"1'e, pal1iclliarh in thl' prilllt"\al
condili()l1~ of the PI;P\<l1 ~I.lr;ht,<;: ill Ihi, ....ea
\-;ISI s\o';unps Clil bl IlllmercJU~ \\,HenO,IH
prnl'lIted Ihe CCllIral Power:. from e'iI,lhli~hing: a
cOluilHlOU'i line.. \ raid c'lrrinl out ill thl' earh
winter of 191:1 allr.lcted attelllion: ,. forcc of
irrcgular... guided bl' sympalhetic locals.
launched a night 1,lid on the IIQ uf a (;erman
infantrv division and lOok pri'oner the
commander - who committed suicide - and
sCI'eral ofhi~ sl;.IT. This success kd the AIIII/1(/I/ of
the Cussacks to order Ihc formation of panisau
units from volullleers in every CO'\liack reKil11ellt.
The 1II0'>t falllou~ of these was the 'Wol\'t:'~·. so
calkd because their standard \\<lS the "\...in of a
wolf with wolf-lails auachcd to lhe poll', alld lilt:'
mcn ,,'ore \\'olfskin caps. The IInil ,,~.s led b\ a
\'Oung Kuban Cossack officer, A.C.Shkuro, who
was lalt:'r 10 Ix'comc f."1mous::J~ a c;l\~lln I('ader in
the Civil War.
Ilowl'lcr. Ihe mitior inll0\<I1ioll 10~IS the
method of ;ls,\<l1Ih used during the opening
phases of the I\nlsilm OfTensin." in 1916.
 The Brusilov
Offensive
General A.A.Brllsilo\' was
promoted to the command
of' the South-Western Front
in April 1916, amI inIIlH>-
diatt::ly ~et about preparing
an uffen~i\'e agilinsl the
AtlSlro-l-Iungarians, who
were well dug illto position::.
which they had occupied
for several months. Brusilov
and his stall' had analysed
the failures of previolls
RlI~sian olknsin:s, IIOWCW:r.

Artillery preparation
would be cu-urdill<lICd
so that the Auslrialls would
be confused. Apparclltly
mndom pauses and resumptions in the bombardment \H:rc calculated to The 5th Battery of an unknown
t hro\l' Ihem 00' ba1:l11((: and make them war)' ,lboul t'mcrgi ng from their artillery unit during the winter
dugollts during a lull. The emire line would be bombarded in lhe satlte of 1916-17. The two gunners
nearest to the camera are
w"y so as to give no hint of \\'hcre the main allack would lilli, thus wearing the pre-war dark green
preventing 111(' enemy from placing: their reserves dfeclin:ly f(lr uniform, which was issued at
a coullter-atlack. times of shortage. The others
Trenches wt:re sappcd fOn\~lnL in places to wilhin 50 IlWII"f" of the are dressed for cold weather
cm:lllr, along as Illuch of Ihe linc ,l~ pos."ible. Ilug-t:' dllg-outs Wt're built to in greatcoats and fleece caps.
The piece is the M1902 7.62cm
hOllSl' tllc reservcs Wilhill a SIIOr! dislallce of the front line. tlJ enable Ihem
Putllov, which was the standard
10 gel forward quickly. Modd~ were made nfthe AlI"lriall (klt'lln'" in each Russian Ileld gun during the
';CCIOl~ and the Russian infantry were 1l~lined in thelll "0 a" 10 become First World War. B~ this date the
familiar with lheir o~jeCli\'es. C<.1rt'!"ul aerial reconnai"sance. including: shell shortages 0119,4-15 had
pholOgl<lpllY, \\"<1S carried mn. and enemy batleries W('l"(> pin-pointt'd. been largely overcome, and the
artillery was able to enhance its
TIll.: Suuth-\\'estern Frout"s four armies t~lCed a similar 11Ilmbcr of
eKcellent reputatIon.
Austrians. I3rusilov ordered each army to choosc a point to ,Itlack
dcpendillg on the local
conditiOlIS. The offensive
was to havc bcgun in July,
but was brought fOr\\"ard to
relicve the Italians, who
wcre under hllgl' pn~ssl1re
from a successful Austriall
offensive. After a rel<ltil't:ly
short homhanill1('nt along
the whole of the Somh-
WcsH:rn Front the Russian
8th Army attacked on
"June 1916. meeting with
unpal~ll1e1ed sllcress. The
Austri;111 defences c,l\'ed in.
troops being caplllred in
their dugouts hy lhe .•..:-
3. hundred, and Ikusilov's
 1II~11 rolkd fon,·ard. Il\ 12 JUtl~ n~arl\' 200,000
onicers and mcn, 2l6gullS and 645 mach inc gum
had OCCll captured and the lill~ had b~clI pushed
for"ward h\ ~('\('I';ll miles.
The main Ru~si;lll SUllllllcr olTcn,i\(' h.ld been
plallllt>c1 for Ihe nonhel'n pari of (he froll!.
oppo~itt' till' German line. IlowcH'r.•Ifter ,I
colCK,"'11 IX)lI1hardmc!ll and 'rome initial SllCC("SS
(hal olTc"'ll'~i\l' Clllle (0 a hall in Ihl' rniddlc ofJuh
after jU'i( 1\\(1 \1 et.'l..s. In J lIl" Bnlsilm'~ lllC,,'n .1g;lill
ad\"'lIlced. hili h\ Ihi" lilllt.' (he\' wert.' running imo
supph prohlcm".LS Ihe rCj:~ion'" tr.lIl~pon I1c(\lork
wa~ poorh dt,\l'Iopc::u. Russian GL'iuahie...; 1II0llnied
and, in a ,~'ri(~ of hideoush' lIli'iCalcula(cd all.lcks
cmplO\inl{ Ihe.' method'i which Ul'lt"ilO\ had
specilicalh ah,IlHloned as wonhl~·'is. the Cu.trds
Arnn \\~I' decimated ncar Ko\'e1. "UloP"t 1916
wi,ne'sed 1\11"1l1er Rm~ial1 SllCCC'S on Ih(' South-
Weslern Frollt. hill h)' now the C('ntml Powers
w{'rC,,' brillg:ill).!; in re~er\'c~ from all ll'om,.
including: IWI, TI1]'ki~h corps.
Br\l~il()\'~ ~"I('m of mcthodical prt'p;tr-:ltion
had achi~'\ed a{h~lIlce, of up to ~~,o lIlik~ 1)\ ,he
(inw il \\~I~ c.llkd on in the earh .lll!unlll - all
eniJr! un'illrpa!>)l.'d b l lhe \\'e~lern PoweN until
(he ~LlmllleJ' of 1918.

