Unit 1

Fundamentals of Communication and Voice Dynamics

Communication can broadly be defined as exchange of ideas, messages and information between two or
more persons, through a medium, in a manner that the sender and the receiver understand the message in
the common sense that is, they develop common understanding of the message.

The word communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which means to share, impart,
participate, exchange, and transmit or to make common. It emphasises on sharing common information,
ideas and messages. It is not merely issuing orders and instructions.

“Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being
understood by the receiver”. — Koontz and Weihrich

Nature of Communication:
1. Two-way process: Communication is a two-way process of understanding between two or
more persons – sender and receiver. A person cannot communicate with himself.
2. Continuous process: Exchange of ideas and opinion amongst people is an ongoing process in
business and non business organisations. Continuous interaction promotes understanding and
exchange of information relevant for decision-making.
3. Dynamic process: Communication between sender and receiver takes different forms and
medium depending upon their moods and behaviour. It is, thus, a dynamic process that keeps
changing in different situations.
4. Pervasive: Communication is a pervasive activity. It takes place at all levels (top, middle,
low) in all functional areas (production, finance, and personnel, sales) of a business
organisation.
5. Two people: A minimum of two persons — sender and receiver — must be present for
communication to take place. It may be between superiors, subordinates and peer group, intra
or inter se.
6. Exchange: Communication involves exchange of ideas and opinions. People interact and
develop understanding for each other.
7. Means of unifying organisational activities: Communication unifies internal organisational
environment with its external environment. It also integrates the human and physical
resources and converts them into organisational output.
8. Verbal and non-verbal: Though words are active carriers of information, gestures can
sometimes be more powerful than words. Facial expressions, sounds, signs and symbols are the
non-verbal forms of communication.
9. Mutual understanding: Communication is effective when sender and receiver develop mutual
understanding of the subject. Messages conveyed should be understood by the receiver in the
desired sense.
10. Goal-oriented: Communication is goal-oriented. Unless the receiver and sender knowthe
purpose they intend to achieve through communication, it has little practical utility.
11. Foundation of management: Though communication is a directing function, it is important
for other managerial functions also. Designing plans and organisation structures, motivating
people to accomplish goals and controlling organisational activities; all require
communication amongst managers at various levels.
12. A means, not an end: Communication is not an end. Effective communication is a
means towards achieving the end, that is, goal accomplishment. It smoothens managerial
operations by facilitating planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling functions.
13. Human activity: Since communication makes accomplishment of organisational goals
 possible, it is essential that people understand and like each other. If people do not understand
each others’ viewpoint, there cannot be effective communication.
14. Inter-disciplinary: Communication is the art of how communicators use knowledge of
different fields of study like anthropology, psychology and sociology. Making best use of these
disciplines makes communication effective. It is, thus, an inter-disciplinary area of
management.

Importance of communication:
1. Basis for planning: Planning is the basic function of management. If plans are well designed
and communicated for their implementation, it leads to organisational success. Planning
requires extensive environmental scanning and information about internal and external
organisation elements. An effective system of communication helps in obtaining this
information. Implementing the plans requires communicating them to everybody in the
organisation. Communication is, thus, the basis of planning.
2. Motivation to work: Employees are motivated to work if their needs are satisfied.
Communication helps managers know needs of their employees so that they can adopt suitable
motivators and inspire them to develop positive attitude towards the work environment.
3. Job satisfaction: Exchange of information develops trust, confidence and faith amongst
managers and subordinates. They understand their job positions better and, thus, perform
better. People are committed to organisational objectives which promotes job satisfaction
4. Commitment to organisational objectives: Managers who follow an effective system of
communication understand employees’ needs, adopt suitable motivators to satisfy them,
appraise their performance and provide them regular feedback. The employees also work with
commitment towards organisational objectives.
5. Coordination: Communication coordinates organisational resources (human and non- human),
individual goals with organisational goals and internal environment with external
environment. Coordination is the key to organisational success and communication is an active
contributor to coordination.
6. Adaptability to external environment: In order to survive in the changing, dynamic
environment, managers continuously interact with external parties like government,suppliers,
customers, etc. This requires effective communication system in theorganisation.
7. Internal functioning of an enterprise: Managers interact with parties internal to business
enterprises. They constantly obtain and provide information to them. More effective the
communication system, more accurate will be the information.
8. Healthy industrial relations: Satisfied workers contribute to healthy organisations.
Communication brings managers and trade unions closer, develops mutual understanding and
promotes industrial peace and harmony. This increases industrial production.
9. Helps in performing managerial roles: According to Henry Mintzberg, managers perform
three major roles – interpersonal, informational and decisional. Communication helps managers in
performing these roles effectively. In interpersonal roles, managers interact with superiors, peers and
subordinates; in informational roles they receive and give information to people inside and outside the
organization and in decisional roles, they take important decisions and communicate them to
organisational members for their effective implementation.
10. Facilitates leadership: Effective leaders interact with followers, guide and inspire them to
perform the individual and organisational goals. Effective communication process facilitates
leaders to carry out the leadership functions.
11. Facilitates control: Planning is effective if accompanied by an effective control system.
Control is possible when managers assess subordinates’ performance, correct and prevent
deviations and provide them regular feedback of performance. Control function largely
depends upon communication system of the organisation. How effectively managers control
organisational activities depends upon how effective is the communication system.
12. Training and development: Imparting training and development facilities to employees
depends upon how well their superiors communicate with them. Trainers with good
communication skills are better than those who have poor communication skills.
13. Substance to organisational existence: Obtaining information to make plans, making
members aware of authority-responsibility structure, position in the organisational hierarchy,
coordinating their activities is the essence of organisational survival and growth. This is
possible through effective communication.

