CHAPTER 1

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

In this chapter, the basic concept of current and voltage and the properties of each
are introduced and discussed in some detail. Hopefully, any mysteries surrounding
the general characteristics of each will be eliminated.

1.1 Atoms and Their Structure

The simplest of all atoms is the hydrogen atom, made up of two basic particles, the
proton and the electron, in the relative positions shown in Fig. 1.1. In all other
elements, the nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly heavier than protons
and have no electrical charge. The orbiting electron carries a negative charge equal
in magnitude to the positive charge of the proton. Also, the atomic structure of any
stable atom has an equal number of electrons and protons.
Different atoms have various numbers of electrons in concentric orbits called
shells around the nucleus. The first shell, which is closest to the nucleus, can contain
only two electrons. If an atom has three electrons, the extra electron must be placed
in the next shell. The number of electrons in each succeeding shell is determined by
2n2 , where n is the shell number. For instance, copper is the most commonly used
Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, First Edition. 1
By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright c 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Figure 1.1 Hydrogen atom.

metal in the electrical/electronics industry. As shown in Fig. 1.2, it has 29 electrons

in orbits around the nucleus, with the 29th electron appearing all by itself in the 4th
shell.

Figure 1.2 The atomic structure of copper.

Opposite charges are attracted to each other, but the farther apart they are, the
less the attraction. In fact, the force of attraction between the nucleus and the 29th
electron of copper can be determined by Coulombs law as

Q1 Q2
F =k (1.1)
r2
where F is in newtons (N ), k =a constant = 9 × 109 N m2 /C 2 , Q1 and Q2 are the
charges in coulombs, and r is the distance between the two charges in meters.

1.2 Voltage

If we separate the 29th electron in Fig. 2 from the rest of the atomic structure of
copper we create regions that have a net positive and negative charge. The positive
region created by separating the free electron from the basic atomic structure is called
 CURRENT 3

a positive ion. If the free electron then leaves the vicinity of the parent atom, regions
of positive and negative charge have been established.
This separation of charge to establish regions of positive and negative charge is
the action that occurs in every battery. Through chemical action, a heavy concentra-
tion of positive charge (positive ions) is established at the positive terminal, with an
equally heavy concentration of negative charge (electrons) at the negative terminal.
If we take a coulomb of negative charge near the surface of the positive charge
and move it toward the negative charge, we must expend energy to overcome the
repulsive forces of the larger negative charge and the attractive forces of the positive
charge. Thus, voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit
charge through an element, measured in volts (V ). The defining equation is
W
V = (1.2)
Q
where W is energy in joules (J) and Q is charge in coulombs (C).

EXAMPLE 1.1

Find the voltage between two points if 60 J of energy are required to move a
charge of 20 C between the two points.

Solution:

W 60 J
V = = =3V
Q 20 C

1.3 Current

If we cut a copper wire with an imaginary perpendicular plane, producing a circular

cross section, we would be amazed to find that there are free electrons crossing the
surface in both directions. Those free electrons generated at room temperature are in
constant motion in random directions. However, at any instant of time, the number
of electrons crossing the imaginary plane in one direction is exactly equal to that
crossing in the opposite direction, so the net flow in any one direction is zero. Now,
to make this electron flow do work for us, we need to give it a direction and be able
to control its magnitude. This is accomplished by simply applying a voltage across
the wire to force the electrons to move toward the positive terminal of the battery.
Thus, the applied voltage is the starting mechanism and the current is a reaction to
the applied voltage.
Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, we can determine the current in amperes
from the following equation:
Q
I= (1.3)
t
where current measured in amperes (A).
4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

EXAMPLE 1.2

The charge flowing through the imaginary surface is 0.16 C every 64 ms. De-
termine the current in amperes.

Solution:

Q 0.16 C
I= = = 2.5 A
t 64 × 10−3 s

1.4 Voltage Sources

The term dc, used throughout this text, is an abbreviation for direct current, which en-
compasses all systems where there is a unidirectional (one direction) flow of charge.
This section reviews dc voltage supplies that apply a fixed voltage to electrical/electronics
systems.
In general, dc voltage sources can be divided into three basic types:
Batteries (chemical action or solar energy)
Generators (electromechanical)
Power supplies (rectification- a conversion process to be described in your elec-
tronics courses)

1.5 Ampere–Hour Rating

The ampere-hour (Ah) rating provides an indication of how long a battery of fixed
voltage will be able to supply a particular current. An equation for determining the
length of time a battery will supply a particular current is the following:
Ampere–hour (Ah)rating
Life (hours) = (1.4)
Amperes drawn (A)

EXAMPLE 1.3

How long will a 9 V transistor battery with an ampere–hour rating of 520 mAh
provide a current of 20 mA?

Solution:

520 mAh
Life = = 26 h
20 mA
 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 5

1.6 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors are those materials that permit a generous flow of electrons with very
little external force (voltage) applied. Good conductors typically have only one elec-
tron in the valence (most distant from the nucleus) ring.
Insulators are those materials that have very few free electrons and require a large
applied potential (voltage) to establish a measurable current level.

PROBLEMS
1.1 Find the force of attraction in newtons between the charges Q1 = 1 C and
Q2 = 2 C when
a) r = 1 m b) r=3 m
1.2 Find the charge in electrons that requires 120 µJ of energy to be moved
through a potential difference of 20 mV .
1.3 The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is 24 V . If
0.4 J of energy were dissipated in a period of 5 ms, what would the current be
between the two points?
1.4 A portable television using a 12 V , 3 Ah rechargeable battery can operate for
a period of about 6 h. What is the average current drawn during this period? What
is the energy expended by the battery in joules?