DRONE TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES FOR

RURAL INDIA - Dr. Deepak Kumar Verma 01

REVEALING THE FUNCTION OF LIVESTOCK: AN IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF

PRODUCTION DYNAMICS- Karishma Choudhary and Vinod Kumar Palsaniya 04

GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES CRISIS AND STEP TOWARDS SOLUTION-A SHORT

NOTE - Shivani Tandel., et al. 10

STAR GOOSEBERRY: A RELATIVE OF AONLA

- Karishma Sebastian., et al. 15

- M.Dharani et al.
TEA PLANTATIONS: NURTURING NATURE WITH INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT- Vasanthan. E 20

- S. Srividhya
NUTRIENT and P.Thilagam
MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
- C. Tamilselvi.,etetal.al.
-M.Marimuthu 26

-ADVANCED TECHNIQUES
Satyendra Thakur et al. TO INCREASE WATER USE EFFICIENCY
- Dr. S.K.Nayak 35

\
SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND CARBON TRADING
-M.Marimuthu et al.
- -Dr.
Dr.L.M.Nirmala
Paramasivan and Dr. L. Allwin 38

ENHANCING QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE: SUPPLY COOL CHAIN

MANAGEMENT
- M.MarimuthuFOR FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES - Shubham Gangwar
et al.
45

PARAMPARAGAT KRISHI: A SUSTAINABLE AND HOLISTIC WAY OF SOIL

HEALTH
-A.K. Rai etMANAGEMENT
al. THROUGH ORGANIC AND BIODYNAMIC SOIL INPUTS 50
- Rohit Kumar Choudhury., et al.

-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari

PLANT DISEASE: PATHOGENS AND CYCLES
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PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

- K. Vinoth Kumar 63

CULTIVATION OF ORNAMENTAL ANNUALS

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- M.Dharani et al.

POST-HARVEST DISEASES AND ITS CONTROL

- D. H. Tandel., et al. 78

-M.Marimuthu
PROMOTION OFet al.
HYBRID MAIZE THROUGH FRONT LINE DEMONSTRATIONS
(FLDs) IN BUNDELKHAND REGION: CASE STUDY - Amit Tomar 83

INDIAN AGRICULTURE'S JOURNEY TOWARDS GDP DOMINANCE SINCE

INDEPENDENCE - Dr.R.Abishek 87
ENHANCING FARMER’S INCOME THROUGH PAPAYA INTERCROP CULTIVATION
-A.K. Rai et OF
BENEFITS al.
- Dr.Swati Saha ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN AGRICULTURE
- Deepika R and Yuvarani R 91

SUCCESS STORY ON DIVERSIFIED

VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY AQUACULTURE: PABDA CATFISH CULTURE
AND ITS BENEFITS
WITH 97
- Dr. R.MONOSEX
Abishek TILAPIA - Mr. Samiran Patra and Dr. Uttam Roy

BUTTER FLY PEA- AN UNTAPPED FORAGE LEGUME CROP

--Satyendra
Krishnan, Thakur
V., et al. et al. 100
- K. Nithya et al
NATURAL FARMING: A DIVERSIFIED FARMING SYSTEM
\
- Dinesh Kachhawa., et al. 105
-M.Marimuthu et al.

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PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLES IN INDIA: FUTURE DEMAND
& GROWING CONCERNS - Shiv Narayan Dhaker., et al.

-R.Vinoth et al.
 BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES FOR CONTAMINATED ENVIRONMENTS
0
- Prathamesh Jagdeo Ade., et al. 110

IMPACTS OF SOIL SICKNESS AND ITS CONTROL

- Hanamantappa Meti., et al. 115

NURTURING NATURE: THE ESSENCE OF NATURAL FARMING

- Dr.P.Reddypriya 121

HERBAL BEVERAGES – BOON TO THE HUMAN HEALTH

- M.Chitra and R.Uma Sankareswari 125

HYDROGEL – A SUPER ABSORBENT POLYMER

- D. Sravanthi., et al. 131
-M.Marimuthu et al.

AGATHI TREE FODDER: NOURISHING THE LIVESTOCK AND GREENING THE

FUTURE - Umasankari, B., et al. 136
-- Satyendra Thakur etetal.
Namratha Valsalan al.
- M.Marimuthu et al.
AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS THE FOXTAIL GRAIN AMARATH –A PROMISING
PSEUDOCEREALS - Maddu Geethanjali ., et al. 144
-M.Marimuthu et al.
\
BROWN TOP MILLET – AN UNDERUTILIZED RARE MILLET
- Doddamani
Praveen, R., et al. 150

-A.K. Rai et al.

ROLE OF EARTHWORM AS A REPLACEMENT FOR FISHMEAL IN
AQUACULTURE - Lakkoju Nischal., et al. 156

WATER POLLUTION WITH REFERENCE TO AQUATIC FAUNA

- Panchakarala
-V.Guhan and Sedyaaw., et al
P.MuraliArthanari
162
FONIO MILLET- AN UNDERUTILIZED RARE MILLET
- Lakshmipriya, S., et al.
170

DRAGON’S EYE FRUIT – LONGAN : LITTLE BROTHER OF LITCHI

177
- Karishma Sebastian., et al.

JOB’S TEAR OR ADLAY MILLET(Coix lacryma-jobi)-THE RARE MILLET

- Aparna, FS ., et al. 182

BRINJAL PEST AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

- Dr. Devi, M
190

ROLE OF MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES AND BIOREMIDIATION IN

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES - S. Monesh and S. Vennila
194
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
NATURAL PLANT-BASED REMEDIES IN FISH HEALTH MANAGEMENT
- Padala Dharmakar., et al. 206

CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE: CONCEPT, PRINCIPLES AND BENEFITS

- R. Pavithra 211

INSECTS AS A PROTEIN SOURCE

- Dr. M. Visnupriya 216

\
ORGANIZED AWARENESS PROGRAMME ON NEW KISAN BILL AMONG THE
BUNDELKHAND FARMERS DURING 2020 : CASE STUDY - Amit Tomar 224

PROMISING ROLE OF BIOGAS IN WASTE MANAGEMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - Dr. Arati Chakra and Dr. Kandiraju 227
Lavanya
MUSHROOMS: A BOWL OF NUTRITION AND MEDICINE
- Dr. Dayamani, K.J and Dr. Mamathalakshmi, N 233

IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF MANGROVE IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEM

- S. S. Kawade ., et al. 240

SPACE BREEDING: SPACE INDUCED MUTATION BREEDING FOR CROP

IMPROVEMENT - Indu Rani C., et al. 246

CHALLENGES, OPPORTUNITIES AND POTENTIALS OF ECOTOURISM IN

LAKSHADWEEP - Akshay F Madiwalar., et al. 253

CITRUS BY PRODUCT UTILIZATION: FROM TRASH TO TREASURE IN THE

261
-FOOD INDUSTRY
Satyendra - Rhythm
Thakur et al. Kalsi and Komal Chauhan

DESMODIUM- A VALUABLE LEGUME FODDER CROP

- Anuratha A., et al. 267
-M.Marimuthu et al.
- Satyendra Thakur et al.
-EDGE LUCERN-
Namratha MULTIPURPOSE
Valsalan et al. FORAGE LEGUME CROP
- M.Marimuthu et al.
- A. Harivignesh., et al. 273

-M.Marimuthu et al. \
BEREEM- A WINTER SEASON LEGUME FODDER CROP
- Maddu Geethanjali., et al. 280

-A.K. Rai
WEED et al.
MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE
- K.Kalaichelvi and C.Harisudan 287

CITRUS UNDER PROTECTED CULTIVATION: AN APPROACH OF PRODUCTION

ADVANCEMENT - A. Thirugnanavel., et al. 291

-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari

AFLATOXINS IN CHILLI: DETECTION AND MANAGEMENT
- Indu Rani C., et al. 296

FARMER SCIENTIST TAKES BANANA WASTE INTO VALUE ADDITION: A

SUCCESS STORY - C. Ravindran and P.M. Murugesan 303

BIOFORTIFICATION: A STRATEGY FOR NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT IN

HORTICULTURAL CROPS - Subaran Singh 306

BEE FENCING- A NEW TECHNOLOGY TO PREVENT ELEPHANTS

- Manasij Das., et al. 311

NANOTECHNOLOGY: HARNESSING NANOPARTICLES TO ALLEVIATE ABIOTIC

STRESS IN PLANTS - K. Akhil., et al. 318
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
IMPACT OF INTERLINKING OF RIVERS IN INDIA - SHORT NOTES
- B. Sureandiran., et al. 323
- Satyendra Thakur et al.

A COMPREHENSIVE STARTUP AND STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR BACKYARD

- M.Marimuthu et al.
POULTRY FARMING VENTURE - Dr Prarthana R., et al. 328
-M.Marimuthu et al.
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
\
MILLETS : INDIAN SCENARIO, BENEFITS AND TYPES
- Dr. C. Deepa 333

OCCURRENCE OF COCONUT BUTTON/ NUT BORER (CYCLODES OMMA) IN

ORATHANADU BLOCK OF THANJAVUR DISTRICT - M. Shanmuga Priya., et al 339
-A.K. Rai et al.
Nag., et al.
THE ROLE OF IOT IN ADVANCING PRECISION AGRICULTURE
- S. H. Parmar., et al. 343

-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari

EMPOWERING HORTICULTURE: GENOME EDITING (CRISPR-CAS) AS A TOOL
FOR VEGETABLE CROP IMPROVEMENT - Gandikota Brahmani., et al. 352

MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

- Dr. R Vinoth., et al. 359

VERTICAL FARMING: BENEFITS, OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

- Shifina Shanavas and Ameena M 365

MEDICINAL IMPORATNCE OF DRAGON FRUIT: QUEEN OF THE NIGHT

- Dr. R Vinoth., et al. 371

REVIVING THE EARTH: HARNESSING THE POWER OF BIOREMEDIATION

- S. N. Gund., et al 379

- Satyendra Thakur et al.

PLASTIC MULCHING: A GAME-CHANGER FOR VEGETABLE GROWERS
- Kalpana Yadav., et al 383
-- Namratha
M.Marimuthu et al.et al.
Valsalan \
-M.Marimuthu et al.
IMPROVED CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF SMALL MILLET RAGI
- Pradeep Kumar., et al. 390

CONFRONTING TOMATO LEAF CURL VIRUS: HARNESSING THE POTENTIAL OF

-A.K. Rai et al.
RESISTANCE BREEDING IN TOMATO - Bhaskar Reddy S., et al 398

BEYOND THE FIELD: EXTENSION EDUCATION'S INFLUENCE ON COMMUNITY

AND ECONOMY - Hemraj Kumawat and Shivraj Kumawat 405

-V.Guhan and P.MuraliArthanari

CHICKPEA LANDRACES: A VALUABLE AND DIVERGENT SOURCE FOR HEAT
TOLERANCE - Thippeswamy Danakumara., et al. 409

GENETIC REDESIGN FOR IDEAL PLANT ARCHITECTURE IN GRAIN LEGUMES

THROUGH INDUCED MUTAGENESIS - K. Gowtham., et al. 417

CRISPR-Cas9 VS BASE EDITING IN REVOLUTIONIZING PLANT BREEDING

- P. Shanmugapriya., et al. 422

APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN AGRICULTURE

- Dr. R Vinoth., et al. 427

- Satyendra Thakur et al.