Process/ Elements of Communication:

These elements are discussed below:
1. Sender: Sender is the person who initiates, generates and sends the message. He represents
the source of message. The communication process begins when the sender develops an idea
or message he wants to transmit. He must arrange the ideas in a manner that can be understood
by the receiver. A lecturer delivering a lecture in the classroom is the sender of the message or
a manager addressing his team in a meeting is sender of the message.
2. Message: Message is the idea or information that the sender wants to convey. He may convey
it verbally (by writing or speaking) or non-verbally (through gestures or body language).
Whatever the form, the message should be clearly formed so that desired objective is
accomplished.
3. Encoding: Once the sender is clear of what message to transmit, he decides the code through
which the message shall be transmitted. The message is abstract and intangible and,
therefore, has to be converted into some form (words, gestures, pictures etc.) to make it
meaningful. Encoding means converting the message into symbols. Encoding gives meaning to the
message or converts ideas into codes which can be understood by the receiver. Encoding means
translating the message into words (written or spoken), symbols or gestures. It may be a combination
of the three. The code should be appropriate to the situation that is, interpreted by the receiver in the
manner intended.
4. Transmission: Transmission involves selecting the medium or channel of communication.
Once decided that the message has to be sent in writing, the sender may select the electronic
channel and the medium of e-mail or fax. Short messages can be transmitted through
telephone but lengthy messages can be sent through letters or circulars. Choice of channel
depends upon the message to be conveyed, personal biases of the sender and nature of
information. Short messages are generally sent through telephone. Where drawings, charts
and illustrations form part of the message, it should be sent in writing. Personal biases include
sender’s preference for a particular channel. Some senders prefer to communicate in writing,
howsoever short the message may be and, therefore, prefer the written channel of
transmission. Nature of information refers to immediacy and confidentiality of information.
Confidential information where immediate feedback is required is generally transmitted orally.
5. Receiver: Receiver is the person or a group of persons to whom the message is conveyed. In
case of telephonic conversation, the sender can send message to one receiver but in case of
group discussions, seminars and conferences, receivers can be more than one. The message
must be designed; encoded and transmitted in a manner that receiver can understand it easily.
Use of technical words, jargons and complicated symbols should be avoided. Depending on
the channel selected, receiver may be listener, viewer or a reader.
6. Decoding: Decoding means giving meaningful interpretation to the message. On receiving the
message, the receiver translates the symbols into meaningful information to the best of his
ability. Communication is effective if receiver understands the message in the same way as
intended by the sender. The receiver must, therefore, be familiar with the codes and symbols
used by the sender.
7. Noise: It represents the disturbing factor in the process of communication. It interferes with
effective communication and reduces clarity of the message. The message may be interpreted
 differently than intended by the sender. Conversing near a machine making sounds,
disturbance in telephone line, physical ailment or mental distress of sender or receiver,
psychological barriers (degree of trust, fear, perception etc.) are the common forms of noise
that obstruct the quality of message transmitted from sender to the receiver.
8. Feedback: Feedback is receiver’s response to sender’s message. The receiver communicates
his reaction to the sender through words, symbols or gestures. It is the reversal of
communication process where receiver becomes the sender and sender becomes the receiver.
Unless the receiver responds to the message, communication process is incomplete.

Feedback offers the following benefits:

1. It allows senders to improve communication with the receiver.
2. It allows receiver to clarify doubts on the message and, therefore, perform better.
3. Allowing receivers to ask questions builds confidence and they are more confident of their
performance.
4. It enables the sender to know efficiency of his message; whether or not the receiver has
understood the message in its right meaning. Feedback makes the communication process
complete.
5. In response to receiver’s understanding and suggestions on the message, sender can adjust the
subsequent messages.

Barriers of communication
Communication barriers are something that prevents us from correctly getting and accepting the
messages others use to communicate their information, thoughts and ideas. Some of the
examples of communication barriers are information overload, choosy perceptions, workplace
gossips, semantics, gender differences, etc.

Types of Communication Barriers

1. Psychological Barriers: The psychological condition of the receiver will power how the
message is received. Stress management is a significant personal skill that affects our
interpersonal relationships. For example, Anger is a psychological barrier to communication.
When we are angry, it is simple to say things that we may afterwards regret and also to
misunderstand what others are saying. Also, people with low self- esteem may be less self-
assured and therefore may not feel comfortable communicating.
2. Physical Communication Barriers: Communication is usually easier over shorter distances
as more communication channels are obtainable, and less technology is obligatory. Although
modern technology often serves to decrease the crash of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be unspoken so that a suitable channel can be
used to overcome the physical barriers.
3. Physiological Barriers: Physiological barriers may affect the receiver’s physical condition.
For example, a receiver with condensed hearing may not grab the sum of a spoken
conversation, especially if there is significant surroundings noise.
4. Language Barriers: Language and linguistic aptitude may act as a barrier to communication.
However, even when communicating in a similar language, the terms used in a message may
act as a barrier if it is not easy to understand by the receiver.
5. Attitudinal Barriers: Attitudinal barriers are perceptions that stop people from
communicating well. Attitudinal barriers to communication may effect from poor management,
personality conflicts, and battle to change, or a lack of motivation. Active receivers of
messages should challenge to overcome their attitudinal barriers to assist effective
communication.
6. Semantic Barriers: Semantic barriers refer to the obstacles caused in encoding in new
 window and decoding in new window process due to problems with the interpretation of
meanings. The barriers, which are concerned with problems and obstructions in the process of
encoding and decoding of a message into words or impressions, are called semantic barriers.
Such barriers result in faulty translations, different interpretations, etc. Types of semantic
barriers are:
 Badly expressed message: Use of wrong words, an omission of the words and inadequate
vocabulary result in badly expressed messages. The intended meaning is not conveyed in
such messages.
 Symbols with different meanings: The same word or symbol may carry different
meanings perceived by the receiver leads to the communication problem.
 Faulty translations: When the translator is not proficient in both the languages involved
in translation, the meaning of the message may get distorted.
7. Technological Barriers: The technology is developing fast and as a result, it becomes difficult
to keep up with the newest developments. Hence sometimes the technological advance may
become a barrier. In addition to this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high. Most of the
organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the purpose of communication. Hence,
this becomes a very crucial barrier. Other barriers are socio-religious barriers. In a patriarchal
society, a woman or a transgender may face many difficulties and barriers while
communicating.