The caplton 10 this postcard, Training facilities

dated UI1 e, Is a gt1Hltlng to the Ru"i,\1I \\,tltilllt' Imining facilitk... \\('re.' poor. L;lrge numlx:rs olmcll were::
lst Royal Scots lrom the lst
I.q)t ill ,hI.' r!f'!)()b in larg{' cilk.. Uluil Ihe\ \\ere sent to the' fmlll lL'
Caucaslan Ain. Aegimeflt. The
crewman 01 this $Omm mortar,
1('pl.lt.l'lIll·l\h. The training the.'\ n:cci\{'d was link' morc than (hill
solidly .mplaced In a timber- ,11111 I><u-:u!t' Hlound manOt.'u\Te.., duC,,' lU the lad. of in,lnloo.... Wilh
rewatled pit, Is chac:ldng the ("(IlIlIMt "'pt'rit'lIc('. \\'ith timc 011 Iheir hands, Ihese m{'n \\'cre ;l pn.'\
projac:tll... 10 Ill\' polilical ag:illltion and nlllltlur'lIlong:eling which were.' r;:unpant
IHIlIl Ih~' ~'arh rnonlh'i of Ill{' \\-:11'; ,\1Id it \\~l' lhe\ who ~upponl'd the
n'\ I)hlli"ll.lri~', of 'larch 1917.
;\lol't' worthwhile ll';lining \\a, carried out at the fronl, hut thi~
dl'P~'Il(II'd \t'r"\' IIlllCh on Ih(' rC'iollrcc!ulness of local COllllllall{kn.
Sc1IUoh w~'rL' e~tahli~hcd to train. in a ~hon(,lled \'t'r~ion 01 Ihe
pC,1I ('tillll' pro).{ralllllw, potential ()llirer~ who Wt.ore cllled IIp dllring: Ihe
\\;11; (;l'll;llti~'~ among the trained, prolc,~ionlll of/ice I' corp~ lI'er(' hUKe
<lml 'llilabk replaccmcllls \\'e.'re dillicuh III find.

Of'f'OSrTE Taken .arty In t917.

this picture shows a t22mm WEAPONS
M1909 SChneld.... Putllov
howitzer 01 lhe 32nd Mortar Small arms
Hatl'-Reg;meflt {DivizionJ. The 1"11(' '1.1Il(I.tnl infanu", rine ill use \\~L~ thl' MO!>in-:\'ah"'-nt \l1R91 7.62mm. a
lIun aP9llars to be brand n_.
holt·ani, m weapon \\ilh a fixed li\e...rouml nMWl7jne. \'ariation~ 011 (he basic
The bleak landscape, and the
orint... d..... 01 the crew, give inl.ull" model were lhe llmgoQtHklll'(/ ('dragoon'). which \\';L~ ~honcr and
a fOOd impression 01 wint... lighl~'r, .1IId die ka::.nrh)'a ('C,ossack·). \\'hich \\~1S the dragoon l'1X' \\;thOlllll
condition. on the barren plains 1)<1\011('1. ,\l1.illenmell were issued \\ilh (he Musin \11908 GIl"hine::.
of the Eastem Front.
 It rapidh becamc ckar lhat dOmcSlic produclion would be
in:ldequ,lle. resulling ill lhc importation of Amcrican rifles from
We<jtillgholl~. Sprillh>fidd ,md Windwster: howc\cr. lhe m~Oril\ of
IheW' ord('1"'~ were nO! filled until 1916-1 i. ~Iuch use was made of
capturc...·d .\lIs11n-Hullgari'lIl \lalllllichcr ~1189;1 8mm lines. and a
faclon \1,1-' 1U1ll1.,<1 mer to the prodliClioll of ~uil;lble ammunilion.
Jap<lIlcS<.'. hali'lIl and French rine~ were also i,sllcd. along with Ikrdans
from Ih(' w.lI.... of Lhe kite 191h cellllln. Th(' IX'riod of acme 'ihonage
W'L'i 191;") follol"ing the 'Grcal RClreal· from Pol.lIld and Galicia. \\hen
man\ I\'e,\pon~ I\'('re los.. The crllciforlT1-~eClion .\11891 bayonet. I iins.
IOllg. \\~IS alwa\s carried tha'd whell in tl1(,' line. lhe scabbard being
len a' lhl' depot.
I'iqol~ were issllcd to ;\rlilkrYlllCll as wdl as 10 ollicers. Ihe standard
mo(kl Ix.'ing lhe se\"ell-{<ohOI Nagant il11M9.:> of i.62rnm c"libl'c; but
pril<lIe \n'apons such as lhl' Colt il11911. Smith &: Wesson or llorchardl-
Lugel II ell' allowed. rJw ~agant was pnKlllced in two \ersiulIs,
double-OlClion fur officer<; and sillgle-actiOlI fur :-fCOs and other ranls. as
il was bdie\cd Ih:u th1.· enli~ted men would \\~ISt(' ammunilion if i\SllCd
wilh tlw doublt:-actioll IIHw:ld ... l...'1.pturcd pic...·cc, such 'L~ the Gennan
As the fighti"9 Milled into the 'broomhandlc' \11896 i.G~llllll .\Iall'ier. wilh its \\()()(Ien holsler-stock.
routine of trench warfare the were \e.... popular.
need fOf' close-support weapons
A lunK. ClIncd knill', lhc bebout. was carried b\ seoUlS. machine
became apparent. TM Russl,ns
h'1111llel"i ;lIld anillcn·tllc:rl. L.mcasian C.cls:.,lcls had their 0\"11 long.
de"eloped two types of trenth
mortar, both of which are seen su~\ighl. r\\o·..·dgcd "nik, Jill' killJal. Naval ami Ail' Sen·ice unicers wore
here with the 'Sp.ec:lal Bombing the 1I00/ill. ,( dirk. in p\;\Cl: oflht, ~word. '1'11<.' Sland<ll'd sword for moullted
Group' 01 the 2951h Rlfle Regt troops was the MI8S1 Dragoon pattern \·!lfl\"hlla sabre; the Co~"a("k
near Stanlslau on the South- \~,rial1t had 110 hand-guard .Hld a dislincliwlv shaped grip. Oi~mutllltcd
Westem Front. The two mortars
ollicc:r, Wt'll' i..." ued wilh the 1\109 pattern Onlet'rs' sahre. Other than thc
In the centre are Llkhonln 47mm
M11t1!5 On their trenc:h btlses- C,mCOl~iOlll Co'sacks. half of (.\0: .... c:1\~lln regiment \1~IS arnll'd wilh lhe
broad chunks of wood to spread lance ,IS \\('\1 as Ihe ~word alld rille. The ilI1910 l.111ce was a holltm Sled
re<:011 and prewent them from tube S0111(' Ihrel' mel res in Ienglll and p'linled l..hal..i; no pennon, were
s1nkl"9 into the m\>d. Both lyJ)es
110\\11 ill Ihl' field.
~ man-portable, wtth a "'"9'
TIll' ,taml.trd Ru...si.1II lllolChill<.· gun \\<lS Iht· da_ssic bell-fed MI910
of some 500 metres. TM others
.\Iaxilll i.li~11lm. OI;h,;n,llh 1II11tull<"d 011 J ll;ptKI bill ~n lransfern'd 10
.........
a,. Russian copies of Austrian
Ihe mon' LllniliM lw{}-\\hc<.,kd Sokoim can;;:tge. wilh or withoul its
cllned-Iop armOllr shidd.