- M.Marimuthu et al.
- Namratha Valsalan et al.
-M.Marimuthu et al.

-A.K. Rai et al.

 From the Desk of Editor-in-chief

March 2024|Vol. 04 |Issue No. 03

0202

I would like to introduce the launch of “AgriGate - An International Multidisciplinary

Monthly e-Magazine Volume 04 Issue No. 03 – March 2024” with immense pleasure.
Our team is privileged to dedicate this issue to Women’s. Globally celebrated on March
8th annually, International Women’s Day honors women’s social, economic, cultural,
and political achievements while advocating for gender equality. The symbolic colors,
purple, green, and white, represent justice, hope, and purity, respectively, originating
from the Women’s Social and Political Union in the UK in 1908.
The main objective of the magazine is to provide a publishing platform to young
researchers and scientists as well as an information hub for the enthusiast, progressive
farmer and also common readers. We envisage providing an online platform that
appreciates illuminating articles on various topics related to agriculture and allied
sciences monthly that will appraise and update the students, farming community and the
whole society at large on the updates in agriculture.

Last but not the least, I wholeheartedly thank the editorial team, authors as well as
anonymous reviewers for contributing to the release of this issue.

Our team welcomes your constructive feedback and suggestions to improve delivering
fruitful content to hungry minds.

Dr R Shiv Ramakrishnan
Editor-in-chief
AgriGate Magazine

 AgriGate shall not take any responsibility for the contents of articles published in the magazine and all such responsibility shall lie with the author/s.
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similar damages)
 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

DRONE TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE:

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH BENEFITS
HAZARDS OF WORKERS
AND CHALLENGES FOR RURAL INDIA
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-01
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. Deepak Kumar Verma*

Assistant Professor (Contractual), Department of Agricultural Extension Education, RVSKVV,
College of Agriculture, Indore (M.P.), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
In recent years, drone technology has become increasingly popular in the agriculture sector.
Drones offer farmers a range of benefits, including increased efficiency, improved yields, and
reduced costs. However, there are concerns that farmers may be reluctant to adopt drone technology
due to fears of job loss or a lack of knowledge and training. We can explore the benefits of drone
technology in the agriculture sector and the challenges that may be holding farmers back from
adopting this technology.
Benefits of drones Drone Technology
As innovators introduce new technologies, their commercial uses increase day by day.
The government has been easing restrictions for drone usage and is supporting startups to come
up with novel ideas. As drone surveys become more common, they also become more cost-
effective. In agriculture, they have a plethora of advantages. Some are as follows:
Drones can be used for a wide range of tasks in the agriculture sector, including crop
mapping, soil analysis, irrigation, and pest management. Here are some of the key benefits of using
drones in agriculture:
1. Improved Efficiency: Drones can cover large areas of land quickly and efficiently, allowing
farmers to gather data and monitor crops more effectively. This can help to identify issues early,
leading to faster and more effective interventions.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

2. Enhanced Crop Yields: Drones can be used to gather data on crop health, allowing farmers to
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
identify areas that require attention. By addressing these issues, farmers can improve their crop
yields and increase their profits.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
3. Reduced Costs: Drones can help to reduce costs by identifying areas of the farm that require
attention, reducing the need for manual labour and reducing the use of pesticides and other
chemicals. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

4. Improved Accuracy: Drones can capture high-resolution images and data, providing farmers
with a detailed view of their crops. This can help to identify areas that require attention and ensure
that interventions are targeted and effective.
5. Effective and Adaptive Techniques: Drone usage results in regular updates to farmers about
their crops and helps develop strengthened farming techniques. They can adapt to weather
conditions and allocate resources without any wastage.
6. Greater Safety of Farmers: It is safer and more convenient for farmers to use drones to spray
pesticides in terrains challenging to reach, infected areas, taller crops, and power lines. It also
helps farmers prevent spraying the crops, which leads to less pollution and chemicals in the
soil.
7. 10x Faster Data for Quick Decision-Making: Drone surveys back farmers with accurate data
processing that encourages them to make quick and mindful decisions without second-
guessing, allowing farmers to save the time invested in crop scouting. Various sensors of the
drone enable capturing and analyzing data from the entire field. The data can focus on
problematic areas such as infected crops/unhealthy crops, different colored crops, moisture
levels, etc. The drone can be fixed with several sensors for other crops, allowing a more
accurate and diverse crop management system.
8. Less Wastage of Resources: Agri-drones enable optimum usage of all resources such as
fertilizer, water, seeds, and pesticides.
9. Useful for Insurance Claims: Farmers use the data captured through drones to claim crop
insurance in case of any damages. They even calculate risks/losses associated with the land
while being insured.
10. Evidence for Insurance Companies: Agricultural insurance sectors use Agri-drones for
efficient and trustworthy data. They capture the damages that have occurred for the right
estimation of monetary payback to the farmers.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Challenges of Adopting Drone Technology in Agriculture Sector

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
While agriculture drones offer various simple working processes such as precision
spraying, instant monitoring of pests and diseases, and quick mapping, drone agriculture is
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
challenging to address for rural farmers. Unlike large-scale agriculture enterprises, medium and
small farmers in rural areas seem very considered when adopting new agriculture technology,
Article
including drones. But what makes them less open to modern farming ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
adoption? In this article,
we will discuss these challenges of agriculture drone technology in rural areas.
1. Safety Risks: Drones can pose a safety risk to people and animals on the ground. For
example, drones used for crop spraying can pose a risk to people and animals if they
malfunction or are not operated correctly.
2. Cost: While agriculture drones offer long-term cost savings, the initial investment can be a
barrier for some farmers, particularly those with smaller landholdings. Efforts to make these
technologies more affordable through subsidies, financing options, or government support
programs can facilitate broader adoption.
3. Weather Dependence: Drones are weather-dependent, they cannot fly during heavy rain,
snow, wind or fog, and it can limit the use of drones in certain areas and times of the year.
4. Lack of Expertise and Training: It’s possible that farmers lack the skills or training
required to use drones efficiently. Their inability to operate the technology confidently may
make it challenging for them to adopt it.
5. Fear of Job Loss: Many farmers are concerned that the adoption of drone technology will lead
to job loss, as fewer workers will be needed to perform manual labour on the farm.
6. Regulatory Barriers: There may be regulatory barriers to the use of drones in agriculture,
which could make it difficult for farmers to adopt this technology.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

REVEALING THE FUNCTION

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH OF LIVESTOCK:
HAZARDS AN IN-
OF WORKERS
DEPTH ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION DYNAMICS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-02
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Karishma Choudhary and Vinod Kumar Palsaniya

Livestock Production and Management
CVAS, Navania, Vallabhnagar, Udaipur- 313601
RAJUVAS, Bikaner-334001(Raj.), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
The global livestock industry is quite active. It is changing in nations that are developing in
response to the sharply rising demand for animal products. Livestock husbandry is the
foundation of the rural economy in India. It is crucial to the rural economy since it creates
productive work in the rural sector and enhances household incomes. At present, there are about
220 registered livestock breeds in India (NABARD, 2023-24). Total milk, meat, egg, and wool
production of India is 130 MT, 9.77 MK, 138.8 billion, and 33 MK, respectively. Marketing of
livestock and their products as milk, meat, egg, and wool has been still traditional and controlled
by unorganized sectors like village traders, itinerant traders, producer sellers, and some
commission agents. Particularly, peri-urban meat industries adhere to certain formalized
processes. Cooperative societies and corporate private enterprises undertake about 20% of dairy
trade. The livestock industry contributes significantly to foreign exchange earnings and is doing
well in terms of producing, adding value, and exporting dairy, fisheries, wool, poultry, and other
goods.
Keywords- Livestock Population, Milk, Meat, Egg and Wool Production, Growth rate.
Introduction
Animal husbandry has been the backbone of national agriculture and a source of
employment in rural areas for centuries. The livelihood of two-thirds of rural populations is

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

derived from animals. The livelihood of almost 20.5 million people is derived from animals.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farmers. The livestock sector contributes 4.75
% (at current prices) of the total national GDP and 30.47% of the total Agriculture GDP. Farmers
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
can easily maintain their income by working in mixed farming of agriculture and animal
husbandry. Farming households with some livestock are better able to withstand distress due to
extreme meteorological conditions. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

CURRENT STATUS OF LIVESTOCK IN INDIA

Population growth, changing lifestyles, increasing urbanization, and climate change
create new challenges in animal husbandry. Increasing the production of non-productive animals
is an important problem. Livestock farming is important in India because about 2/3 of the
cultivated land is rain-fed, which is controlled by the vagaries of monsoons, making Indian
agriculture unstable.
Table 1. Total Livestock, changes, and their contribution to the overall livestock population:
S.NO. LIVESTOCK NUMBER % CONTRIBUTION POSITION
CATEGORY (MILLION) CHANGE (%)
1. Cattle 193.46 1.34 35.94 Second

2. Buffalo 109.85 1.06 20.45 First

3. Sheep 74.26 14.13 13.87 Third

4. Goat 148.88 10.14 27.80 Second

5. Pig 9.06 -12.03 1.69 -

6. Camel 0.25 -37.05 -

7. Horse & Ponies 0.34 -45.22

8. Mule 0.08 -57.09

0.23
9. Donkey 0.12 -61.23

10. Yak 0.06 -24.9

11. Mithun 0.39 29.52

Total livestock 536.76 million 4.82

Source: 20th Livestock Census, 2019.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Livestock farming has many impacts on rural economic development, economic

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
development, and nutrition, especially for women, the landless, and small farmers. Rajasthan is
the largest state of India. The area of the country is 3.42 square kilometers. The total number of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
livestock in Rajasthan is 56.76 million, accounting for more than 11.27% of India's total
livestock, ranking second in India. (Rajasthan Animal Husbandry Department, 2019). Rajasthan
Article buffalo,
has an 81.37% population of camel, 16.03% goats, 13.95% sheep, 11.94% ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
and 6.98%
cattle population.

LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY PRODUCTS:

1.Milk Production:
India ranks first in the world with a total milk production of 230.58 million tonnes. Milk
production (2022-23) increased by 3.83% compared to the previous year (2021-22). Per person's
milk consumption increased by 13 grams/day compared to last year, reaching 459 grams/day.
With an annual milk production of 230.58 million tons, India leads the world and
produces around 16% of the milk produced worldwide (BAHS, 2022-23). In India, milk output
reached 17 million tonnes in 1950–1951, the year that it continued. The states of Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh produce the most milk in India. With
9317.11 tons, Tamil Nadu leads the nation in mixed milk production, followed by Karnataka
with 8311.93 tonnes. With 9,209.07 tonnes produced, Rajasthan is the top state in terms of
domestic/non-descript cattle milk production, followed by Madhya Pradesh. States like Madhya
Pradesh (9592.66 tonnes), Andhra Pradesh (9554.79 tonnes), Punjab (8501.19 tonnes), Uttar
Pradesh (22988.45 tonnes), and Rajasthan (16072.96 tonnes) are the leaders in buffalo.
India's per capita milk consumption grew from 130 grams in 1950–1951 to 459 grams in
2022–2023; this is a commendable 427 grams per day, marginally more than the ICMR
projections. Punjab (1283 g) has the greatest daily per capita milk consumption, followed by
Rajasthan (1138 g), Haryana (1098 g), Andhra Pradesh (799 g), and Gujarat (676 g).
Egg Production
The production of eggs significantly increased starting in 1999–2000 and reached 138.83
billion in 2022–2023. Improved fowl and desi fowl account for roughly 88.14% and 10.73%,
respectively, of all eggs produced in India; ducks account for the remaining 0.66%. Andhra
Pradesh (20.13%), Tamil Nadu (15.58%), Telangana (12.77%), West Bengal (9.93%), and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Karnataka (6.51%) are the top 5 states that produce eggs. Sixty-nine percent of India's total egg
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
output comes from the five states. According to BAHS (2014), West Bengal is the state that
produces the most duck eggs overall.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
India's per capita egg availability has improved over time, from a meaner 5 eggs annually in
1950–1951 to 101 eggs in 2022–2023, but it is still far below the 365 eggs annually
Article
recommended by the ICMR. Andhra Pradesh has the highest per capita ID:availability
egg AG-VO2-I08-07
(526
eggs/year), followed by Telangana (466 eggs/year), Tamil Nadu (281 eggs/year), Haryana (281
eggs/year), and Andaman & Nicobar Island (274 eggs/year) (BAHS, 2022-23).
3.Meat Production
In 2022–2023 there will be 9.77 million tonnes of total meat output, which includes poultry
meat, up from 1.9 million tonnes in 2021–2022. The output of meat has gone up 5.13 percent
over the previous year (2021–2022). Poultry produces 4.99 million tonnes of meat annually, or
roughly 51.14% of all meat produced. According to BAHS (2022–23), the contribution of
buffalo, goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs to the overall meat output is 17.61%, 14.47%, 10.51%,
3.85%, and 2.43%, respectively.
With a 12.20% share in India's total meat production, Uttar Pradesh leads the country in
output, followed by West Bengal (11.93%), Maharashtra (11.5%), Andhra Pradesh (11.20%),
and Telangana (11.06%). Uttar Pradesh produces the most meat from pigs and buffalo. West
Bengal leads the country in the production of goat meat, while Telangana and Maharashtra
produce the most meat from sheep and fowl, respectively. In India, Kerela generates the most
meat from cattle. Compared to the ICMR recommendation of 11 g/person/day, the per capita
availability of meat in India is only approximately 7.1 g/person/day (BAHS, 2022-23).
4.Wool Production
The amount of wool produced overall ascended to 33.61 million kg (2022–23) from 33
million kg (2021–22), a 2.12% rise from the previous year. The ewe contributes around 72.1% of
the total wool output, and the lamb and ram contribute 13.92% and 13.91%, respectively. The
Indian state of Rajasthan produces the most wool (47.98%), followed by Gujarat (6.01%),
Himachal Pradesh (4.27%), Jammu & Kashmir (22.55%), Maharashtra (4.73%), and Gujarat
(6.01%) (BAHS, 2022-23).

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CONTRIBUTION OF LIVESTOCK IN RAJASTHAN

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Rajasthan accounts for just 11.27% of the nation's total livestock population but produces
approximately 14.44% of the nation's milk, 2.46% of its meat, 47.98% of its wool, and 2% of its
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
eggs. The state of Rajasthan leads the world in both milk and wool production. In Rajasthan,
every individual has access to 1138 grams of milk each day.
GROWTH RATE OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The highest growth rate for various livestock products in 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 was
6.77% for eggs, followed by 5.13% for meat, 3.83% for milk, and 2.12% for wool. For the
production of milk, eggs, meat, and wool, the states of Karnataka (8.76%), West Bengal
(20.10%), Sikkim (63.08%), and Arunachal Pradesh (35.75%) registered the highest yearly
growth rates, respectively (BAHS, 2022-23).
FUTURE OF TRADE IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS
The primary factor influencing India's potential for exports in the future can be found in
the country's need for a variety of livestock-based products and the anticipated growth in their
production. If India produces enough of these products to meet its domestic demand and still has
excess inventory, it may consider exporting the excess, given that global prices stay high. The
output shortfall experienced by several developed and developing countries throughout the world
will also have an impact on India's future export growth. India's export growth would be fuelled
by the production of other nation's shortfalls.
Conclusion
A large portion of the world's livestock resources come from the Indian
livestock business. The livestock sector supports the social and economic growth of the country
as well as its overall economy. The livestock industry is prospering in terms of output,
enhancement of value, and shipment of dairy, fisheries, wool, poultry, and other products, in
addition to having enormous potential and making an exceptional contribution to the agricultural
sector in recent years. In addition to their performance, there are other obstacles, such as societal
taboos and the disorganized cattle market. These need to be addressed to capitalize on global
market prospects.
References
Animal Husbandry Department, Rajasthan, 20th Livestock Census Rajasthan- 2019,
animalhusbandry.rajasthan.gov.in. /Livestock census.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

BAHS, 2022. Basic Animal Husbandry Statistical-2022. Department of Animal Husbandry and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Dairying. Government of India, New Delhi.
Brindha, N. (2017). Current Livestock Scenario In India And Their Contribution To National
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Economy. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Research (IJASR), 7, 143-
150.
Article
Das, A., Raju, R., & Patnaik, N. M. (2020). Present scenario and role of ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
livestock sector in the
rural economy of India: A review. International Journal of Livestock Research, 10(11),
23-30.
Islam, M. M., Anjum, S., Modi, R. J., & Wadhwani, K. N. (2016). Scenario of livestock and
poultry in India and their contribution to the national economy. International Journal of
Science, Environment and Technology, 5(3), 956-65.
Kumar, S., Krishnan, R., & Nigam, S. (2008). Contribution of livestock in Indian
scenario. Agricultural situation in India, 65(1), 25-28.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES

OCCUPATIONAL CRISIS
HEALTH HAZARDS OF AND STEP
WORKERS
TOWARDS SOLUTION-A SHORT NOTE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-03
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Shivani Tandel*, B. Sureandiran and Isha Vainsh

Department of Fisheries Resource Management, College of Fisheries Science,
Kamdhenu University, Veraval, Gujarat, India - 362265.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Around the world, the total fisheries and aquaculture production reached an all-time high
of 214 million tonnes in 2020, with 178 million tonnes of aquatic production animals and 36
million tonnes of algae, a 3% rise from the previous year's 2019 record of 213 million tonnes.
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, decreased catches of pelagic species, particularly anchoveta,
a decline in Chinese catches, and other factors all contributed to the limited growth, which was
principally caused by a 4.4 percent loss in capture fisheries. This decline was offset by
continuous aquaculture growth, although at a reduced annual rate in the last two years (FAO,
2022). Likewise, many factors led to the negative impact on the marine ecosystem and leading to
the collapse of the marine fisheries which caused the fisheries crisis (Fig. 1). In this popular
article, we briefly explain the marine fisheries crisis.

Fig.1: Impacts of crisis in fisheries over the fishers

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Following factors are the reasons for Global Crisis in Marine Fisheries
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Impact of COVID-19
The practice of marine fishing was nearly discontinued as a result of the COVID-19
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
pandemic and the ensuing lockdown, which had a profound impact on the marine fishery sector.
(Mukherjee et al., 2020; Avtar et al., 2021). All along the supply chain, the necessity for
Articlehave
additional health and safety procedures and decreased labour mobility ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
an impact on
production capacity and prices (Kundu and Santhanam, 2021).
2. Impact of Climate Change
The marginal people of coastal areas are dependent on the aquatic and marine ecosystem,
which is partially or fully influenced by climate change. However, different variables including
drought, cyclone, flood, salinity, rainfall, sea level rise, and sea surface temperature have
profound antagonistic effects on shrimp and prawn production. Fishery resources are very
sensitive to the seashore, river flows and elevation of the lake, and variations related to ocean,
coastal, and wildlife productivity (Rahman, 2022). Additionally, it's likely that physiological
factors have contributed to changes in growth, reproduction, and death, necessitating adaptation
to this new situation (Brander, 2010).
3. Overfishing
The term overfishing refers to situations where fish stocks result in declining phase. The
FAO reported that more than 85% of global fish stocks are either overfished or fully exploited,
and overfishing or lower biomass limits are responsible for the 40% reduction in Europe’s fish
stocks. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, a third of the
world's assessed fisheries are currently being exploited to the point where they can no longer
support themselves biologically. Over the past fifty years, overfishing has tripled (Pham et al.,
2023). Overfishing reduces the adaptability of fish stocks and aquatic resources to climate
change. Moreover, overfishing is directly related to a variety of detrimental fishing practices,
including illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, bycatching, and harmful subsidies.
4. Oil spills
Oil spills can cause serious damage to fishery and mariculture resources through physical
contamination, toxic effects on stock and by disrupting business activities. The nature and extent
of the impact on seafood production depends on the characteristics of the spilled oil, the
circumstances of the incident and the type of fishing activity or business affected.

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5. Micro-Plastics
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The presence of microplastics in the marine environment has been a pollution issue for
years. Because secondary plastics, which can theoretically be as small as monomers and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
oligomers, there is a high risk that they could enter the food chain (Malankowska et al., 2021).
6. Ocean-acidification
Article
Large-scale increases in seawater CO2 and inorganic carbon levels, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
reductions in pH, and
changes in the acid-base chemistry of estuarine, coastal, and surface open-ocean waters are all
being caused by rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.
7. Heavy metals
Pesticides, heavy metals, paper mill waste, polychlorinated biphenyl, and crude oil are
just a few of the potentially dangerous compounds that are frequently dumped into the aquatic
environment (Garai et al., 2021).
8. Eutrophication
Eutrophication's impacts on the ocean are quite simple to comprehend. Eutrophication
restricts water use for fisheries, recreation, industry, and drinking because of the increased
growth of undesirable algae and aquatic weeds and the oxygen shortages caused by their death
and decomposition. The excessive enrichment of waters with anthropogenic sources of nutrients
especially nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) lead to the transformation of oligotrophic water
bodies to mesotrophic, eutrophic, and finally hypertrophic (Khan & Mohammad, 2014).
9. Pollution
Environmental and industrial contaminants can affect aquatic ecosystems and aquatic
organism behaviour both directly and indirectly. Fish biota can be impacted by pollution by
changing their metabolic, respiratory, demographic, developmental, and structural processes.
There is strong evidence that confirms the harmful effects on fish fauna due to increased
pollution from expanding industrial development (Jan et al., 2022).
Way towards solution
Sustainable fisheries
Sustainable fishing means leaving enough fish in the ocean and protecting habitats and
threatened species. By safeguarding the oceans, people who depend on fishing can maintain their
livelihoods (FAO, 2018).