Remedies to overcome communication barriers

1. Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is recruiting right
individuals on the job. It’s the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the interviewee has
command over the written and spoken language. There should be proper Induction program so
that the policies of the company are clear to all the employees. There should be proper trainings
conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice and Accent training).
2. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of
ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.
3. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which
must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then
eliminate that source.
4. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between “listening” and
“hearing”. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is
heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not
by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.
5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language.
He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret
the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then
the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good.
6. Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex. The
number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control within
the organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more effective will be the communication.
7. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work. They
should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with their
subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively.
8. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback
might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to
effective communication between the superior and subordinate.
9. Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of communication.
Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of
 written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For
significant messages reminders can be given by using written means of communication such as :
Memos, Notices etc.
10. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the
managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping the
formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet
their targets.
11. Retain Consistency about the Message: The message conveyed should conjure with the
organizational goals and policies. Whenever you are replacing any old message instead of the
new one, you should clearly mention about it and clear all the doubts.
12. Make use of the body language: During the process of communication make sure you make the
most appropriate use of your body language, Avoid showing too much of emotions as the
receiver might misapprehend the message. Try to always keep a smiling face while talking and
make eye to eye contact with the listener but make sure not to keep your eyes gazed at the person
for more than five seconds and avoid too much of fluttering of eyes which indicate you are not
confident. Sit in an upright position and feel relaxed.
13. Communication chain should be short: You should avoid using the mediocre or send the
message through the third person unless it is very urgent. Try to directly communicate with the
person concerned. The risk of distortion of the facts gets more if message is passed through the
third party and just imagine if there are more people in between the sender and receiver the
chances of filtering of the messages is doubled.
14. Keep your Anger in Control: Do not be aggressive or show your anger if you do not agree with
any point of view or anything that is going against your ideology. State your thoughts politely
with facts if you have and reflect positivity in your talk and nature.
15. Have Clarity In Your Thoughts: You should be very clear about your objective and what you
want to convey. Arrange your thoughts in a proper order and then communicate accordingly.
Systematic communication and clarity in thought get adequately received and appreciated.
Aimless talks can be misleading so you should always try to show that there is an aim or motive
behind your talk.
16. Understand the needs of your audience: You should be emotional and sensitive towards the
needs of your receiver. Understand his behavior, nature, culture, and religion, however, it does
not mean you cannot express your feelings or thought, but it simply means that you are showing
respect to his religious beliefs or thoughts and then stating your point of view. Most importantly
the message should also be structured as per his level or ability. If you are conveying the
message to a layman then avoid using technical words and if you are addressing corporate elite,
the language should have professional sophistication and maturity.

7 C’s/ Principles of communication

1. Clear: The message should be clear and easily understandable to the recipient. The purpose of
the communication should be clear to sender then only the receiver will be sure about it. The
message should emphasize on a single goal at a time and shall not cover several ideas in a single
sentence.
2. Correct: The message should be correct, i.e. a correct language should be used, and the sender
must ensure that there is no grammatical and spellings mistake. Also, the message should be
exact and well-timed. The correct messages have a greater impact on the receiver and at the same
time, the morale of the sender increases with the accurate message.
3. Complete: The message should be complete, i.e. it must include all the relevant information as
required by the intended audience. The complete information gives answers to all the questions
of the receivers and helps in better decision-making by the recipient.
 4. Concrete: The communication should be concrete, which means the message should be clear
and particularly such that no room for misinterpretation is left. All the facts and figures should be
clearly mentioned in a message so as to substantiate to whatever the sender is saying.
5. Concise: The message should be precise and to the point. The sender should avoid the lengthy
sentences and try to convey the subject matter in the least possible words. The short and brief
message is more comprehensive and helps in retaining the receiver’s attention.
6. Consideration: The sender must take into consideration the receiver’s opinions, knowledge,
mindset, background, etc. in order to have an effective communication. In order to communicate,
the sender must relate to the target recipient and be involved.
7. Courteous: It implies that the sender must take into consideration both the feelings and
viewpoints of the receiver such that the message is positive and focused at the audience. The
message should not be biased and must include the terms that show respect for the recipient.
Types of Communication
Communication may be in various forms, it may be classified on the following basis:

1. Organisational Structure
 Formal Communication
 Informal Communication
2. Direction
 Downward Communication
 Upward Communication
 Horizontal Communication
 Diagonal Communication
3. Mode of Expression
 Non-Verbal Communication
 Verbal Communication
 Oral Communication
 Written Communication

Organisational Structure
1. Formal Communication: Formal communication is a flow of information through formally
established channels in an organization. These types of communication may be oral or written.
 Mostly controlled by managers
 It is hierarchical in nature and associated with the superior and subordinate relationship
 Generally linked with formal status and positions of a person
 It may be upward, downward and horizontal.
Advantages of formal communication
 Follows the principle of unity of command
 The orderly flow of information and systematic
 Helps in fixing responsibilities for better efficiency
 Managers have full control of nature and direction of communication
 Helps in maintaining authority relationship
 The flow of instruction is very specific, clear and definite.
 Helpful in maintaining direct contact with subordinates.
Disadvantage of formal communication
 It is a time-consuming process
 It lacks personal contacts and relationship 
 It may be resisted and distorted
 It delays the communication message due to the formal procedure
  It obstructs the free, smooth and accurate circulation of information

Informal Communication
Informal Communication refers to communication on the basis of personal relations. It is a type of
communication which is unstructured, unofficial and unplanned.
 It does not follow the formal channels established by the management
 It often flows between friends and intimates and related to personal rather than ‘positional’
matters.
 It cannot be demonstrated on the chart and not regulated by formal rules and procedure.
Informal communication is a result of social interaction and satisfies the natural desire of people to
communicate with each other. Informal communication is helpful in countering the effects of work
fatigue and monotony and serving as a source of job-related information. It is also referred to
as grapevine communication. Grape wine communication carries unofficial information. It is not a
reliable source of communication. Managers should be very careful about such communication.

Advantages of informal communication

 It is a flexible and reliable channel of communication
 It creates mutual co-operation
 It may work as a valuable aid in communicating organizational rules, values and morale
 It is helpful in building teamwork in the organisation
 It provides effective feedback to the manager 
 It supplements formal communication
 It creates successful public relations in the organisation
 If implemented efficiently, it will leads to the success

Disadvantages of informal communication

 It creates misunderstanding and uncertainty
 Due to different perceptions of the persons involved in whispering, chain interpretations of
information may change
 It is difficult to believe in information as its source cannot be identified
 It sometimes leads to leak secret information
 The information passes through it is inaccurate and distorted
 It is difficult to control it as its flow and direction cannot be checked

On the basis of Direction

On the basis of directions communication may be of four types of communication:
1. Downward Communication
2. Upward Communication
3. Horizontal Communication
4. Diagonal Communication

1. Downward Communication: Communication that takes place from superiors to subordinates in a

chain of command is known as downward communication. Such type of communication may be in
the form of orders, instructions, policies, programmes etc. It may be written or verbal.
The following messages are induced in this type of communication:
 Confirmation regarding performance
 Work assignment and directions
 Orders, guidance and responsibilities
 Ideological type of information
 Organisation Procedure and practices. 
Advantages of downward communication
 It is helpful in controlling the subordinate
 It explains the plans and policies of the organisation to employees. 
 It is a tool to delegate authority
 It is helpful to tie among employees at a different level
 It encourages the effectiveness of upward communication through feedback
 It helps in preparing the people to introduce change
Disadvantages of downward communication
 It tends to promote one-way communication
 It is time-consuming because information passes through various levels 
 Sometimes a manager may filter the information or hold back some of the information due to fear
that it might be unpalatable
 As communication takes time, sometimes message become ineffective and can lose significance