Artillery
'I'll\' mainstay of Ihc Tsar's
ridd and horso: artillery
wa, lhe MI902 i.62clll
ridd gun manufactured
h\ l'uliIOl. The Schneider
i.62clll mountain gun
equipped the mOUlllain
,uul horse..mOlillwin units
.md also replaced thl' field
gun in some amll COIV'.
Medium to hean gun<;
call1<.· in a vaTiet' (If <;i/cs
from .1 c.llalohTlle of manu-
faClllrcrs. and included the
 British r-,'II ~04 12.7cm (Sin., 60pdr), Krupp's 15.2cIII M I ~ 10 hm"itler,
and the Schneider 1\'1 I ~]() IS.2clll howitzer and gUll. The Schncider and
Krupp weapons were produced llnder licence ill Russia.

Wartime innovations
Trench warfare created the need lor small calibre, 1ll,IIl-portable guns
that cOllld he lIsed in the fronl line. Irl 1915 a .'\7mm Irench gun was
developed and by I!J 17 it was planlled 10 cquip C\'eI1' infantry rcgirnt:nt
willI a four-gllll baiter}' of these weapolls.
The first trench mortar" I,'ere copied from captured Austrian and
German types. II00n~\'er, the most widely used was the robustly simple
5~mln ]\11915 Likhonin. In time for Ihe Kerenski Offcnsive of 1917 the
British providcd '60 Ions of 2in, mortars, Stokcs gUllS (3-pdr trench
pieces) alld ammllnition', These weapolls werc operaled hy mell of
Lockcr-Lampson's RNAS armoured car force, who also aCled as
illstruLtors in their lise,
I\lachine guns "'ere imported ill large nUlllbt'rs, including the 81ll1ll
French II00chkiss M1914, the .303ill. Lewis M1915, and particularly the
.30<:;11 Colt M 1895 'potato-digger'; indeed, so widespread was Ihe use of
the latter that the units issued with it \\'ere simply listed as Kol/a
detaclllllclltS.
Russia maintained the largest
10ll:e 01 armoured cars of any
of the Allies; tIM diversity of Armoured fighting vehicles
types included this Fiat, Russia had experimell1ed successfully with armoured ears before the
Strangely, the tyres are of the OutbrC<lk of war. In 1914 suitable touring cars and lorries were armed and
stlHlded KT type, which were
alllloured by the finn of Putilov, and the 1st AllIomohile Machine Gun
Intended for driving on snow.
Armament and armOur were BattelY W;l~ crealed. The success of these uniL~ ted 10 the expansion of
usually added to the various antloured car companies, ulltil ill 1916 the entire force became kllown as
basic lorelgn chassis in rhe Armoured lJivision, with companies allocated to all Fronts. L1Ckin!{ a
Russia, and this twin-turret domestic vehicle indusll)' Russia importcd chassis, notably froll] Austin,
5uperstnlcture was popular,
and armed and armoured them herself.
The two members 01 the crew
are both wearing the issue A typical armoured car platoon consisted of t\\"o or three twill-turreted
leather suits with the armoured machine gun cars such as AListins or Fials, and one or two anlloureu
troop's cap - see Plate F1. lorries - lIsually American Garfords - moullting short-barrelled 75nml
gllllS. American-manu-
factured Illdi.tlllTlotorcycies
prmided communications,
and sOllle had Maxim
lllilchine guns muunted to
give anti-aircraft co\'er. By
November 1917 OV<:l' 200
armoured cars were in
service. (Illterestillgly, lilt:
Red Army madc lhc first usc
of half:tracks as fighting
vehicles in 1920, USillg
converted Austins,)
Estimates vary as to
the nllmber of armoured
trains Russia possessed in
1914, between 11\'0 and
len. At first the gUllS 41
 Iad-.nl ll~l\I'Pie, blll tUlTCL\ W('I"(' illtrol!lln:d to
l.:Ulllpt·Il"'th'lI11thi'i, and lluchilll.: 1{11I1' to \\~Ird olT
;lIl;lCke'.... II0I,e\t'r, Ihere \\~l:> 110 '1,111c1,lrcl dt',ign.
,lI1d al1l1;\ll1el1\ \1<1.' a case 01 '<I~ 1111lth ,I' po<"ibk,
01 "IMlt'\er i<, ,l\ailahltc"'. \nnoured 11~li'l<' Clmf-'
inlo Ihdr O\\n \Iith Iht, Mht'lI1 ul po,ilion;tl
\I<lrlare, IhlUtll{h lhei! abilit\ 10 pro\'jch- mnhik
al tillen ,upport dl"pile Ihe lack ollll('I;lllt-d m;lch
in nHlrh ollhe .In';I of operalion,.
nw \.1'1 llIajoril\ of RlI."'iia\ aircraft ill 1911
Ilert' 01 Fn'lIf h m.llInf;lrlllre - ;\ieupol h, ~I()I ;111('
Tvpt· (;...11111 Dt'Ili'ldus..in'>, phI' '>Olllt' i-,lml,llh,
,\i,u~.lt imported during the W;If indu<kd Ihe
~p;\d \'11 .lIId :'I:!<.'upon 17, TIlt' '1.1\"\ 01)\'1;111.'<1
• CUrli,.. hpe n .lnd E t1o;llpbne... hpl' i- thing
":";;"f:iil:i_.. ..,,",...~ ~~-l bO.lh ,11IeI Sikor..ki S-IO l1o,l1pblle.., C,Plllft'd
ainl~ltl pn''''I'd illlo ..e1"\·ice indllc!eel .\Iblik...
The use of armoured trains Alb~l1ro ....l·..
:lnd LVC... 1\1;\11)' IIl'U' ll'-:ll"llwd wilh Iht.: Coil tll:1dlilH' gUll,
was widespread On the Eastern which \,'a.. \('n' popular wilh RU"iall piloh.
Front, The Russian officer at
left, wearing the 'duster' coat
and "OIl"les often used for
tra"elllng by car, Is inspecting SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
the shell,b,nered remains of II
lypkal Austnan train, By March Rd~'\;Ull Eng:lish langtl.•gt" lilll'" ;UI' .... Iollow..:
1"1& armoured trains were
\Ibn, \\.1'.. D. & Palll ~ltll~.ton. (;llIIr(/\;fll/ Ilnllll'fil'ltI\. (t P 1999)
orvaniMd by wfighl of ,rtillery
IkllC"t·-I.it1COln. W.. Passaf,.'f' 11IrOllg/i _\,-1I/(lf,.'f'ddull. (O"lonl 1!IHti)
into 'shock' (7.&2cml, 'fire
support' j107mm and 122mm Fige'i, Orlando.. \ Prol)ll"\ "Ji"(jf.."'lh. (l.111ulllfl 1996)
nn-'l, and 'hertY fire S\,lpport' (;·,,10\111('. (;I:II."'icho(;.~ .... , nil' Hl/lllfIIl _\mn' m IIII' 1I0dd I\rH; (:\"1:'\\
(152mm and 203mm na"..1) 1I,1\t'n l!nll
"roups. All were 'rmed with Nu". \1,y.(*'n.Sir .\Jrrcd. 1\ ,tll till' HI/II/IlII 'nil.' 1914-1 i. (Lunl!oll 1921)
pt.entiful machine "uns to
~Inllo. \o(\re\\ . .-\m,.,· i'm{tll'lfll of Hi,,.,d 11;/1'1. (I)(Mlle 19n)
pro\ride cIoN defence against
inf'nt.., or ca".lry, Men 01 the SlOne. :\"Oflll,ltl. n" 1':tatrrn 1'11/11/ IfJll-191 i. (London 1!li.""»)
railway baltttllons c ~ the (\\';u OOire), HrllldbotJkofIlII'Hl/lliml,\nl/' /91-1. (r p 19':H.i)
trains, som.times with na"al Wildmiln . . \lIan K.. nu' Iml of II" UIiHifu/ /m/".,-ia! Inll\, 2 \ol'i
"un..... ,ttached. (:'\\'\llt'lv'\ 19H7)