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(i) Subsidies should only be provided to harvest healthy resources. A healthy resource is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
a fish population that is at a sustainable fish population size1 and that is being fished at a
sustainable rate.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
(ii) Subsidies should only be provided to harvest from fisheries with fishing capacity well
below the capacity needed to fully sustainably exploit the healthy resource and where the subsidy
Article the
does not increase fishing capacity to a point where it is close to approaching ID: capacity
AG-VO2-I08-07
needed
to fully sustainably exploit the healthy resource.
(iii) Subsidies should only be provided to support harvesting activities within the member
country’s own exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
Conclusion
Currently inappropriate fishing practices not just depleting fish stocks, they often
significantly alter the ecosystems and affects food chain. Fisheries management approaches have
focused on managing individual fish stocks. Lack of sufficient data on the real status of fish
stocks, their response to fishing pressure, or the impact of fishing pressure on ecosystems and
other species, is a significant obstacle limiting the effective management of fisheries.
References
Avtar, R., Singh, D., Umarhadi, D.A., Yunus, A.P., Misra, P., Desai, P.N., Phanindra, K., 2021.
Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on the fisheries sector: a case study from three harbors in
Western India. Remote Sens. 2: 183.
Brander, K. (2010). Impacts of climate change on fisheries. Journal of Marine Systems, 3-4: 389-
402.
FAO, F. (2018). Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2018 The state of world
fisheries and aquaculture 2018-Meeting the sustainable development goals. CC BYNC-
SA, 3.s
FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards Blue Transformation.
Rome, FAO.
Garai, P., Banerjee, P., Mondal, P., & Saha, N. C. (2021). Effect of heavy metals on fishes:
Toxicity and bioaccumulation. J Clin Toxicol. S, 18.
Halwart, M. (2022). Aquaculture in SOFIA 2022. FAO Aquaculture Newsletter, 66: 7-8.
Jan, Arizo & Shah, Tasaduq & Nissa, Nighat. (2022). Impact of aquatic pollution on fish fauna.
103-112.

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Khan, M. N., & Mohammad, F. (2014). Eutrophication: challenges and

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
solutions. Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control. 2: 1-15.
Kundu, S. K., & Santhanam, H. (2021). All pain and no gain: Factors impacting local and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
regional sustainability due to COVID-19 pandemic with respect to the Indian marine
fisheries. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 3: 100086.
Malankowska, M., Echaide-Gorriz, C., & Coronas, J. (2021). Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Microplastics in marine
environment: a review on sources, classification, and potential remediation by membrane
technology. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 7: 243-258.
Mukherjee, S., Ikbal, A., Ngasotter, S., Bharti, D., Jana, S., Mondal, A., Pahari, T., 2020. Impact
of COVID-19 on Indian seafood industry and potential measures for recovery: a mini-
review. Curr. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 48: 519–527.
Pham, C. V., Wang, H. C., Chen, S. H., & Lee, J. M. (2023). The Threshold Effect of
Overfishing on Global Fishery Outputs: International Evidence from a Sustainable
Fishery Perspective. Fishes, 8: 71.
Rahman, A., Kanon, K. F., Islam, M. J., Mojumdar, S., Ashik, A. A., & Molla, M. H. R. (2022).
Impacts of climate change on aquaculture and fisheries: an integrated approach for
adaptation and mitigation. Journal of Biological Studies, 1: 171-188.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

STAR GOOSEBERRY: A RELATIVE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH OF
HAZARDS OF AONLA
WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-04

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Karishma Sebastian, Shely Mary Koshy and Dhanusha Balakrishnan

School of Agricultural Sciences,
Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Star gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus), a close relative of aonla (Phyllanthus emblica) is
one of the earliest known fruit being grown in abundance in India. It is also known by the names
Otaheite gooseberry, Malay gooseberry, Tahitian gooseberry and West Indian gooseberry. Also
known as Arinelli in Malayalam. Star gooseberry belongs to Euphorbiaceae family is native of
Indo-Chinese-Indonesian centre of diversity more precisely to India. Though the country has
many star gooseberry trees, the fruit is non-commercial and therefore not often sold in markets.
Instead, they are house garden plants and seen periodically through the countryside and villages.
However, small vendors in the south sometimes offer star gooseberries for sale. In natural forests
of Orissa, Kerala and Karnataka, plants with distinct characters have been observed. Also great
variation with respect to fruit size, colour, phenol content and bearing potential of trees has
reported.
The plant is an intermediary between shrubs and tree, reaching 2 to 9 m high. The tree’s
dense and bushy crown is composed of thickest, tough main branches, at the ends of which are
clusters of deciduous, greenish, 15 to 30 cm long branchlets. The branchlets bear alternate leaves
that are ovate or lanceolate in form, with short petioles and pointed ends. The leaves are 2 – 7.5
cm long and thin, they are green and smooth on the upper side and blue-green on the underside.
Suitable Soil
Star gooseberry plant grows on a wide range of soils. However, it prefers soil with good

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organic matter content and water holding capacity. Soil conditions significantly affect
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
the plant growth in star gooseberry. Soils with slightly above neutral pH (7 – 7.5) and with high
calcium content are much suitable. Star gooseberry is a subtropical to slightly tropical plant
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
species which survives under both high and low temperature conditions. Warmer climate with
high atmospheric humidity is most ideal for it. At the time of flowering and fruit set which
generally takes place during spring, hot and dry weather is detrimental.Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Seed
Star gooseberry is usually propagated through seed. Seeds extracted from mature fruits
give almost 100 per cent germination. Seeds can be extracted by keeping the fruits for 4 – 5 days
in water and then removal of pulp by mashing with water. Seeds were then washed properly with
running tap water and sown in sand pots. Seeds germinate in 30 – 35 days and 60 -75 days old
seedlings become ready for planting in polythene bags containing soil, farmyard manure and
organic matter in equal proportion. June – July is best time for sowing seeds.
Star gooseberry can also be propagated through air layering, budding and grafting. July –
August is the best time for air layering whereas, grafting can be attempted either during autumn
or spring under polyhouse condition. Semi hard wood cuttings can also be attempted during
monsoon season under polyhouse conditions with the use of rooting hormones.
Otaheite gooseberry do not require regular pruning but development of initial frame of
the tree is very much essential. Upright growth and inner branches should be removed to
facilitate better light and air circulation. Since it bears on old branches, removal of fruit stalks

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after crop is over is considered to be an essential operation. Diseased and damaged branches and
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water sprouts should be removed regularly after every cropping season.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Generally no irrigation is practiced in otaheite gooseberry, except that of initial plant
establishment. Being a plant of high humidity region, need for supplementary irrigation is very
Article ID:
less. Only the conservation of available soil moisture help improves AG-VO2-I08-07
plant growth and
performance which can be done by mulching of plant basins.
Fruits
The otaheite gooseberry plants starts flowering and fruiting in 5 – 6 years. The flower
panicles are borne on older and mature branches. Numerous male and female flowers are located
on the same panicle at different places (monoecious). Flowers are small and pinkish and appear
in clusters of 5 to 12.5 cm long panicles. In South India, generally two flowering season is
observed in otaheite gooseberry, during April – May (Summer) and August –September (rainy
season). In other areas, January - February is the main season of flowering in otaheite
gooseberry, however sporadic flowers and fruits can be seen throughout the year. The fruit
attains optimum maturity in 90-100 days. A well grown up plant of otaheite gooseberry produces
15-20 kg fruits.

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Fruit is pendulous in small clusters from the branches, round or slightly flattened at the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
poles, with shallow or deep ribs 0.75 inches across. When unripe, gooseberries appear whitish
green and are hard to touch. As they ripen on the plant, they turn pale gold. Fruit contain 4 – 5
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
seeds which are 0.6 – 1.3 cm long, thin, light brown, and enclosed by a gelatinous aril. The seeds
maintain viability for 1 – 2 months if properly air dried and stored in a cool dry place.
Star gooseberry, has not yet been exploited properly in spite Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
of its nutritional (Table 1)
and medicinal values. In comparison to aonla, it has limited market potential. However, its
potential may be realized by developing and promoting its value added products.
Table 1. Nutritional composition of Star gooseberry
Constituents Contents (per 100g pulp)
Moisture 91.9 g
Protein 0.155 g
Fat 0.52 g
Fiber 0.8 g
Ash 0.51 g
Calcium 5.4 mg
Phosphorus 17.9 mg
Iron 3.25 mg
Carotene 0.019 mg
Thiamine 0.025 mg
Riboflavin 0.013 mg
Niacin 0.292 mg
Ascorbic acid 4.6 mg
Yield

Harvesting of star gooseberry is done manually. The whole bunch or individual fruits are
picked and kept in containers. The individual fruits are graded according to size and colour and
sold in local market. Star gooseberry has very short shelf life due to high moisture content and
therefore should be disposed off quickly. Fruits can be kept for 2-3 days at ambient conditions.
Fruits are generally used for making some value added products. Fresh consumption of fruit is
very limited because of its acidic taste.

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Chutney, syrup, pickle and sweetened products can be prepared from star gooseberry.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The sliced raw flesh can be covered with sugar and let stand in the refrigerator for a day.
The sugar draws out the juice and modifies the acidity so that the flesh and juice can be used as a
sauce. If left longer, the flesh shrivels and the juice can be strained off as clear, pale yellow
syrup. In Indonesia, the tart flesh is added to many dishes as a flavouring agent. The juice is used
in cold drinks in Philippines.
Medicinal uses
Though star gooseberries do not receive as much attention as aonla, these fruits may still
be considered super fruit for their incredible health benefits. Traditionally, star gooseberry fruits
were used in India to treat a number of illnesses. According to the book, ‘Biodiversity in India’
these fruits are used as a blood purifier and appetite stimulant. They are also used to remedy
bronchitis, biliousness, and treat digestive disorders such as urinary concretions, diarrhoea and
piles. Fruits are taken as liver tonic and to enrich the blood. The syrup is prescribed as a
stomachic and seeds are cathartic. Because of mucilaginous nature of leaves, they are taken as a
demulcent in cases of gonorrhea in India. The roots of star gooseberry are boiled and the steam is
inhaled to relieve coughs and headache. The root infusion is taken in very small doses to
alleviate asthma. Externally, the root is used to treat psoriasis of the soles of feet.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

TEA PLANTATIONS: NURTURING

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH NATURE
HAZARDS WITH
OF WORKERS
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-05
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Vasanthan. E
PG Scholar, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal,
U. T. of Puducherry 609603. India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
The perennial tea plant, Camellia sinensis, is farmed in huge, continuous monocultures.
Numerous infamous pests, including weeds, mites, nematodes, insects, and diseases, attack tea
plants. The preparation and application of novel botanical and microbial pesticide formulations,
the assessment of field bio-efficacy and biological agent conservation, and cultural control
strategies are all highlighted in the current trends in environmentally friendly insect pest
management practices. In the husbandry of tea, mechanical methods such as manual removal,
heat treatments, use of bio-pesticides and bio-control agents, as well as cultural control
techniques like plucking, pruning, regulating shade, field sanitation, fertilizer application,
manipulation or destruction of alternate hosts, and selection of pest-resistant or tolerant varieties.
Keywords:Rice, Integrated pest management, Insect pests, IPM.
Introduction
Primarily cultivated as a monoculture across vast contaminated regions, Camellia
sinensis (L.) is a perennial crop. The farming system, being permanent and monoculture, creates
a steady microclimate that attracts a variety of insect pests that significantly reduce crop yield. It
is critical to look into alternative pest management techniques due to the rising expense of insect
pest control and growing worries about the harmful effects of pesticide residues in produced tea.
Because the perennial tea plantation system has a high pest diversity, integrated pest
management, or IPM, in the tea industry encourages a multidisciplinary approach.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Integrated Pest Management