2. Upward Communication: When message are transmitted from bottom to top of the
organisational hierarchy, it is known as upward communication. The main function of upward
communication is to supply information to top management. It is essentially participative in nature
and can flourish only in a democratic organisational environment. It may be in the form of
progress report, suggestions, grievances, complaints etc.
Advantages of upward communication
 Management can use feedback effectively in their plan and procedures
 Help subordinate to communicate their views to top management
 It supports innovative ideas and suggestion
 Support in harmony and mutual co-operation among management and subordinate
 The managers are able to evaluate the impact of communication
Disadvantages of upward communication
 Subordinate provides only favorable information to upper management
 It may be discouraged due to lack of proper response of top management 
 It takes a lot of time to pass the message to higher level
 Possibility of willful manipulation of information to attain personal goals. 
 There arise a threat that superior may react negatively

3. Horizontal Communication: When communication takes place between two or more persons
who are working at same levels it is known as horizontal communication. This type of
communication takes place mostly during a committee meeting or conferences. The main object of
such communication is to establish inter-departmental co-ordination.
Advantages of horizontal communication
 It helps in avoiding duplication of work
 It solves inter-department conflicts
 It facilitates establishing co-ordination between different departments of the organisation
 Communication process is computed smoothly without any barrier.
 It helps in maintaining social and emotional support among the peer group.
Disadvantages of horizontal communication
 There is a lack of motivation to communicate
 Usually, they hide information due to rivalry between them
 It lacks authoritativeness

4. Diagonal Communication: Diagonal communication is an exchange of information between the
persons at a different level across departmental lines. This type of communication is used to
spread information at different levels of an organization to improve understanding and co-
ordination so as to achieve organisational objectives. Thus, where the persons who are neither
 working in the same department nor has similar level are communicating, it is said to be diagonal
communication. It cuts across the levels of organisational structure.
Advantages of diagonal communication
 It increases organisational effectiveness
 It facilitates organisational change
 It creates integrity and harmony in the organisation
 It helps to speed up the action and save time
Disadvantages of diagonal communication
 It violates the principle of unity of command
 It is an unsystematic manner of communicating. 

On the basis of Mode of Expression
1. Non Verbal Communication
2. Verbal Communication
Non Verbal Communication
Communication through expressions, gestures or posture is nonverbal communication. It refers to the
flow of information, through facial expressions, tone of voice and other body movements.
In other words, it is a type of communication other than words. It conveys the feeling, emotions, attitude
of a person to another. A person can communicate his feeling to others quickly and economically by
using a non-verbal form of communications. This does not require the use of words as a person can
express his feelings by his body language.
Some important of nonverbal communication are:
 Body Language: Posture, Gesture, Eye Contact, Silence etc.
 Proximity: Space (intimate space, public space), Time, Surroundings etc.
 Para Language: Voice, Volume, Pause, Pitch, Proper stress etc
Advantages of non verbal Communication
 It is reliable source of information
 Message may be conveyed quickly
 It is an economic way of communications
 It creates better-understanding
Disadvantages of non verbal Communication
 Expressions and gestures are seen by anyone so it lacks secrecy.
 It creates misunderstanding due to non-understanding of the gestures
 It requires the physical presence of both parties
 Long and detailed message cannot be conveyed
 The meaning of gesture changes according to time and place, thus it is difficult to understand
universally
 There is no written proof in case of any dispute in future.

Types of non verbal communication

1. Facial Expression: Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal
communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While
nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions
for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
2. Gestures: Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without
words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts.
Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
3. Paralinguistic: Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language.
This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful
effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice,
listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice
 might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.

Elements of Paralanguage:
 Pitch: Pitch is the highness or lowness of the voice; it is similar to pitch on a musical scale. We
associate higher pitches with female voices and lower pitches with male voices. We associate
low-pitched voices with strength, sexiness, and maturity, and high- pitched voices with
helplessness, tension, and nervousness.
 Volume: The power of your voice, its loudness or volume, also affects perceptions of intended
meaning. Some whisper or blast through their volume. An aggressive person is often very louder.
In contrast, if you are soft spoken, others may take your behavior nervousness. Effective
Interpersonal Communicators Regulate Volume in an Effort to Promote Meaningful Interaction.
Your volume should reflect the nature of your message.
 Pace/Rate: Speaking rate is the third vocal signal affecting the communication of meaning. Most
of us speak at an average rate of 150 words per minute. When we speed up our speech,
exceeding 275 to 300 words per minute, it is difficult for others to comprehend what we are
saying, and our message thus becomes virtually unintelligible. In contrast, if we speak too slowly,
others may perceive us as tentative or lacking in confidence or intelligence. It quickens to relay
agitation, excitement, and happiness, and it falls to convey seriousness, serenity, or sadness.
 Articulation and Pronunciation: The sound attributes of articulation and pronunciation affect
message intelligibility as well as perceptions of credibility. Articulation is the way you pronounce
individual sounds. Ideally, even during person-to- person contact, the sounds of your speech are
sharp and distinct. When you fail to utter a final sound (a final t or d, for example), fail to produce
the sounds of words properly. When you mispronounce a word, you may suffer a loss of
credibility, and those listening to you may find it more difficult to make sense of what you are
saying.
 Voice Modulation: Intonation refers to the tonal variation, modulation pertains to the way we
regulate, vary, or adjust the tone, pitch, and volume of the sound or speaking voice. Modulation of
voice brings flexibility and vitality to your voice, and you can express emotions, sentiments,
impatience, careful planning, despondency and suspicions etc. If you do not pay special attention
to the modulation of your voice, then your voice becomes flat. Word stress and sentence stress
also play an important role in voice modulation.
 Hesitations and Silence: Hesitations and silence are the final paralinguistic variables we will
consider here. Knowing when to pause is a critical skill. When nervous or tense, we may exhibit a
tendency to fill all pauses. Some time we insert meaningless sounds or phrases such as uh, you
know, or okay in the effort to fill voids. These non fluencies, or hesitation phenomena, disrupt the
natural flow of speech and adversely affect how others perceive your competence and confidence.
4. Body Language and Posture (Kinesics communication): Posture and movement can also convey a
great deal on information. Research on body language has grown significantly since the 1970’s, but
popular media have focused on the over-interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-
crossing, especially after the publication of Julius Fast’s book Body Language. While these nonverbal
behaviors can indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle
and less definitive that previously believed. The messages that you send with your voice are known as
paralanguage.
5. Proxemics is the study of space and how we use it, how it makes us feel more or less comfortable,
and how we arrange objects and ourselves in relation to space.
For Example:

 Public space is the space that characterizes how close we sit or stand to someone, like a public
figure or public speaker. So, if you are at an event listening to a professor give a lecture, you are
probably about 12 - 25 feet away.
  Social space means we're getting a little closer, about 4 - 12 feet away. This is the kind of space
you're probably in if you're talking to a colleague or a customer at work.
 Personal space is even closer. In this case, you're probably about 1 - 4 feet away from someone.
This is reserved for talking to friends or family.
 Intimate space is for people who you are very close to. In this case, you're probably less than a
foot away and you might even be touching the other person. This is the space you're in with a
romantic partner, for example.
It's important to note that this can vary culturally. For example, it might be considered rude to stand too
close to someone in one place but not another. It might be very common to touch someone's arm or
shoulder while talking in one place, but this could be considered rude in other places. In one country, you
might greet someone with a kiss on the cheek, and in other places this might be considered too intimate.
6. Eye Gaze: Looking, staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people
encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at
another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and attraction.
7. Haptics: Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a
substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood. Harry
Harlow’s classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact impedes
development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior and
social interaction.
8. Appearance: Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are
also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has
demonstrated that different colors can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter
physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations.
9. Chronemics: Chronemics is the study of the role of time in communication. It is one of several subcategories
of the study of nonverbal communication. Chronemics can be defined as “the interrelated observations and
theories of man’s use of time as a specialized elaboration of culture” - the way in which one perceives and
values time, structures time, and reacts to time frames communication. Across cultures, time perception plays a
large role in the nonverbal communication process. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait,
and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyle, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long
people are willing to listen. Time can be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most companies the
boss can interrupt progress to hold an impromptu meeting in the middle of the work day, yet the average
worker would have to make an appointment to see the boss. The way in which different cultures perceive time
can influence communication as well.

Verbal Communication
Verbal Communication is an exchange of information by words either written or oral. Verbal
communication consists of speaking, listening, writing, reading etc. It is the most preferred mode of
communication.
It may be of two types of Verbal Communication:
1. Oral Communication
2. Written Communication

Written Communication
When opinions are exchanged in written form, rather than by spoken words, it is knows as written
communication. It may be expressed through charts, pictures and diagrams. It includes newspapers,
reports, letters, circulars magazines etc. While using written communication, words should be select very
carefully because message ones sent cannot be altered. it is formal in nature and cannot be overlooked.
Advantages of written communication
 It provides a future reference: it becomes a permanent record and beneficial for formulating new
policies.
 It is accurate. Mistakes are not likely to occur as it is open for verification and its authenticity can
 be checked.
 It does not require the physical presence of both parties.
 It ensures transmission of information in a uniform manner
 It is useful to transmit complex information and it facilitates the assignation of responsibilities
 It usually removes conflicts and misunderstanding
 It facilitates to convey a message to a large number of persons at the same time
 Written communication is acceptable as a legal document.
Disadvantages of written communication
 It is a time and money consuming way of communication
 It lacks secrecy because message passes through various hands, thus, it is said to be a double-
edged weapon
 It is not useful in emergency circumstances
 It has no chance to alter the message ones transmitted
 It is not possible to get immediate feedback
 It becomes unimpressive if drafted poorly
 It may be interpreted in the wrong manner
 It requires unnecessary formalities.

Oral Communication
When a message is expressed through spoken words, it may be either through face to face conversations or with the
help of electronic mode such as telephone, cellular phone, etc.
It may also be in the form of informal conversation, group discussions, meeting etc. It is a more effective means of
exchange of information because the receiver not only hears the message but also observes the physical gestures of
the speaker.
Modes of Oral Communication
The modes of Oral Communication include:
 Telephone/Cellular phone
 Messages
 Intercom
 Face-to-face discussion
 Meetings/Conferences
 Presentation
 Dictaphone/Dictation
 Conversation
 Radio
 Teleconferencing
 Speeches
 Brainstorming sessions
 Grapevine
 Interview

Advantages of Oral Communication

 Immediate Feedback: The biggest advantage of oral communication is that it provides
immediate feedback to both the sender and the receiver. Each can therefore ask for clarification
and elaboration on the spot. The speaker can immediately understand the reaction of the audience
or group, s/he is addressing while the hearers get a number of clues about how their behaviour is
being perceived by the speaker.
 Time Saving: Oral communication is very fast. It saves the time involved in writing the message
and delivering it through a channel like the postal or courier services.
  Economical: Oral communication saves the money spent on stationery and the channel of
communication.
 Personal Touch: Oral communication builds up a healthy climate in the organization by bringing
superiors and subordinates closer. It is also an effectivetool for persuasion.
 Flexibility: Oral communication provides an opportunity to the speaker to correct himself and
make himself clear by changing his voice, pitch, tone, etc. A number of other factors like context,
body language, etc. can be used to reinforce and modify what is spoken through the words.
 Secrecy: Oral messages can be more easily kept confidential than written messages. All one has
to do is to ensure that there is no one within the hearing or recording distance.
 Group Communication: Oral communication is extremely useful for communicating with
groups in meetings, conferences, etc. No classroom teaching would be possible without oral
communication.
 Effectiveness: Because oral communication involves the real or virtual presence of both the
parties, therefore, the message transfer is more effective and that helps in achieving the goal of the
communication more efficiently.
 Persuasive power: Persuasion is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea,
attitude or action by rational means. It relies on “appeals” and convincing arguments. We live in a
world where persuasive oral messages are around us.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

 Poor Retention: The listener cannot retain oral messages in his memory for a long time. The
speaker himself may not recall what he actually said.
 No Record: Oral communication does not provide any record for future reference. In the absence
of a record, oral messages have no legal validity.
 Time Consuming: Oral communication may not always be time saving. Precisely because there
is no binding medium like a page or a book, this form of communication is virtually endless.
Sometimes meetings continue for a long time without arriving at any satisfactory conclusion.
 Misunderstanding: Oral communications are likely to be misunderstood due to poor expression
and noise. The speaker may not be able to make himself quite clear or the listener may be
inattentive. This is likely to be truer when the two individuals are not on good terms with each
other.
 Lengthy Messages: Oral communication is not suitable for transmitting lengthy messages. Some
parts of vital importance may not receive adequate attention.
 Lack of Responsibility: Oral messages are not recorded. Therefore, it becomes difficult to hold
persons responsible for mistakes, inaccuracy or falsity in oral communication.
 Imprecise: People usually take less care when speaking than when writing. Therefore, spoken
words tend to be less precise than written words. Often the exact point the speaker is trying to
make is lost in a mass of words.