Aircraft suCh .. this Nieuport

17c scout from France reached
the Russl,n .rmed lorces 'Ita
Vladl"ostock and Archa"9ttI,
albeit slowly. This machine
appea.. to be factory fresh,
with only the n,tlonlll roundels -
red, blue ,nd white, reading
inw'rd" - added on the
unctenlde 01 both wings,
Britain and France proorided
'nslNCton 10 familiarise
Runten pikJts .nd "round
42 crew with imported m;w;hines.
THE PLATES A2: General of Artillery V.lrmano\/, 1914
This illustrates the officers' greatcoat. In this case with the
A: STAFF scarlet lapels and cuff Plpmg whICh dishngUished general
A1: Captain of the General Staff A,Afanasyev, officers; his rank is also shown by hIS shoulder boards, In the
1917 Zig-zag palterned lace 01 general offlCel'S. The black and red
The typical offICer's uniform of the later Waf The lur'llC was detaJls on the service cap and collar patches mtcale the arm
known as !he 'French'; hIS breeches and boots are standard of servICe. He wears the Order of SI George 3rd Class and
patterns. Note that the shoulder boards are now of the ribbon 01 the 4th Class. Hidden here by the coat. tus
unstJffened malena!. and are sewn 1Il10 the tunic seams 10 breeches woukl have scarlet slnpes - Iampasi. General
make them less pl'OITunent. Siaff algUlllettes weo! either wtlrte Irmanov commanded III Caucaslafl Corps 10 1914. Following
or khaki. He IS decornled WIth the Order of $1 Anne 2nd Class lhe March 1917 Revo/utJon he re5lQned tws commlSSlOfl and
WIth Swords. the Order of 51 Slanrslaus 2nd Class wIth re-enbstoo as a povate soldtel'".
Swords. and the Order 01 51 Vladimir 4th Class WIth SWOfds. A3: Adjudant General of Cavalry A.A.Brusilov,
and wears on hIS nght breast pocket the badge of the 1916
Nikolaevski Mlhtary Academy; he also carnes a gilded 51 RUSSIa'S most effecllve general 01 the WaI wealS a plain,
George's Sword 'lor Bravery'. All these figlKes wear the more regulatoo officer's servICe umform with staff 3IgUilielles, the
elaborate offICers' VersK>fI of the cap cockade, 01 domed general officer's trouser stopes being the only ConcesSIOn to
construcllOll with the rayed edge making a crenellated effect. colour. He displays the Order 01 St George 3rd ancl4th Class,
and the badge 01 the COI'PS 01 Pages, and carnes a gilded 5t
George's 5wOl'd for Bravery.
A4: Colonel, medical service, 1915-16
The doctor is weanng the Bekesha which was a popular
alternative to the usual greatcoat; this was a long version 01
the fleece-lined polushuook worn by Plate B4. HIS earmuffs
are privately purchased. All members of the medical Services
wore the red cross brassard on the left arm.