In tea plantations, integrated pest management (IPM) strategy employs a wide range of
techniques, such as cultural practices, chemical pesticides, biological control agents, pest-
resistant cultivars, and physical barriers. The immediate protection of tea and various constraints
to employ different control methods have led to the incorporation and continued use of all
standard control strategies, such as natural control (climatic factors, topographic features,
predators, and parasites, etc.) and applied control (cultural control, microbial control, regulatory
control, chemical control, mechanical control, biological control, Biological control, Microbial
control, Regulatory control, Chemical control, and Integrated control, Breeding of resistant
agrotypes, Ionizing radiation, Chaemosterilant, etc.). Since there are many and growing success
stories with the implementation of IPM methods, the various components of the practices are
listed below with a few specific instances.
1. Cultural control
Certain routine cultural practices, like plucking rounds, adjusting pruning cycles,
modifying shade trees, and promptly controlling weeds, can be effectively used as preventive
measures of pest control. Cultural control is reportedly the most affordable and widely applicable
method of pest management. It involves the intelligent manipulation of all aspects of crop
husbandry in tea culture.
1.1. Plucking
One of the frequent occurrences in tea culture is plucking. The elimination or reduction
of numerous foliar pests, including scales, aphid jassids, tea mosquito bugs, and leaf folding

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caterpillars like flushworms and leaf rollers, is greatly impacted by this process. More insect
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eggs, larvae, and juvenile stages will be removed from the shrub during shorter plucking
sessions. Eggs were placed by tea mosquito bugs on the broken ends, or stalks, of harvested
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
plants. During plucking, remove as much of the stalks as possible to minimize the presence of
this insect.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1.2. Pruning
An important agronomic technique used in the winter to rejuvenate vegetative growth at
the expense of reproduction and boost crop productivity the following year is pruning. Pruning
eliminates a significant portion of the pest populations that are on the stems and foliage. During
pruning, the majority of foliar pests are eliminated, including tea mosquito bugs, flush worms,
aphids, jassids, thrips, red spider mites, scarlet mites, and purple mites.
1.3. Field sanitation
Field sanitation assumes significance in the management of several pests. Weeds offer
excellent hiding places and serve as alternate hosts for Helopeltis and Red spider mites.
Malastoma malabethricum and Urena lobata weeds act as alternate host of Red spider mite.
2. Physical control
One of the key components of the integrated pest management program is physical
control. By employing tools that physically impact pests or change their physical surroundings,
these interventions seek to lower pest populations.
2.1. Manual removal
The collection and extermination of Lepidopteran caterpillars is cost-effective and
beneficial for both small and large plantations. By manually removing the larvae and pupae, the

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population of caterpillars that feed on foliage, such as looper caterpillars, faggot worms, flush
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
worms, and leaf rollers, can be greatly reduced.
2.2. Heat treatment and soil solarisation
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The growth medium for tea plants is soil. Numerous insects, such as termites, cockchafer
grubs, eelworms, and root mealy bugs, can survive or hibernate in areas with appropriate
Article
humidity and temperature that are under or close to the soil's surface. ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
The nursery soil can be
heated to 60–65°C to destroy the infectious juvenile soil nematode.
3. Mechanical control
Pests can be suppressed manually with mechanical methods and gadgets. There aren't
many attempts using this technique to control tea pests. To manage termites, however, not many
techniques have been created and implemented in tea plantations.
3.1. Mound digging process
Termitaria, or termite mounds, are dome-shaped, closed-system clay mounds with architectural
design that naturally shield against harsh environmental conditions. In order to increase the
population, the queen, who resides inside the mound, produces minuscule offspring. Using
mechanical control to eliminate termitaria appears to be a workable way to manage termites.
4. Biological control
In order to keep pests below manageable limits, biological techniques of management
entail the conservation, maintenance, and introduction of natural enemies such as predators,
parasitoids, and diseases. From the tea estates, more than a hundred species of parasitoids,
predators, and diseases have been identified.
4.1. Predator
A number of predatory mites, primarily from the families Phytoseiidae, Stigmaeidae, and
Tydeidae, feed primarily on phytophagous mites that infest tea..

Hippodamia divergens Chrysoperla carnea

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

In tea, Oligota flaviceps is recognized as a predator of red spider mites.Chrysoperla carnea has
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
been recognized as a predator of thrips and Helopeltis. Hippodamia divergens, the lady bird
beetle, has the ability to efficiently suppress tea aphid populations. Verania discolor has been
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
discovered as the probable predator of the red spider mite
4.2. Parasitoid
The leaf-rolling caterpillar, Cydia leucostoma, is parasitized by nineArticle
speciesID:
ofAG-VO2-I08-07
braconids, two
ichneumonids, one encyrtid, and an Ascogaster pupal parasitoid. Apanteles aristaeus is the most
prevalent species of larval parasitoids on flushworms. Erythmelus helopeltidis, an egg parasitoid,
has been successful against Helopeltis theivora, a tea mosquito bug.

Apanteles aristaeus
4.3. Pathogens
A recent topic of research for integrated pest management in tea is the use of
entomopathogenic fungi. Bacillus thuringiensis has proven to be a successful tool in managing
many lepidopterous pests, including looper caterpillars, cutworms, and flushworms.

5. Chemical Control
It has long been believed that one of the most important agricultural inputs for raising
crop yields is pesticides.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

For insect and mite pests of tea to be successfully controlled, the right choice of
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
insecticides, dose, timing, and application technique are crucial.
Conclusion
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The most important component of chemical control measures under IPM strategy is the
administration of pesticides in a need-based, prudent, and safe manner. It entails learning IPM
techniques to protect the environment through appropriate cropArticle
healthID: AG-VO2-I08-07
monitoring, ETL
observation, and preservation of the potential for natural biocontrol before opting to employ
chemical pesticides as a last resort.
References
Babu, A., Roobak Kumar, A., Perumalsamy, K., & Sachin, P. J. (2008). A new record of a
predator of red spider mite. Newsletter of UPASI Tea Research Institute, 18(1), 4.
Mamun, M. S. A. (2011). Integrated approaches to tea pest management in South India: A way
of sustainable tea cultivation. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG
Dudweiler Landstr 99, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany. 68pp.
Muraleedharan, N. (1991). Pest management in tea. The United Planters’ Association of
Southern India, p. 130.
Sasidhar, R., & Sanjay, R. (2000). Cultural control of tea mosquito bug. Newsletter of UPASI
Tea Research Institute, 10(1),4

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
OCCUPATIONAL IN ORGANIC
HEALTH HAZARDS FARMING
OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-06

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*C. Tamilselvi1, G. Sathish2, P. Yogameenakshi3, VA. Vijayashanthi4, TL. Preethi5, K.

Sivagamy6 and S. Banumathy7
1
Associate Professor (Crop Physiology), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
2
Associate Professor (Horticulture), Regional Research Station, Vridhachalam
3
Associate Professor (PBG), Rice Research Station, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
4
Assistant Professor (Entomology), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
5
Associate Professor (Horti.), Rice Research Station, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
6
Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
7
Programme Coordinator, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tirur, Tiruvallur district
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The organic farming is the production of crops, animals and others without using the
chemical fertilizers, genetically modified plants and chemical pesticides. The USDA defines
organic agriculture as “a production system that is managed to respond to site-specific conditions
by integrating cultural, biological and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources,
promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.” According to the survey of Research
Institute of Organic Agriculture (2017), there are 181 countries with 69.8 mha of organic farming
lands which is 1.4% of the total agricultural land. Oceania occupies the largest world organic
production. The total organic farming land in Asia is 6.1mha from which 1.1 million producers
are from India. The green revolution results in use of chemical fertilizers extensively. This leads
to pollution which has the adverse effect on climate. Organic farming helps to overcome these
hazardous consequences.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Nutrient Management in Organic Farming

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Because chemical fertilizers and micronutrients are not utilized in organic farming, managing
nutrients can be difficult. Management of the soil's biological health, physical state, and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
nutritional status are all included in nutrient management.In organic farming, there are many
different ways to supply nutrients. They are,
i. Crop rotation Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

ii. Cover cropping

iii. Addition of compost
iv. Green manures/Green leaf manures
v. Addition of manures
vi. Application of crop residues
vii. Use of biofertilizers
i. Crop rotation
The crop rotation improves soil physical properties (pH, CEC, bulk density), nutrient
availability (total nitrogen, available phosphorus, exchangeable potassium) , pest management,
nutrient use efficiency and crop yield. Monoculture leads to decrease in the soil nutrients. A
legume in the crop rotation helps to replenish the nitrogen in the soil. Growing of legume will
make the nitrogen available for succeeding crop. Crop rotation with non host crops helps to
break the life cycle of pests or it helps to decrease the rate of population of the pests. Crop
rotation with crops having different root architecture helps in use of nutrients in different soil
layers.
ii. Cover cropping
The cover crops are grown in between the main crop or grown during the season where
the main crops are not grown. They are generally fast growing crops which are not competitive
for the main crop. Cover cropping has a role in preventing soil erosion, increase nutrient
availability and promote the organic matter of the soil. The cover crops are mostly leguminous
plants. These plants act as green manure. They provide additional nitrogen through symbiotic
relationship with rhizobial bacteria. The cover crop biomass increases the soil organic matter. So
the water holding capacity and soil structure is improved.
iii. Addition of compost:
Composting is the process of decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

under controlled conditions. The product of composting is called compost. The organic materials
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
such as crop wastes, food wastes, animal wastes, municipal wastes, industrial wastes are suitable
for composting. It increases the soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Compost
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
provides nutrients in a stable organic form and increases plant rooting depth, plant growth and
health. It also improves soil microbial activity and water holding capacity of soil.
iv. Green manures/Green leaf manures Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Green Manure
Green undecomposed material used as manure is called green manure. It is obtained in
two ways: by growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from
plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring is growing in the field plants
usually belonging to leguminous family and incorporating into the soil after sufficient growth.
The plants that are grown for green manure known as green manure crops. The most important
green manure crops are sunnhemp, dhaincha, pillipesara,clusterbeans and Sesbania rostrata.
Advantages
i. Improves soil structure
ii. Increases water holding capacity and
iii. Decreases soil loss by erosion
GREEN LEAF MANURE
Application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from elsewhere
is known as green leaf manuring. Forest tree leaves are the main sources for green leaf manure.
Plants growing in wastelands, field bunds etc., are another source of green leaf manure. The
important plant species useful for green leaf manure are neem, mahua, wild indigo, Glyricidia,
Karanji (Pongamia glabra) calotropis, avise(Sesbania grandiflora), subabul and other shrubs.
Advantages
i. Green manuring improves soil structure, increases water holding capacity and decreases
soil loss by erosion.
ii. Growing of green manure crops in the off season reduces weed proliferation and weed
growth.
iii. Green manuring helps in reclamation of alkaline soils. Root knot nematodes can be
controlled by green manuring.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