How to Make Oral Communication Effective

1. Clarity: The speaker should pronounce his words “clearly” and “correctly”. He must talk
distinctly and slowly. When a person speaks fast or munches words the oral message is likely to
be misunderstood. The way a person speaks his dialogue exercises much influence on the
audience. Clarity of expression is the aim at all times.
2. Brevity: Oral communications often suffer from too much of talking. When a speaker keeps on
talking for long, his message is lost in a sea of words and his listeners tend to become inattentive.
Therefore, the message must be kept as short as possible. However, the speaker should not appear
unclear, abrupt or discourteous.
3. Precision: An oral message becomes more effective when it is precise and concise. Example: It is
better to say ‘cut down costs by 100 instead of saying ‘reduce costs’. The message should not be
 vague or incomplete. Words ought to mean clearly what they are intended to say.
4. Right words: The first caution is to ensure that you know the meaning of the words that you use.
Some words have more than one meaning while some others carry different meanings for different
persons. Be sure about what your words will convey to a trained reader. Example: City, town and
metropolis are three different words and care should be exercised before using them. You will find
that the word ‘metro’ has at least three different meanings in day-to-day usage. Find them
out for yourself. Therefore, words should be chosen carefully and their meaning clarified in the
context of usage. The speaker should not presume that the listener would mean the same thing
from a word, which s/he means.
5. Avoid Hackneyed Phrases: Speakers often use hackneyed phrases and clichés like ‘you know’,
‘I see’, ‘you see’, ‘what I mean’, ‘isn’t,’ etc. Such phrases interrupt the flow of speech and
obstruct the quick grasp of meaning besides causing boredom. Speakers should ensure that they
do not use these phrases unconsciously or consciously. Most of us use them as connectives,
filling up a gap when we do not have the correct word/phrase. Keeping them consciously out of
your usage would mean that you will have to remain silent for those gaps. But don’t worry. Once
you stop using fillers like those, appropriate words will come to you with a little effort at
articulation.
6. Understand the Listener: A good speaker must understand the listener before talking. People
vary in terms of their education, culture, intelligence level, maturity, etc.
7. Natural Voice: The speaker should use his natural way of speaking. In order to look
sophisticated, some speakers use a foreign accent. This reduces the effectiveness of
communication.
8. Logical Sequence: Before speaking, different ideas to be conveyed should be arranged in a logical
order. It helps to make the speech forceful.
9. Conviction: A speaker must have conviction in what he says. Careful understanding, the sincerity
of speech, and intelligent planning are required to develop conviction in speech.

Principles of Oral Communication

1. Clarity: In oral communication the meaning of the words and the language should be clear so that
the audience does not misunderstand it. One should avoid the use of technical, very difficult or
literary words.
2. Simplicity: The communication should be simple so that every type of audience finds it easy to
understand.
3. Source of information: The sources of information used in the communication should be reliable
and the audience should be informed about the source to increase their confidence.
4. Adequacy: The quantity, weight age, expansion and the subject matter should be decided in a
wise manner, communication that are lengthy, too detailed and difficult are boring. Over
abundance of information puts strain on the mental ability. Thinking and working of the audience.
5. Consistency: The figures and information used in the communication should not be in conflict
with the policies, objectives and programmes of the institutions.
6. Principle of time: The communication should not take more time that intended. Principle of time
leaves a good impression on the audience.
7. Emotional Appeal: In some communication there is a lack of logic and intellect therefore there
should be an emotional appeal in the communication so that a positive response can be taken from
the audience.
8. Consultation: To make a communication effective the communicator should consult all the
related people. This way one can get some new advice and ideas.
9. Feedback: After communication the communicator should try to find the views, Ideas, opinions,
objections and feelings of the audience. This develops an understanding between the two and the
objective of communication is also fulfilled.
 10. Purpose: In the communicator mind the purpose of the communication should be absolutely
clear and defined. Objectives could be one or more. The purpose of the communication
could be to inform, encourage, sympathies and entertain.
11. Empathy: The communicator should put himself in the place of audience while doing the
communication. This brings about a similar opinion and creator mutual understanding.
12. Rehearsal: Before communication one should rehearsal at least thrice. This increases self
confidence and makes the communication easier.
13. Selection of main idea: The main idea or should be decided before hand. This makes the
communication easier and interesting.
14. Introduction: It is said that first impression is the best impression. Thus, the communicator
should introduce the communication with expertise, patience, cleverness and effectively that the
audience can connect to it right till the end.
15. Easiness: A friendly behaviour should be used with the audience. As a result he can say opinion
with ease and the audience too will accept it.
16. Researching the topic: information, figures and other facts related to the communication should
be collected so that some new ideas can be joined with the basic thought that is change should be
acceptable.
17. Summary: At the end of the communication the main points should be revised which make the
audience will remember the basic thought of the communication.

Code and Content, Stimulus & Response

Any human communication system involves the production of a message by someone, and the receipt of
that message by someone else. To encode a message, one must possess the necessary encoding skills.
Languages are codes. A code may be defined as any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that
is meaningful to another person. The English language, like any other language, is a code—it contains
element that are arranged in a meaningful order. A code has a group of elements (vocabulary) and a set of
procedures for combining these elements meaningfully
Code -A code is an arrangement of changing the words in a message with some other words or some such
other symbols, so that information remains confidential and no one can comprehend it unless one knows
the system.
 A code may be defined as any group of symbols that can be structured in a way that is meaningful
to another person.
 In a way, all languages are codes.
 It contains elements that are arranged in a meaningful order.
 A code has a group of elements (vocabulary) and a set of procedures for combining these elements
meaningfully
Next is the message content, i.e., the message that is selected by the source to express its purpose.
Content, like codes, has both element and structure. When more than one piece of information is to be
presented, they should have some order or structure. An individual may sometimes be identified by his
characteristic way of structuring messages. This is because the individual communicates in a way that is
distinctive to him. He uses a distinctive way or method, which has become his habit by constant use.
Content- It is the main subject matter or information in form of a magazine, story, television show, web
site, power-point presentation etc. For instance- the content of a computer class can be ‘Programming
with C’, the content of a mathematics lecture might be ‘Fibonacci sequence’, the content of physics class
could be ‘reflection of light’ etc. Whenever one finds a subject or subject-matter; one will always witness
content.
 Content: The message content, i.e., the message that is selected by the source to express its
purpose.
 Content, like codes, has both element and structure. When more than one piece of information is
to be presented, they should have some order or structure.
 Thus, code and content in laymen’s language means communicating message (content) through some
symbols (code).