B: GUARDS
81: Staff Captain, Grodno Lite Guard Hussar
Regiment, 1915
The crimson hussar breeches were commonty seen at thls
early stage 01 !he WaI. The boots are 01 the slyle worn by
hussars throughout Europe, high-fronted and WIth a whlte
metal rosette at lhe front Note the wtustle on hls left shoulder
brace On the breast pockets he wears the badges of hrs
regmler'lt and the Officer's Cavalry School.
82: Private, Semenovski Life Guard Infantry
Regiment, 1914
In full summer servICe dress, ttIls Guardsman typifies what the
Brrtlsh lTlI~tary anache clescribed as 'the fllleSt human ammals
in Europe'. On the cuff of hIS gymnastJorlaJ can be seen the
white lace identifying the 1st Guards Infantry DIVISIon, and on
the chest and shoulder straps the blue lace 01 the diViSIon'S
second regiment, The Guards were the only Inlantry to be
issued knapsacks for wear on the back. The ends of hiS rolled
grealcoat are tucked into his mess-lin, a common practice.
83: Cossack, Alaman's (Tsarevitch's) lIle Guard
Cossack Regiment, 1917
Cossacks always wore thelf headgear in defiance of gravity,

This typically posed st\.>dio shot of Pod-poru'chl/Jr 12nd Ltl

Miktlai! ZhMznyak shows the otficen field equipment lor
the campaigns of 11114-15; he WillS killed In October 11114.
Oddly enouth, the we.nng of the shoukier braces vertical
at tt>e front and cros8ed at tt>e back was banned, along with
otrlc_' shoulder boards, aHer tt>e November Revolution 01
11111. The Mi881 sword Os slung in tt>e 'Oriental' stvt-, edge
upwards; u,. pistol on the right hip is pt'Obably Btl Mf8115
Hagant. Durinll th<t urty part of the war shoulder straps
were oHen - . , with th<t dKorated side uppennost; for
otrlcers th<t IKe colour cOt'T'e'SPOnded vrith that of the
regimental buttons. either llOkl or silver. Cf Plat" B .. c, 43
 only worn by the Elite Squadron. By this stage of the war
much of the Russian cavalry was out of the line waiting for a
breakthrough, hence the blue breeches and lack of weapons.