v. Manuring
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Manures are the animal or plant wastes which release nutrients slowly by biological
decomposition. Manures are grouped into bulky and concentrate organic manure. Bulky organic
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
manures contain small amount of nutrients and should be applied in large quantities which
constitute farm yard manure, poultry manure. Concentrate organic manures have large amount of
nutrients so it should by applied in small quantities. It includes edibleArticle
and nonID:edible
AG-VO2-I08-07
oil cakes,
blood meal, horn meal, hoof meal, bone meal and fish meal.
Bulky organic manure
Organic manure N(%) P(%) K(%)
Cow Manure 0.6 0.4 0.5
Pig Manure 0.8 0.7 0.5
Poultry Manure 1.1 0.8 0.5
Sheep Manure 0.7 0.3 0.9
Average nutrient content of oil cakes
Oil-cakes Nutrient content (%)
N P2O5 K2O
Non edible oil-cakes
Castor cake 4.3 1.8 1.3
Cotton seed cake (undecorticated) 3.9 1.8 1.6
Karanj cake 3.9 0.9 1.2
Mahua cake 2.5 0.8 1.2
Safflower cake (undecorticated) 4.9 1.4 1.2
Edible oil-cakes
Coconut cake 3.0 1.9 1.8
Cotton seed cake (decorticated) 6.4 2.9 2.2
Groundnut cake 7.3 1.5 1.3
Linseed cake 4.9 1.4 1.3
Niger cake 4.7 1.8 1.3
Rape seed cake 5.2 1.8 1.2
Safflower cake (decorticated) 7.9 2.2 1.9
Sesamum cake 6.2 2.0 1.2
Other Concentrated Organic Manures
Blood meal when dried and powdered can be used as manure. The meat of dead animals
is dried and converted into meat meal which is a good source of nitrogen. Average nutrient
content of animal based concentrated organic manures is given as follows.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Average nutrient content of animal based concentrated organic manures

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Organic manures Nutrient content (%)
N HAZARDS
P2O5 OF K2O
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH WORKERS
Blood meal 10 - 12 1-2 1.0
Meat meal 10.5 2.5 0.5
Fish meal 4 - 10 3-9 0.3Article
- 1.5 ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Horn and Hoof meal 13 - -
Raw bone meal 3-4 20 - 25 -
Steamed bone meal 1-2 25 - 30 -
Crop residues
In India about 141 million tons of crop residues are produced per year, out of which
92 mt is burned each year. The two crops such as rice and wheat are produced large amount of
residues in India. These crop residues can be incorporated directly into the field or can be used
for composting processes. It plays important role in maintaining the soil carbon content and
phosphorus availability .It provides soil organic matter, which improves the quality of the
seedbed and increases the water infiltration and water holding capacity of the soil, balances the
pH . It also sequester Carbon in the soil.
Use of biofertilizer
A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which, when
applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and
promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.
Biofertilizers make the nutrients available to the plants. There are various types of bioferilizers.
i. Nitrogen fixing bioferilizers
ii. Phosphorus solubilizing bioferilizers
iii. Phosphorus mobilizing bioferilizers
iv. Zinc solubilizing bioferilizers
v. Sulphur solubilizing biofertilizers
vi. Plant growth promoting rhizobactria
Liquid Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are such as Rhizobium, Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria provide nitrogen
and phosphorous nutrients to crop plants through nitrogen fixation and phosphorous

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

solubilization processes. These Biofertilizers could be effectively utilized for rice, pulses,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
millets, cotton, sugarcane, vegetable and other horticulture crops. Biofertilizers is one of the
prime input in organic farming not only enhances the crop growth and yield but also improves
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the soil health and sustain soil fertility. At present, Biofertilizers are supplied to the farmers as
carrier based inoculants. As an alternative, liquid formulation technology has been developed in
Articlehas
the Department of Agricultural Microbiology, TNAU, Coimbatore which ID:more
AG-VO2-I08-07
advantages
than the carrier inoculants.
Benefits
The advantages of Liquid Bio-fertilizer over conventional carrier based Bio-fertilizers are listed
below:
 Longer shelf life -12-24 months.
 No contamination.
 No loss of properties due to storage upto 45º c.
 Greater potentials to fight with native population.
 High populations can be maintained more than 109 cells/ml upto 12 months to 24
months.
 Easy identification by typical fermented smell.
 Cost saving on carrier material, pulverization, neutralization, sterilization, packing and
transport.
 Quality control protocols are easy and quick.
 Better survival on seeds and soil.
 No need of running Bio-fertilizer production units through out the year.
 Very much easy to use by the farmer.
 Dosages is 10 time less than carrier based powder Bio-fertilizers.
 High commercial revenues.
 High export potential.
 Very high enzymatic activity since contamination is nil.
Dosage of liquid Bio-fertilizers in different crops
Recommended Liquid Bio-fertilizers and its application method, quantity to be used for different
crops are as follows:

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Crop Recommended Application Quantity to

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08 Bio-fertilizer method be used
Field crops Rhizobium Seed 200ml/acre
Pulses OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS treatment
Chickpea, pea, Groundnut, soybean, beans, Lentil,
lucern, Berseem, Green gram, Black gram,
Cowpea and pigeon pea Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Cereals Azotobacter/Azo Seed 200ml/acre
Wheat, oat, barley spirillum treatment
Rice Azospirillum Seed 200ml/acre
treatment
Oil seeds Azotobacter Seed 200ml/acre
Mustard, seasum, Linseeds, Sunflower, castor treatment
Millets Azotobacter Seed 200ml/acre
Pearl millets, Finger millets, kodo millet treatment
Maize and Sorghum Azospirillum Seed 200ml/acre
treatment
Forage crops and Grasses Azotobacter Seed 200ml/acre
Bermuda grass, Sudan grass, Napier Grass , treatment
ParaGrass, StarGrass etc.
Other Misc. Plantation Crops Azotobacter Seedling 500ml/acre
Tobacco treatment
Tea, Coffee Azotobacter Soil 400ml/acre
treatment
Rubber, Coconuts Azotobacter Soil 2-3 ml/plant
treatment
Agro-ForestRY/Fruit Plants Azotobacter Soil 2-3 ml/plant
All fruit/agro-forestry (herb,shrubs, annuals and treatment at nursery
perennial) plants for fuel wood fodder,
fruits,gum,spice,leaves,flowers,nuts and seeds
puppose
Leguminous plants/ trees Rhizobium Soil 1-2 ml/plant
treatment

Beneficial effects of Panchagavya on commercial crops

Mango
 Induces dense flowering with more female flowers
 Irregular or alternate bearing habit is not experienced and continues to fruit regularly

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 Enhances keeping quality by 12 days in room temperature

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Flavour and aroma are extraordinary
Guava
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Higher TSS
 Shelf life is extended by 5 days
urmeric Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Enhances the yield by 22%

 Extra long fingers
 Ensure low drainage loss
 Narrows the ratio of mother and finger rhizomes
 Helps survival of dragon fly, spider etc which in turn reduce pest and disease load
 Sold for premium price as mother/seed rhizome
 Enriches the curcumin content
Vegetables
 Yield enhancement by 18% and in few cases like Cucumber, the yield is doubled
 Wholesome vegetables with shiny and appealing skin
 Extended shelf life
 Very tasty with strong flavour
Acid lime
 Continuous flowering is ensured round the year
 Fruits are plumpy with strong aroma
 Shelf life is extended by 10 days
Banana
 In addition to adding with irrigation water and spraying, 3% solution (100 ml) was tied
up at the naval end of the bunch after the male bud is removed. The bunch size becomes
uniform. One month earlier harvest was witnessed. The size of the top and bottom hands
was uniformly big.
Jasmine
 Exceptional aroma and fragrance
 No incidence of bud worm
 Continuous flowering throughout the year

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Time of application of Panchagavya for different crops is given as follows

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Crops Time schedule
Rice 10,15,30 and 50th days after transpalnting
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Sunflower 30,45 and 60 days after sowing
Black gram Rainfed: 1st flowering and 15 deays after
flowering Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Irrigated: 15, 25 and 40 days after sowing

Green gram 15, 25, 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing
Castor 30 and 45 days after sowing
Groundnut 25 and 30th days after sowing
Bhendi 30, 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing
Moringa Before flowering and during pod formation
Tomato Nursery and 40 days after transplanting: seed
treatment with 1 % for 12 hrs
Onion 0, 45 and 60 days after transplanting
Rose At the time of pruning and budding
Jasmine Bud initiation and setting
Vanilla Dipping setts before planting

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

ADVANCED TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE WATER USE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
EFFICIENCY
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-07
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. S.K.Nayak*
Shri Sant Shankar Mahraj College of Agriculture Pimpalkhuta Affiliated to Dr. Panjabrao
Deshmukh krishi Vidyapeeth Akola – 444 709. Maharastra, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The term water use efficiency originates in the economic concept of productivity.
Productivity measures the same amount of any given resource that must be expended to produce
one unit of any goods or service. Thus, water productivity might be measured by the volume of
water taken into a plant to produce a unit of the output. In general, the lower the resource input
requirement per unit, the higher the efficiency.
Water use efficiency includes any measure that reduces the amount of water used per
unit of any given activity, consistent with the maintenance or enhancement of water quality. In
agricultural terms, the activity is the productivity of the crops in the command area
Water use efficiency is define as yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used
in evapotranspiration.
Y
WUE = ---------- x 100
ET
Where, Y = marketable yield
ET = evapotranspiration
Expressed in term of kg/ ha mm of water.
A. Crop water use efficiency: It is ratio of crop yield to amount of water depleted by the crop
in the process of evapotranspiration

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Y
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
WUE = ----------
ET
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Where, Y = marketable yield
ET = evapotranspiration
Article
B. Field water use efficiency: is the crop yield to total amount of water ID:inAG-VO2-I08-07
used the field.
Y
WUE = ----------
WR
Where, Y = marketable yield
WR = water requirement
Efficiency is a measure of output, obtained from a given unit of input.
Principal factor influencing WUE.
 Design of the irrigated system,
 Degree of land preparation and
 Skill and care from the irrigator.
Water use efficiency of different crops
Water
requirement Grain yield WUE
Crop
(mm) (kg/ha) (kg/ha mm)

Rice 2,000 6,000 3.0

Sorghum 2,000 6,000 3.0
Pear
500 4,000 8.0
millet
Maize 625 5,000 8.0
Groundnut 506 4,680 9.2

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

B Scenarios
Four scenarios for improving the water-use efficiency of the agricultural sector are evaluated:
1. Modest crop shifting
Shifting a small percentage of lower-value, water-intensive crops to higher- alue, water -
efficient crops.
2. Smart irrigation scheduling
Using irrigation scheduling information that helps farmers more precisely Irrigate to meet
crop water needs and boost production.
3. Advanced irrigation management
Applying advanced management methods that save water, such as regulated deficit
irrigation.
4. Efficient irrigation technology
Shifting a fraction of the crops irrigated using flood irrigation to sprinkler and drip Systems.
Irrigation Efficiency
The percentage of applied irrigation water stored in soil and made available for
consumption use by the crop .when the water is measured at its entry to a farm, it is called farm
irrigation efficiency.
Water stored in the soil for crop growth
Irrigation Efficiency = ------------------------------------------------------------ x 100
Water applied as irrigation