Stimulus- The plural form of stimulus is ‘stimuli’. To stimulate means to invigorate or to electrify a
response is a force that evokes or leads to a response, as in “Topping in the class test was the stimulus she
needed to study harder and maintain her position in the class.” Stimuli are the forces that make us act or
respond. A ‘Stimulus’ is anything that a person can receive through one of his senses. In fact, it is
anything that can produce a sensation.
Response-It is the action, reaction or feedback. A ‘Response’ is anything that an individual does as a
reaction to the stimulus.
Stimulus–Response- Usually people get to see a direct one-to-one stimulus-response action or reaction.
A sudden change in the milieu is the stimulus triggering the reaction or response of the individual.
Communication is a two-way process hence the stimulus (message) caused by the sender leads to a
response (reaction after receiving the message) by the receiver These two terms, stimulus and response,
are ultimately connected with the whole learning process. The communication objective of the source is
to bring about a change in the behaviour of the receiver.

Consonant Sound
Consonant is a term used to refer to the letters of the English alphabet other than the five vowels (a, e, i,
o, u). They include letters that are pronounced by obstructing the flow of air in the vocal tract. The
Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a consonant as “a speech sound made by completely or partly
stopping the flow of air through the mouth or nose”.
Consonant Sounds in English
Like vowels, consonants can also be better perceived by learning their sounds. A consonant sound is a
speech sound that is produced by the partial or complete obstruction of air by the lips, teeth, tongue or
throat. The Collins Dictionary defines a consonant sound as “a sound such as ‘p’, ‘f’, ‘n’, or ‘t’ which you
pronounce by stopping the air flowing freely through your mouth”. There are 44 speech sounds in total in
the English language. Among them, 24 are consonant sounds. Let us look at what they are and how they
are classified.
Classification of Consonant Sounds
Consonant sounds are divided into categories based on two aspects, namely,
 The place of articulation – with reference to the parts of the mouth that are used to pronounce
the particular sounds.
 The manner of articulation – with reference to the movement of air from the lungs and through
and out of the nose and mouth.
Place of Articulation
 Bilabial – the upper lip and lower lip come in complete contact with each other.
 Dental – the tip of the tongue touches the teeth mildly.
 Labio-dental – the lower lip and the upper teeth come in contact with each other.
 Palatal – the body of the tongue touches the hard palate.
 Alveolar – the tip or blade of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.
 Palato-alveolar – the blade/tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, and the body of the tongue
approaches the hard palate.
 Velar – the body of the tongue comes in contact with the soft palate (also called the velum).
 Glottal – the vocal cords come into contact and produce friction.
 Manner of Articulation
 Plosive – a sound produced by the air being blocked inside the vocal tract followed by the release
of air from the mouth.
 Fricative – a sound produced by positioning the mouth in a particular manner so as to partially
block the air coming out of the mouth.
  Affricate – a combination of a plosive and fricative manner, in which sound is produced by the
blocking of air and finally releasing it through a partial passage.
 Nasal – a sound produced when the air passes and escapes through the nose.
 Lateral – a sound produced by the air escaping from the mouth and sides of the tongue.
 Approximant – a sound produced when the tip of the tongue slightly touches the alveolar ridge,
and the air escapes through the gap between the tongue and the alveolar ridge.

Consonants such as b, c, d, g, h, k, l, n, p, t, and w can appear as silent letters in words. Examples of such
words include debt, subtle, crescent, scene, handsome, bridge, align, light, honour,
technology, knell, knowledge, alms, palm, autumn, hymn, cupboard, psychology, listen, patch, etc.
The letter ‘s’ never follows the letter ‘x’. For example, excess, exceptional, exercise, excellence, etc.
Words in the English language never end with the consonants ‘j’ or ‘v’.
When using degrees of comparison, you will have to double the last consonant of monosyllabic words
when transforming a positive degree to a comparative or superlative degree. For example, redder,
reddest, thinner, thinnest, slimmer, slimmest, bigger, biggest, etc.
Monosyllabic words ending with an ‘f’, ‘l’ or ‘s’ should have double ‘f’s, double ‘l’s or double ‘s’s.
Chess, bliss, chaff, huff, bluff, still, knoll, etc., are some examples.

Words with Consonants

Given below are two lists of words – those with consonants and vowels and those with consonants and no
vowels. While you go through the list, note their spellings too. You will see that all words without vowels
will have the letter ‘y’ in them, which is used instead of a vowel that could produce the /ɪ/ or /iː/ sound
when pronounced.
List of Words with Consonants and Vowels
 Think
 Flush
 Crutch
 Wash
 Pinch
 Watch
 Thorough
 Fight
 Crunch
 Slouch
 Fuss
 Stitch
 Garage
 Menace
 Trust
 Frequency
 Plenty
 Flag
 Ship
 Cherish
 Flower
 Respect
 Ascend
 Throne
 Private
List of Words with Consonants and No Vowels
 Shy
 Cry
 Pry
 Dry
 Sly
 Spy
 Ply
 Try
 Fry
 Fly
 Thy
 Wry
 Gym
 Why
 Spry
 Cyst
 Crypt
 Nymph
 Lymph
 Myrrh
 Rhythm

Vowel Sounds
The term ‘vowel’ is used to refer to letters used to represent vowel sounds. In the English language, five
letters among the twenty-six letters of the English alphabet are called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, and u.
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a vowel as “a letter that represents a vowel sound”. Now, let us
find out what a vowel sound is.

Vowel Sound
A vowel sound is a speech sound that is pronounced without the lips, tongue, teeth or throat blocking the
air produced when uttering the letter. According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, a vowel sound is “a
speech sound in which the mouth is open, and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth, the teeth,
etc., so that the flow of air is not limited”. There are only five vowels in the English language, but there
are twenty vowel sounds in total. Out of the twenty, eight of them are called diphthongs. Let us look at
the following lists of vowel sounds and diphthongs to have a clearer idea.
Classification of Vowels
Vowels are classified into two – pure vowels and diphthongs.
Pure Vowels
Vowels which have a single vowel sound when pronounced are called pure vowels. The twelve vowel
sounds we have mentioned earlier are pure vowels. Words such as announce(ə), fret(e), sun(ʌ), tick(ɪ),
please(iː), dot(ɒ), foot(ʊ), food(uː), word(ɜː), warm(ɔː), arm(aː) and pant(æ) come under this category.
Pure vowels are further classified into two – checked vowels and free vowels. Read on to learn what they
are.
Checked Vowels
Among the 12 vowel sounds, 7 of them are considered checked vowels. They are ʌ, e, ə, ʊ, ɪ, æ and ɒ.
These vowels cannot occur at the end of open syllables.
Free Vowels
The five vowel sounds uː, iː, ɜː, aː and ɔː are considered free vowels. These vowels can be used at the end
of open syllables.