c: INFANTRY
C1: lieutenant-Colonel, 94th Yeniseiski
Regiment, 1914
A rather crumpled 'duster' coat is worn to protect the
uniform: this pod-polkovnfk has attached his shoulder boards
of rank to this. identified by two stripes and three stars.
Wearing medals was obligatory, even in combat; this officer
has the Order of St Anne 3rd Class with Swords. As well
as the pistol holster and binocular case he has a torch at
his bell.
C2: Private, 404th Kamyshinskiy Regiment
(Opolchenie),1915
From his service cap to his boots this man typifies a
fronlovik. Above the Romanov cockade on his cap is the
'militia cross' of the Opolchenie bearing the Tsar's monogram
(non-Christian militia wore an octagonal badge instead). The
coloured side of the shoulder straps was red with yellow
paint stencilling in both the regular and militia infantry: the
404th Regt was made up of the 214th, 215th and 216th Bns
from Saratov. His medal is for the Russo-Japanese campaign
in which he fought as a young regular. To supplement the
pouches on his waistbelt he has slung two canvas
bandoliers, each holding 60 rounds, over his shoulders.
Hanging at his left hlp is the 'bread bag', the large haversack
that did duty as a knapsack for non-Guard infantry: officially
it was supposed to accommodate two shirts, a pair of
drawers. two pairs of foot clothes (worn by Russians in place
of socks). towel, mittens, sewing kit. 4'!>lbs of biscuit. salt,
This soldier wearing his greatcoat _ fastened by hooks- rifle cleaning kit, and cup.
and-eyes and with a row 01 brass buttons for decoration C3: Senior NCO, regimental machine gun
only _ shows his volunteer status by the twist piping on kommando, 6th Moscow Grenadier Regt, 1917
his shoulder straps in white, orange and black. The collar The three lines of red lace on his shoulder straps identity a
patches on the greatcoat were in the arm-et-se....ice colour, slarshl-unleroficer (roughly, sergeant); the button on his collar
sometimes with appropriate piping. The service cap is worn patches, an NCO; and the crimson cuff lace indicates that he
in the Russian style, pushed back On the head. The peak Is is a member of the machine gun team. From August 1914 'M'
black but was usually painted green in the field; dismounted for Moscow on the shoulder straps replaced the monogram
troops did nol have chinstraps; and the metal cockade was of the regiment's Colonel-in-Chief, Ouke Frederick of
In Romanov colours for all enlisted men. Mecklenburg. This NCO is turned out in regulation winter
dress, and armed with a pistol and bebout knife. The ends of
hence the rakish angle 01 the fleece cap. Longer hair, With the bashlyk slip under the shoulder straps and tuck into the
a lovelock just visible. was also a loken of the Cossack's belt - note the brass Grenadier plate.
freebooting past. The final Cossack louch is the slinging 01 C4: Senior private, 9renadier platoon, 4th Rifle
the rifle over the right shoulder, rather than the usual Brigade ('The Iron Brigade'), 1916
left. Note the great length of the cavalry coat. and the Wearing the pi/otka forage cap. this yefreitordisplays his rank
deep pointed cut of the cuff, front and back. White leather by the red transverse lace stripe on his shoulder straps. On
waist and sword belts show that this is a Guardsman. the upper left sleeve is a flaming grenade badge. the mark of
The M1910 lance has no pennon; these were not used in these picked assault platoons. In 1916 wound stripes were
the field. introduced on the left cuff; for other ranks and NCOs these
B4: Volunteer, Her Majesty's life Guard Lancer were in red. for officers in gold or silver depending on the
Regiment, 1916 regimental button COlour. The armament reflects his training
This class of short term volunteers provided many of the for close combat and infiltration: a hatchet, a carbine and a
reserve officers called up at mobilisation. The Romanovski bag of grenades. He also has a gas respirator slung on his
po/ushubok was a popular wmter Jacket of fleece-lined cloth; left hip. Knee boots were frequently replaced with ankle
note the fancy 'lancer plastron' effect on the chest of this boots and puttees by this stage of the war.
example. 'Volunteer braid', of twisted orange, white and
black, edges the shoulder straps. These bear a typical D: LINE CAVALRY
regimental monogram - here that of the Dowager Empress 01: Bombardier Layer, 20th Horse Artillery, 1915
44 Maria Fedorovna, the regiment's Colonel-in-Chlef. which was Very little, other than his shoulder boards. distinguishes this
bombardier from any other mounted soldier. The sword and Novocherkask Cossack School. HIS handsome weapon is a
pistol are standard issue. To his left is a Danish manufactured St Anne's Sword 'for Bravery' - note the roselle in the
M1904 Madsen light machine gun of the type issued to some pommel. He carries the Cossack nagaika whip.
cavalry regiments before 1914. E4: Warrant Officer, 17th Don Cossack
02: Captain, 5th AleJl.andriyski Hussar Regiment Regiment General Baklanov, 1914
('Immortal Hussars'), 1916-17 The 17th Don Regt wore on their caps the scroll and death's-
The unit was known as the 'Immortal Hussars' after a line In head as a reminder of past glories; they were named for
its regimental song. This oHicer is very much in the wartime Gen.Yakov Baklanov, a hero of fhe Crimean War. This veteran
fashion with his black leather jacket cut like the uniform tunic, pod-khorunji's extraordinary collection of decoraflons
gloves, and regimental breeches striped with silver lace. The tesfifies to his personal bravery and skill at arms: 1st. 2nd, 3rd
brown leather equipment is regulation issue of the 1912 and 4th Classes of the St George's Cross, St George's Medal
pattern. Again, note the hussar boots with rosettes. 4th Class. Russo-Japanese War medal, 300th Anniversary of
03: Trooper, 16th Tverskoi Dragoon Regiment, the Romanov Dynasty, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Classes of the
1915-17 Sharpshoofer's Badge, and the crossed swords marking
The 16th Dragoons served with the Army of the Caucasus. proficiency at swordsmanship. His jacket IS a non-regulation
This trooper wears a fleece cap. cowl and gloves in cool nago/ny polushbok cut to a practical length for riding: It is left
weather; his greatcoat is strapped to the front of the saddle. in natural sheepskin rather than being covered with fabric
The horse furniture is the standard issue brown leather with Nofe fhe bash/yk bundled around his neck.
saddlebags at the rear. Regular cavalry carried the bayonet,
which can be seen attached to the sword scabbard in the F: SPECIAL TROOPS
'1881 method'. F1: Armoured car driver, 7th Automobile
MaChine Gun Platoon, 1915
E: COSSACKS The 'Swedlsh kurtka' leather jacket. gauntlets and breeches
E1: Cossack, 1st Argun Regiment, were issued from the beginning of the war. This style of
Trans-Baikal Host
Cossacks were expected to provide their own uniforms: and
this man shows the regulation dress for the Steppe Hosts.
distinguished by the yellow trouser stripe of the Trans-Baikal
troops. His weapon is the 'Cossack' model of the standard
M1891 Mosin-Nagant '3-line' rifle.
E2: Cossack, Kuban Cossack Infantry
Kuban infantry units wore the traditional Caucasian Cossack
dress including the heavy black felted hair burka cape lor foul
weather. His weapons include rifle, pistol. and a Caucasian
dagger which has its highly decorated scabbard protected
by cloth bindings. The standard Shirt-tunic is worn under a
kaftan coat. Kuban and Terek Cossacks shaved their heads.
E3: lieutenant, 2nd Volgski Regiment,
Terek Host
The epitome of the Caucasian Cossack officer; the highly
decorated weapons and kaftan are typical of these units
throughout the war. The cartridge pockets on each breast,
gaziri. were functional as well as decorative. The undershirt,
beshmet, was often privately made and did not always
conform to regulations. During the war supply problems led
to khaki replacing the grey kaftans. The rank of this sotnik or
first lieutenant is identified by the three stars and single stripe
on his shoulder boards. which also bear the regimental
number '2' and the Cyrillic initial of the Terek Cossacks,
which resembles 'Br'. light blue was the traditional
disfinguishing colour of the Terek Host. He wears the Order
of Vladimir 4th Class with Swords. the Order of St Anne 4th
Class wifh Swords, a Terek Cossack badge and that of the

An eVOl;ative !Shot of an infantry officer amid the debris

01 war. The khaki 1911 pattern shirt-tunic has the soft
shoulder straps stitched Into the shoulders. The breeches
are dartl. green; and note that the boota come above the
knee. He wears the officer's Order of St George In white
enamel, lind either his regimental or a military school badge
on his left breast. The coloured parade cap ;s set well back;
and hla aword has been replaced with a walking stick. 45
 front, and ceremonies were observed punctiliously. The
bleSSing of the troops before bailie was often carried out by
priests in their full regalia. The priest here is wearing the
traditional overcoat and hat of a cleric over his everyday
cassock; the Naperstny cross is his badge of office, hanging
from a St George's ribbon to mark hiS bravery under fire.
F4: Pilot officer, Aviation Service, 1914
Clad In leather flying clothing, this pilot is armed with the
Mauser M1896 pistol favoured by many Russian officers. On
his chest is the speaking tube with which he communicates
with the observer. The flying helmet - note its cockade - was
Initially Imported from France. The breeches and jacket collar
are piped in red.
F5: Cyclist, 3rd Bicycle Company, 1915-17
Cyclists seem out of place in Russia, which boasted few
metalled roads. Originally armed only With pistols, they were
issued during the war with Japanese Arisaka rifles. During
the last year of the war cyclist battalions were formed, and
were noted for their bravery during the retreat into Russia
following the collapse of the 1917 summer offensive. Their
uniform and equipment was designed for practicality, hence
the puttees, canvas ammunition belt, goggles, and fiatler
service cap with a larger peak. On his left sleeve is a wound
stripe; he wears the St George's Medal, and on his right
brace a 3rd Class Sharpshooter's Badge. The cycle Could be
folded and slung on the back.