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND CARBON

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
TRADING
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-08
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. M. Paramasivan1 and Dr. L. Allwin2

1
Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Killikulam, Vallanad – 628 252, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu.
2
Rice Research Station, Ambasamudram– 627 401, Tirunelveli – Dt, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing of atmospheric carbon
dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere with the
goal of reducing global climate change. Carbon sequestration is the process involved in
carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and may refer
specifically to:
"The process of removing
carbon from the atmosphere and
depositing it in a reservoir." When
carried out deliberately, this may also
be referred to as carbon dioxide
removal, which is a form of geo-
engineering. Carbon capture and
storage, where carbon dioxide is
removed from flue gases (e.g.,
at power stations) before being stored
in underground reservoirs.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and reservoirs, such
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
as by chemical weathering of rocks.
Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has
been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases,
which are released by burning fossil fuels. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or
physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural
processes, while some use entirely artificial processes.
Objectives of carbon sequestration
 Developing technologies to reduce rate of concentration of green house gases carbon in
air.
 Reducing pollution in air as well as improving natural carbon content in soil
 Improvement of soil structure and restoring degraded soil leading to increase yield in
crops.
Carbon dioxide emission in top five countries
China - 8.1 Billion metric tons per annum
The US - 5.7 ”
India - 1.83 ”
Russia - 1.78 ”
Japan - 1.26 ”
Sources of carbon dioxide emission
1. Man made sources
Industries
Transportation
Land use change
Soil cultivation
Biomass burning
2. Natural sources
Volcanoes
Wild fires

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Decomposition
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Respiration
Ways of carbon sequestration
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
1. Geological sequestration – underground
2. Ocean sequestration - deep in ocean
3. Terrestrial sequestration - in plants and soil Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1. Geological sequestration
Geologic storage involves capturing anthrophogenic CO2 before its entries the atmosphere and
injecting it into underground formations. Once CO2 is injected to deep underground (typically
more than 800 meters) it is trapped in minute pores or spaces in the rock structure. Impermeable
cap rocks above the storage zone act as seals to ensure the safe storage of CO2.
2. Ocean sequestration
Carbon is naturally stored in the ocean via two pumps, solubility and biological and there are
analogous man made method, direct injection and ocean fertilization, respectively.
At the present time approximately one third of human generated emission are estimated to be
entering the ocean.
3. Terrestrial sequestration
The process through which CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed naturally through
photosynthesis and stored as carbon in biomass and soil.
Carbon sources and carbon sink
Carbon sources
A forest is considered to be a carbon source if it releases more carbon than it absorbs.
Anthrophogenic activities such as burning the fossil fuels have released carbon from its long-
term geologic storage as coal, petroleum and natural gas and have delivered it to the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide gas.
Carbon sink
The main natural carbon sinks are plants, the ocean and soil. Plants grab CO2 from
atmosphere to use photosynthesis; some of this carbon is transferred to the soil as plants die and
decompose. The ocean are a major carbon storage system for CO2. Marine animals also take up
the gas for photosynthesis; while some CO2 simply dissolves in the seawater.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

The role of trees and forest in reducing the atmospheric carbon

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Trees it’s the carbon storage expert. One half dry weight of wood is carbon. Trees take in
CO2 from the air in the process called photosynthesis.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The trees effectively breakdown the CO2 stores, the carbons in all part of the tree and releases
the oxygen back into atmosphere. Fast growing trees are, in fact, the most efficient way to
sequester atmospheric carbon. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

As forests grow, they store carbon in woody tissues and soil organic matter. The net rate
of carbon uptake is greatest when forests are young and slows with time. Old forests can
sequester carbon for a long time but provide essentially no net uptake.
The main strategies for using forests for carbon sequestration
Active forest management
Avoided deforestation
Forest preservation
Afforestation
Benefits of soil sequestration of carbon
Improved soil structure
Better water use and storage
Less erosion
Increased soil fertility
Improved biodiversity
Healthier ecology
Improved agriculture performance
Challenges in soil carbon sequestration
Deforestation
Burning residues
Conventional tillage
Imbalanced use of fertilizers
Reduced inputs of organic matter
Greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere are increasing and the threat of the global
climate change requires our attention.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Soil carbon sequestration is an effective tool to sequester atmosphere CO2 with better practical
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
application than other approaches.
Soil carbon sequestration provide vast opportunity to sequester carbon in the soil.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
A diversity of agricultural management practices can be employed to sequester more carbon in
plants and soil:
Crop management Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Nutrient management
Residue management and conservation tillage
Agro-forestry
Soil carbon sequestration using innovative soil and crop management practices is needed
to augment soil carbon sequestration.
Combination of different agricultural management practices can enhance soil carbon
sequestration.
Carbon trading
 It is an administrative approach used to control pollution by providing economic
incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants.
 It is the trading of permits to emit carbon dioxide (and other greenhouse gases, calculated
in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, tCO2e). It is one of the ways countries can meet their
obligations under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon emissions and thereby mitigate global
warming
 Here sets a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. Companies or
other groups that emit the pollutant are given credits or allowances which represent the right to
emit a specific amount. The total amount of credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total
emissions to that level. Companies that pollute beyond their allowances must buy credits from
those who pollute less than their allowances. This transfer is referred to as a trade.
What is Kyoto Protocol ?
 From December 1 through 11, 1997, more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to
negotiate binding limitations on greenhouse gases for the developed nations, pursuant to
the objectives of the Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992. The outcome of
the meeting was the Kyoto Protocol, in which the developed nations agreed to limit their
greenhouse gas emissions, relative to the levels emitted in 1990.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 It Entry into Force on 16 February2005

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 India Signed and ratified in August 2002
 Ratified by >130 countries
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Major non-participants: USA and Australia
 Commits industrialised countries to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by, on
average, 5% below 1990 levels in 2008-12 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Individual, quantified emission targets for each industrialized country

 Six greenhouse gases covered: CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC/PFC, SF6
European Union Emission Trading Scheme
 The scheme, in which all 25 member states of the European Union participate,
commenced operation on 1 January 2005
 Under the scheme, each participating country proposes a National Allocation Plan (NAP)
including caps on greenhouse gas emissions for power plants and other large point sources.
 In the first phase (2005-2007), the EU ETS includes some 12,000 installations,
representing approximately 45% of EU CO2 emission.
 The second phase (2008-12) is to cover not only CO2, but all greenhouse gases.
Carbon Trading Cycle

Understand the Principles

 Assist you in identifying and addressing these climate change issues, the direction of
policy and their potential impacts on your business.
Determine Emissions & Base Line
 Assist in determining, monitoring and reporting your firm's emissions and baselines and
identifying internal abatement opportunities.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Define Carbon Management Strategy

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It offers strategic advice on how to achieve an effective carbon management strategy in a
manner that best fits your risk profile, regulatory environment, capacity and existing operations
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Develop a Reduction Project
 It offers a choice of specialist services to assist in developing your emission reduction
project through Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Joint Implementation
 Clean Development Mechanism
Verify & Monitor Emission Reduction
 It provides independent greenhouse gas emission verification services involving
analytical review of a data acquisition process, assessment and testing of internal controls, and
the validation of data.
Register Emission Reduction
 Provide independent registry services for emission reductions.
Obtain Financial Advice
 The most basic strategic analysis needs to include a review of the Financial Impact of
Climate Change, and sellers need CO2e Project Financing Solutions together with Structured
Financial Solutions to liberate hidden value from the instruments themselves.
Obtain Insurance Advice
 Insurance services provide enhanced security to your climate change investments and
marketability to your reductions. Risk Optimization of Carbon Offset Projects and Trading
should enable you to avoid setbacks, reduce unnecessary exposures, provide access to alternative
sources of project finance and enhance the competitiveness of your offers to sell emission
reductions
Obtain Legal Advice
 Sellers need Integrated CO2e Project Advice, and buyers need to understand the Legal
Validity of Project Based Emission Reductions which they may be buying.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

ENHANCING QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE: SUPPLY COOL

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
CHAIN MANAGEMENT FOR FRESH FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-09
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Shubham Gangwar*
Department of Post-Harvest Technology
Banda University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda (UP), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The global demand for fresh fruits and vegetables has been steadily increasing due to a
growing population, changing consumer preferences towards healthier diets, and increased
awareness of the importance of nutrition. However, ensuring the freshness and quality of these
perishable goods from farm to
table is a complex challenge.
Supply Cool Chain Management
(SCCM) plays a pivotal role in
preserving the quality and
extending the shelf life of fresh
fruits and vegetables, here we
will delve into the intricacies of
SCCM, exploring its components, challenges, benefits, and the latest innovations.
Understanding the Supply Cool Chain
The Supply Cool Chain is a series of processes and infrastructure designed to maintain a
consistently low temperature throughout the entire journey of fresh produce from the point of
harvest to the point of consumption. The primary objective is to minimize temperature
fluctuations and prevent exposure to un-favorable conditions that could lead to the deterioration
of quality and nutritional value.

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Components of Supply Cool Chain Management

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Harvesting and Pre-cooling
The first critical step in SCCM is the proper harvesting of fruits and vegetables. Post-harvest
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
losses can occur if the produce is not handled carefully during this phase. Pre-cooling is the
immediate cooling of fresh produce to remove field heat and slow down the ripening process.
This step is crucial for preserving quality and preventing decay. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

2. Cold Storage
Cold storage facilities are integral to SCCM, providing a controlled environment to store fresh
produce at optimal temperatures. Different fruits and vegetables have specific temperature
requirements, and cold storage facilities must be equipped with the necessary technology to
maintain these conditions. Regular monitoring and maintenance of storage units are essential to
prevent temperature fluctuations.
3. Transportation
Transportation is a critical link in the cool chain. Refrigerated trucks, containers, and specialized
vehicles are employed to ensure that the temperature is maintained during transit. Real-time
monitoring systems, such as GPS and temperature sensors, allow for tracking and immediate
response to deviations from the required conditions.
4. Distribution Centers
Distribution centers act as hubs where fresh produce is consolidated, sorted, and redistributed to
various retail outlets. These facilities must also have adequate cooling infrastructure to prevent
quality degradation during the sorting and packing processes.
5. Retail Display and Storage
Once fresh produce reaches retail outlets, maintaining the cool chain becomes the responsibility
of the store. Refrigerated display cases, storage units, and proper handling practices are crucial to
preserving the quality of fruits and vegetables.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Regular checks and adherence to storage guidelines are essential to minimize losses.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Challenges in Supply Cool Chain Management
1. Infrastructure Gaps:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
In many regions, especially in developing countries, there is a lack of sufficient infrastructure for
effective SCCM. Limited access to reliable cold storage, transportation, and distribution facilities
can lead to significant post-harvest losses. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

2. Temperature Fluctuations:
Maintaining a consistent temperature throughout the supply chain is challenging. Temperature
fluctuations, even for short durations, can accelerate the ripening process, leading to a loss of
quality and shelf life.
3. Technological Limitations:
Some regions may lack access to advanced cooling technologies, making it difficult to
implement and monitor an effective cool chain. Investments in research and development are
crucial to bringing innovative solutions to diverse agricultural landscapes.
4. Compliance and Standardization:
Ensuring that all stakeholders in the supply chain adhere to temperature guidelines and best
practices is a significant challenge. Standardization of processes and compliance with
international quality standards are essential for a seamless cool chain.
Benefits of Supply Cool Chain
Management

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Innovations in Supply Cool Chain Management

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Blockchain Technology:
Blockchain technology is being increasingly explored to enhance transparency and traceability in
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the supply chain. By recording every transaction and movement on a decentralized ledger,
stakeholders can track the journey of produce from farm to table, ensuring compliance with
temperature requirements and quality standards. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

2. Internet of Things (IoT) Sensors:

IoT sensors play a crucial role in real-time monitoring of temperature, humidity, and other
environmental factors during transportation and storage. These sensors transmit data to a
centralized system, enabling quick response to deviations and minimizing the risk of quality
deterioration.
3. Advanced Packaging Solutions:
Innovative packaging materials with insulating properties help in maintaining the desired
temperature for a more extended period. Vacuum packaging, modified atmosphere packaging
(MAP), and other advanced solutions contribute to the preservation of freshness.
4. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML):
AI and ML algorithms analyze data from various sources, including weather forecasts,
transportation routes, and historical data, to optimize the cool chain. Predictive analytics help in
anticipating potential issues and proactively addressing them, minimizing disruptions in the
supply chain.