Types of Vowels/Vowel Sounds

Vowels/vowel sounds are categorized into two based on the length of the vowel sound and the number of
vowels. They are
 Short vowels
 Long vowels
Short Vowels
Short vowels are those that appear individually in words. These words normally end with consonants.
They can, in no way, appear at the end of the last syllable of a word.
Here are a few examples.
 ‘a’ in ‘pan’
 ‘e’ in ‘rent’
 ‘i’ in ‘pit’
 ‘o’ in ‘cot’
 ‘u’ in ‘truck’
Short Vowel Sounds
 ‘a’ in ‘braid’, ‘falcon’, ‘steak’
 ‘e’ in ‘furry’, ‘tread’, ‘says’
 ‘i’ in ‘women’, ‘eject’, ‘houses’
 ‘o’ in ‘entrepreneur’, ‘cause’, ‘flaw’
 ‘u’ in ‘flood’, ‘done’, ‘son’

Long Vowels
The term ‘long vowels’ is used to refer to two or more vowels that appear in words. Words with long
vowels can start/end with vowels. Take a look at the following examples to understand.
 ‘a’ in ‘fake’
 ‘e’ in ‘tedious’’
 ‘i’ in ‘blind’
 ‘o’ in ‘rote’
 ‘u’ in ‘cumin’
The categorization of vowel sounds as long and short would not be the same. There is a difference. They
would include words with diphthongs as well. Let us look at the following examples to comprehend how
it works.
Long Vowel Sounds
 ‘a’ in ‘faint’, ‘weight’, ‘dainty’
 ‘e’ in ‘receive’, ‘weak’, ‘encyclopedia’
 ‘i’ in ‘tight’, ‘ice’, ‘eye’
 ‘o’ in ‘blow’, ‘road’, ‘door’
 ‘u’ in ‘new’, ‘queue’, ‘vacuum’

Intonation or Tone
Intonation and stress are closely linked. In fact it's impossible to dissociate them. They go hand in hand.
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say, the way the voice rises and falls when
speaking, in other words the music of the language.
Just as words have stressed syllables, sentences have regular patterns of stressed words. In addition, the
voice tends to rise, fall or remain flat depending on the meaning or feeling we want to convey (surprise,
anger, interest, boredom, gratitude, etc.). Intonation therefore indicates the mood of the speaker.
There are two basic patterns of intonation in English: falling intonation and rising intonation.
In the following examples a downward arrow (➘) indicates a fall in intonation and an upward arrow (➚)
indicates a rise in intonation.
Again, these are not rules but patterns generally used by native speakers of English. Just remember that
content words are stressed, and intonation adds attitude or emotion.
Types of intonation
a) Falling tune
b) Rising tune
Rising Tone: The rising tune is indicated with an arrow pointing upwards (/). It is used to indicate a rise
in the pitch of the voice. Its uses are:
1. To ask polar questions- These are questions that require yes or no as the answer.
Examples:
 Is English your best subject? /
 Are you going to take the job? /
2. To make requests:
 Close that door, please. /
 Could you give me your biro? /
3. To make polite statements:
 Please don't be offended. /
 Come in, please /
4. To make protest:
 we do not want him here again. /
 I shall not eat anymore. /
5. For greetings:
 Good morning /
 Good afternoon /
6. For listing items:
 We need some rice /, beans /, fish /and meat.\
 There are five items in the shop. They are: cups/, bags/, chairs/, books/, and tins/.
7. In utterances showing indifference:
 You can do what you want. /
 If you want to. /

Falling Tone: The falling tune is indicated with an arrow pointing to a downward direction (\).
It is used to indicate when the pitch of the voice falls.
Its uses are:
1. In statements:
 John works hard in school. \
 She got it right. \
2. Giving commands
 Leave the door open.\
 Close the door quickly \
3. In exclamations:
 Oh, my Lord! \
 How awful! \
4. In responding to yes or no questions:
 Are they hearing? Yes \
 Will they come? No \
5. In asking wh- questions:
 Why are you not happy? \
  What is your name? \

Rise-Fall Intonation (➚➘): The intonation rises and then falls.

We use rise-fall intonation for choices, lists, unfinished thoughts and conditional sentences.
1. Choices (alternative questions.)
 Are you having ➚soup or ➘salad?
 Is John leaving on ➚Thursday or ➘Friday?
 Does he speak ➚German or ➘French?
 Is your name ➚Ava or ➘Eva?
2. Lists (rising, rising, rising, falling Intonation falls on the last item to show that the list is
finished
 We've got ➚apples, pears, bananas and ➘oranges
 The sweater comes in ➚blue, white pink and ➘black
 I like ➚football, tennis, basketball and ➘volleyball.
 I bought ➚a tee-shirt, a skirt and a ➘handbag.
3. Unfinished thoughts (partial statements): In the responses to the following questions, the rise-
fall intonation indicates reservation. The speaker hesitates to fully express his/her thoughts.
 Do you like my new handbag? Well the ➚leather is ➘nice... (But I don't like it.)
 What was the meal like? Hmm, the ➚fish was ➘good... (but the rest wasn't great).
 So you both live in Los Angeles? Well ➚Alex ➘does ... (but I don't).
4. Conditional sentences: The tone rises in the first clause and falls gradually in the second clause.
 If he ➚calls, ask him to leave a ➘message.
 Unless he ➚insists, I'm not going to ➘go.
 If you have any ➚problems, just ➘contact us.

Fall-Rise Intonation (➘➚): The voice falls and rises usually within one word. The main function of fall-
rise intonation is to show that the speaker is not certain of the answer they are giving to a question, or is
reluctant to reply (as opposed to a falling tone used when there is no hesitation). It is also used in polite
requests or suggestions.
1. Hesitation/reluctance:
 So you'd be willing to confirm that? ...Well ... I ➘sup➚pose so ...
 You didn't see him on Monday? I don't quite ➘re➚member ...
2. Politeness-Doubt-Uncertainty: (You are not sure what the answer might be.)
 Perhaps we could ➘vis➚it the place?
 Should we ➘cop➚y the list?
 Do you think it's ➘al➚lowed?