G: NATIONAL TROOPS
G1: Private, 5th Latvian Rifle Regiment, 1916-17
Armed with the .3OCal WinChester M1895 rifle, this private is
wearing the canvas equipment issued during the war when
leather became scarce. The copy of the French Adrian steel
helmet was manufactured in Finnish factories mainly in this
version for Latvian and Czech troops, without holes at the
front for the attachment of a badge.
Three Don Cossack cavalrymen photographed out of the G2: Trooper, Turkmen Horse Half-Regiment,
line, wearing the f/ymnastlorlra and lcentre) the 1912 Illtlel 1914-15
tunic. The Cossack sword held by each man Is slung by the This was a two-squadron half-regiment voluntarily recruited
belt over the right shoulder. The Cossack on the right is a among the Moslem Tekin tribe of Turkestan. Over the
lance-corporal - note the transverse lace on his shoulder regulation shirt-tunic the men wore a yellow and orange
strap; the broad breeches strlpe, Just visible, is In the red striped kaftan based on their native dress, With yellow
of the Don Host, Cf Plate E1. shoulder straps. They also wore a white bashlyk cowl piped
in pale blue, and black breeches. Officers' service caps were
MI911 cap was unique to the motorised branch of the black With a yellow band and crown piping; their breeches
Engineers from whom they had developed; a flaller, square~ were blue, striped yellow. The fleece cap worn by all
peaked cap (see Plate F5) was also worn by enlisted men. non-commissioned ranks throughout the year was this more
Fold-down padded earflaps cut down the noise inside the shaggy, Asiatic type. As Gen.Kornilov's bodyguard during
vehicle. Officers wore dark green breeches striped with red. 1917, they accompanied him everywhere.
Shoulder straps and other insignia were worn as usual on the G3: Trooper, 'Savage Division', 1914-17
leather jacket; the number '7' and the branch-of-service The Caucasian Native Cavalry Division served on the
badge on the shoulder straps identifies his unit. Armament Southern, South-Western and Romanian fronts. All regiments
was limited to a revolver for practical reasons. are supposed to have worn the cherkesska coat, the
F2: Stretcher bearer, 1915-17 individual units being distingUished by the colour of the
The prominent red crosses on his brassard, service cap, shoulder straps and cowls, the latter belOg piped with white:
shoulder straps and medical bag show this man's branch of Daghestan Regt - light blue straps, red cowls: Kabardian
service clearly. Note the method of carrying the stretcher by Regt -light blue straps, white cowls; Tartar Regt - red straps,
the handles, not the poles. The breeches are grey-blue with burgundy red cowls: Chechen Regt -light blue straps, yellow
light blue piping. The tunic is the M1910 pattern. cowls: Circasslan Regt - red straps, white cowls; Ingush
F3: Regimental Orthodox priest Regt - red straps, light blue cowls.
In Russia religion played a significant part in people's lives One source states that all units wore black kaftans; others,
and thiS carried over into the armed forces. The regimental that the Ingush Regt had shoulder straps piped in white, red
and blue twist. As volunteers, all ranks probably enjoyed
.6 pnests, known as Batyushka, were a common sight at the
consK:lerable latitude (e.g, this rider wears a pflVately made to all ranks 0' these units and was worn on both tunic and
kaftan with fleece trim), arld all descrlpt!ons may well be greatcoat: and note the death's-head on the shoulder straps_
correct. The malooty of the officers Wefe RUSSians, as were A piece of black and red cloth was often substituted 'or the
the technical troops and gunners. The machine gun sectlOflS Impenal cockade, TIlls officer wears a soId.er's grade St
were 5aJIors from the neet, who wore C.rcassmn dress With George's Cross awarded by hiS men In recognition 01 hiS
naval shooIdef straps. bravery; he also displays a UniVersity badge,
G4: Lieutenant, Polish Lancers, 1917 H2: Senior NCO, 1st IKornilov's) Shock
The details on ttus offICer'S Uniform mar1t h.m as Polish: the Regiment, 1917
wMe Polish eagle on the cap, the ct'lmsofl breeches stripes nus set'Q6atlt wears ttle shoulder straps and left sleeve
and cuff lace, and the eagle badge on the breast pocket badge 01 the famous KomIIov reglmeflt On tus nght arm IS
the chevron of Itle Shock UfIltS. red and black symboliSlfl9
H: ELITE UNITS 1917-18 revotutlOn and death, Nole the death's-head helmet emblem
H1: Lieutenant, Shock Battalion of Rear Echelon In cast metal, although these ~ often paanted on 11'1 wtute
Volunteers,1917 The whlte belt and cuff plplng show that thIS man was
The movement to contmue the war after the March formerty III the 1st Guards DrvisIon.
RevoIutlOll produced vanous schemes, mcluct'ng the Idea H3: Private, Russian 'Legion of Honour'; France,
of 'orm,ng 'Shock Revolullonary batlalions from rear 1917-18
volunleers' A good number came forward, ma,nly lrom cadet The RUSSIans sent Infantry units 10 serve on both the Western
schools and resefVe units. Cuff ring rank Ins,gnla were and Salomka Fronts In token 01 their solidanty With the
introduced dUring the brief period of the Provisional Western Allies, In both cases the French prOvK:led clothing
Government as an allernatlve to the shouldef straps, which (here, In Colonial khaki) and eQuipment: these were worn With
had Tsarist overtones. The badge on his right arm was ISSUed RUSSian shoulder straps and, in the case of the troops In
France, a cloth RUSSian tricolour on the left sleeve of the
tunic or greatcoat. The 'LR' on the helmet and collar patches
stands for Legion RUSS6.
H4: Privafe, 1St Women's Death Battalion, 1917
The 1st Women's Battalion of Death was raised In Petrograd
dunng May 1917 at the Instigation of Sgt (later Lt.) Mana
Botchkareva who, after servIng at [he front since 1915 and
being disgusted by the condltlOll of the army, was granted
permlSSlOll to lorm this Unit. Accorded the unique honour of
carrymg a standard featunng Botchkareva's name, the
banallOll. numbering 1.000 women, took part In the Kerensio
Offen5lve of sunvner 1917, sust3JJllng heavy casualtIeS.
~ women's battallOflS ~ formed, at least one 11'1
Moscow and another glorying III the name 01 'The Black
Hussars of Death' The IXIlfarm differed bttle from thai of the
men other than the shoulder straps and the shlXk urvI
chevron (nole b1ack-and-red stnpe on the former).
H5: Private, 2nd Voluntary Detachment of
Crippled Warriors, 1917
This slrangely titled ulllt was raised In earty summer 1917
lrom volunteers who had been severely wounded and were
now based In Petrograd, organised Into two batlalions of
some 1,000 olflc6l's and men. The Cynllic leiters In the sleeve
chevron are the Initials 01 the words 'shock' Of 'StOfm
detachment'. He wears ribbons of the Order 01 St Vladimir,
and the regimental badge of the 69th Ryazanski Infantry
Regiment. His sidearm is a regulation issue sword,
(Details:)
lA: Private's shoulder strap, Shock Battalion 01
Rear Volunteers, 1917
SA: Cuff title, Committee for Recruiting
Disabled Soldiers, 1917
6: Sailor's shoulder strap, Reval Nava' Shock
T..k... in Romani. during MilY 1917, this photo shows two Battalion, 1917
........tion s....ne. ob. .rvers d ~ in ~.thet" j.ek.l$ _nd 7: Private's shoulder strap, St George's
tn:>u...... with _""Ie boots and gaitl,!t'$. One .... rs the Battalion, STAVKA 1916-17
c.cMoured . . ...ne. cap,the other the khaki "eralon; .-h 8: Private's shoulder strap, 1st St George's
combinatlona not uncommon. Bl.ek leathflf breechea Battalion, Kie", 1917
iJf>d jkk.ts w "1lfY populilr with young officet'S during 9: Cap badge, Death Battalions, 1917
the "at ,.ar of the war. Cf Pl.. te F4. 10: Cap badge, Shock Battalions, 1917 .7
 INDEX
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COMPANION SERIES FROM OSPREY

ESSENTIAL HISTORIES NEW VANGUARD
Con<~ "ud... ",.Il< mr~"'e,> m«"'".1< mJ ,<[""cu"",n, uf hum,n Til< J''''gJl, Je.eh,pmcnl, 0l><,,"'m onJ h"",,, of '~e m,chin,,,) of ~"f.",
00<111",', 'l""ntn~ ~"'"') (n'm ,n<ien, "m,~ I.. 'he pee",'" do,. "'e~ '~n,ogh ,he 0"". 1''''~OI(''ph,. full_';<lI"uT "'",or\. md e~I""ol d"'~'ml'
"lIu"", >tudit< Of>< m.j<Jr "'.. 0' o",",..,f "'''. pl"Olid;o~.n ,nd"l><fl"blc '''pJ'O'"! de...il,,1 ...",in.."oo, "r Ih< ",ost "g"if,<"nI olc<h''''c-,1 i""""1O"n,
~Kk ,..,!~ f"h,,"~ ",df, !he Profile ",'ohoJ. onJ il> l.."in~ imp"" on in ,he h"""l "r ~""'." ronn,c<
.he _IlI'IJ .rounJ "
WARRIOR
CAMPAICiN
I11S;~h<s 'ow Ihe d,ih ft,,", ,,( hi,'~"" lig~'i"g mc" ond ~n"'eo. l"'t
\croun" <tf h,,,"')', ~t'tl'<>1 ''<Inni,,,,. Jc.. ,~ng !I", wmm.nJ ""'<lOt">,
"''''''''. n\t)1<mrn" .nJ ...,;..,." uf Ih< up,.,.."ing for..., !hrougll<>u' Ih.. ",uo,1
.",lpc",""II. dOlOili", th.;c ",,,,i,.,,,,". ,,,,,",ng, '''''ti,.". ~cop'''''' ,"cl
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I'~"""!,,roph •. onJ <c..".., uf I""k 'T"I J,ih lif.. pro>tJc ,k .. ikJ ,('WOnt>
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uf!he "I"''''''''''' or ,,<",,I,,,.,,,, !~,..,.,gh lhe 011<"",
rng:o~nl f....., ". onpn, '" ,rs condu",,"

ORDER OF BATTLE AIRCRAfT Of THE ACES

'IM ,....",.. \>a.llks i" hi>("'1. f... ucio~ unil-bl-"ni, .."",""i",,, "r l~e I'"n",," of '~e eh« pilot, n( '~e 10<h <en'o,)'" moj,,,. m ,,,,,,,,,i!,,,,,
!loot'" and 1ht1, """.me"" as ~dl •• on,h,i, "r ,he <",,,,,,,nJer>' ",igin.1 'odud,og oni~ue ",'e"ie". ""h ,u"i''''8 ""C'. Uni' li,,,o,., ""I,' pbn,
objra"." iltlJ .., 1 h...,rmc"l> Colo", n"p' induJing • I"g< r,,IJ-001 ,,,d r"I1-<:>~"", "'".... 1. ("",h,n" "i,~ ,he he" o",h,,,1 ph"tOli""ph!
bot< nul'. """n"' 1 J ..g...."" .nJ pll<>'''!''''I,h> h.. lp lhe ",oJ., 10 irK' °
..,il"hle 'n 1''''' i<1<- deuilrtl in,i~h' ,n", the e'l><,i,'"".: ..r "., '0 th< 0"
.he OOUT>< <tf,~ fi~hltn, '" unl'",:..J<"t<-.l Je""l
COMBAT AIRCRAFT
ELITE The "urlJ'> !O<""'" ",ill"') .i"",ft o"d ('''011», onil> ,nel Th.i, '''''''',
Th .. •w." ruru.c. un unofo"m. "lmpmcn'. tn",n;' onJ on" h",,,,,« tn ,""mm,-.l in Je .. ,1 Loth .. pl....... ion ur lhe k.din~ ,..:hnol"!,,l. me" .nd
Ih< 1.>"", U)· .. \Ien...'""\",,, bOI on more .,.endeJ ".:.'n,,·n" "f I..,., mKhine, uf ",,",m hi,,,,,,, "'UI'I","eJ bl un,' Ii"tn!" onJ ulh., J,,,.
subje<t>-.Is<> indud'"g pt""""h"...od tc<hmq""" "f ~"f.... ,nwo,k .......Ie plm,. mJ o",h".1 pho'Oli""phl'
48