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Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Supply Cool Chain Management is indispensable for ensuring the availability of high-
quality, fresh fruits, and vegetables in the global market. As the demand for these perishable
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
goods continues to rise, it is imperative to address the challenges and leverage technological
innovations to enhance the efficiency of the cool chain. By doing so, stakeholders across the
Article ID:
supply chain can contribute to reducing post-harvest losses, improving foodAG-VO2-I08-07
security, and
meeting the growing expectations of consumers for fresh and nutritious produce. Continuous
investments in infrastructure, technology, and collaboration among stakeholders are essential to
building a robust and sustainable Supply Cool Chain for the future.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
PARAMPARAGAT KRISHI: A SUSTAINABLE AND
OCCUPATIONAL
HOLISTIC WAY OF SOILHEALTH HAZARDS
HEALTH OF WORKERS
MANAGEMENT
THROUGH ORGANIC AND BIODYNAMIC SOIL INPUTS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-10
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

aRohit Kumar Choudhury, bSumana Balo*, aKoushik Ghosh and cDebasis Mahata

aPh.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Uttar Banga

Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal – 736165, India

bAssistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, GIET University,

Gunupur, Rayagada, Odisha-765022, India.

c
Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy), Uttar Dinajpur Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Uttar Banga
Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Chopra, Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal,India

* Corresponding Author Email ID : [email protected]

Abstract
Indian agriculture heavily relies on chemical fertilizers for increased crop productio n,
posing environmental concerns such as soil degradation. This article explores diverse
farming practices, highlighting organic and biodynamic approaches to ensure sustainability
and soil health. Traditional methods like Vedic and Biodynamic farming, coup led with
practices such as Rishi Krishi and Agnihotra farming, integrate natural and cosmic
influences for holistic soil management. By reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers,
encouraging compost integration, and using specific organic formulations, t he article
emphasizes their positive impact on soil health, including increased organic matter,
enhanced nutrient storage, and improved biological parameters. These innovative methods
prioritize sustainability, preserving both soil health as well as the environment
Keywords: Agnihotra, Biodynamic Farming, Panchagavya, Rishi Krishi, Soil Health
Introduction
The predominant source of our nation's economy lies in the agricultural sector,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

accounting for approximately 18.33% of the GDP in the 2022-2023 fiscal year. The excessive
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
utilization of chemical fertilizers has emerged as a significant concern. Since the Green
Revolution, there has been a substantial rise in the application of chemical fertilizers in the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
agricultural section. The immoderate use of chemical fertilizers gradually deteriorates the soil
health and its quality in respect of both physical, chemical and biological health of soil. It affects
Article
soil pH and nutrient availability, directly impacting soil productivity and ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
causing economic
losses for farmers Hence, we will face food crisis for avaoiding the importance of our soil health.
To overcome this issue we should need to emphasize on organic amendments along with
chemical fertilizers in agriculture to increase farm productivity and farmer’s profitability.
Significance of supplementing soils with organic manures is addressed in Rig Veda (8000
BC. Even practice of green manuring is also found in Atharva Veda (Parma and Biswas, 2009).
Kautilya Arthashastra (321-296, BC as per Nene, 2012) makes a reference to application of
animal wastes and oilseed cakes. Several decades later, Indians innovated a very effective
manure made from animal’s waste. This is a three-month old liquid ferment called
‘Kunepajala’ (Surpala, 1000 AD, cited from Nene, 2012). In order to improve soil fertility and
maintain crop productivity, apart from India, treatment with organic manures of all shades
and introduction of legumes to break cereal- cereal cropping cycle have been practiced since
thousands of years in other parts of the world.
Components
In the early stages of agriculture, innovative soil management systems emerged, particularly in
India where pro-nature techniques were developed known as Rishi Krishi or Vedic farming.
Vedic Farming, including practices like Agnihotra and Biodynamic agriculture, advocates
the use of organic manures, specifically decoctions from five cow-based products (Pancha
Gavya). These methods highlight the importance of homa in regulating plant growth and
recommend organic preparations influenced by celestial body positions. It is believed that the
astronomical calendar, aligning with the biorhythm of sunrise and sunset, generates energy
from the cosmos, fostering a strong connection between man and nature. In today's context,
the use of organic sources undeniably reinforces their constructive role in sustainable soil
management.
1. Rishi Krishi:
Derived from the Vedas, farmers in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh have adopted the

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Rishi Krishi method, a form of natural farming. This technique maximizes on-farm nutrient
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
sources viz. composts, manure, green manure and crop residue for mulching. Soil enrichment is
achieved by application of a Rishi Krishi formulation naming "Amritpani". Over one acre, 15
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
rhizospheric virgin soil collecting from beneath a Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis L.) is
broadcasted and then 200 liters of Amritpani is added through over the soil . To prepare
Amritpani, 250 g of ghee is mixed with 10 kg of desi cow dung, 500Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
g of honey and lastly 200
liters of water added to it. This Amritpani preparation is used for seed treatment (Beeja
sanskara), soil application & enrichment (Bhumi sanskara) and application also as foliar spray
(Padapa sanskara). During soil treatment, this preparation is applied through fertigation. We can
imply such a holistic approach for various crops like vegetable crops, cereals, fruits, pulse crops,
oilseeds, cotton and sugarcane etc.
2. Panchagavya-Dashagavya Krishi
Panchgavya, a specialized bio-enhancer derived from five cow products (dung, urine,
milk, curd, and ghee), has been refined by Dr. Natrajan, a scientist at Tamilnadu
Agricultural University, to suit the needs of various crops. The formulation, as detailed earlier,
includes Panchgavya and enriched Panchgavya (Dashgavya). The production cost is
approximately Rs. 25-35 per litre. Panchgavya contains beneficial microorganisms and
micronutrients, acting as a soil tonic to enhance plant vigour and quality production. It
provides essential plant nutrients, along with vital plant growth regulators viz. IAA, GA etc.
Panchgavya solution (3-4%) is effective for foliar spray, with four to five applications promoting
optimal plant growth and production. Two sprays before flowering stage at 15-days intervals,
two sprays during the flowering and pod formation stage at 10-days intervals and one spray
during pod maturation stageEffectiveness of Panchgavya in various crops such as mango,
banana, acid lime, guava, okra, cucumber, spinach, sunflower, green gram etc already get
popularized.
3.Natural Farming
Natural farming promotes maximizing on-farm bio- resources. It deals with
soil enrichment through the application of a formulation called Jivamrita which can enhance
biological health of soil significantly. Bijamrita is used for the treatment of seed and planting
materials and Jivamrita is used for soil application as well as foliar application. The package
outlined above includes both these components. Jivamrita has been identified as a rich source

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

of diverse beneficial soil microorganisms. As per study carried out by the Bio Centre Bangalore,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Jivamrita contains :

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

One single application over one acre land requires 200 litres of Jivamruta through various
surface irrigation (fertigation) methods like drip, sprinkler or by soil drenching.
4. Agnihotra Krishi (Homa Krishi)
Agnihotra Krishi is a holistic approach to agriculture, compatible with various
organic farming systems. Agnihotra, the fundamental fire rituals, aligns with the bio-
rhythm of sunrise and sunset, drawn from Vedic sciences. Simplified for contemporary use,
Agnihotra involves burning cow dung, brown rice and ghee in a pyramid shaped vessel made
of copper while chanting a particular mantra. The process is believed to generate purifying and
harmonizing energies directed into the atmosphere and preserved in the resulting ash. This
highly energized ash serves as effective organic fertilizer in organic farming.
i. Fertilizers - Plants are benefitted from a powerful liquid fertilizer comprising
Agnihotra ash, stinging nettles, and water. After fermenting stinging nettles in water for 7 to14
days, varying with weather and nettle quantity, and mixture is diluted in a ratio of 1:9. This
implies mixing one-part of stinging nettle solution with nine parts of water, and straining the
mixture through a fine screen into a spraying container or watering can to fortify and nourish
plants.
ii. Nutrient Solution – Agnihotra plant nutrient solution also prepared by adding about 4
tablespoons of finely grounded Agnihotra ash with dried cow dung in approximately 5 litres
of water. Apply this mixture to the plants, and the process can be repeated every 14 days as
per requirement.
iii. Gloria Biosol an effective homa biofertilizer - Gloria Biosol, an effective bio-fertilizer,
may be easily produced in a Homa environment. The liquid Biosol serves as a beneficial foliar

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

application for plant and soil nourishment, surpassed with vermiwash due to its abundance of
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
beneficial microorganisms and the energy derived from the Homa process. The presence of
Agnihotra Ash significantly enhances Biosol, enriching it with macronutrients. The
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
production involves mixing materials in a tank (200, 500, or 1000 liters) with the addition of
a copper Shree Yantra disc. After sealing the tank, leave it for couple of days (mainly 20 to
30 days). After digestion is finished, the slurry is extracted. In orderArticle
to useID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Biosol, dilute it at
the ratio of 1:10 with Agnihotra ash water solution. 200 liters solution is required to cover one
hectare of land area.
3. Biodynamic Agriculture
Biodynamic Agriculture, a term derived from 'Bios' meaning life and ‘dynamic’
meaning energy, is a farming method where the farming system is considered as as a living body
interacting with the surrounding environment. The goal is to achieve healthy and living soil
system and produce nourishing outputs that vitalizes human energy contributing to human
development. Collecting from eight lectures by Dr. Rudolf Steiner in 1924, biodynamic
agriculture incorporates simple, natural, homeopathic preparations to enhance beneficial
cosmic influences on plants and soil. These preparations, including silica, lime, and others,
aim to revitalize natural forces, aligning with planetary cosmic rhythms and fostering a living
soil. The important elements of biodynamic farming are given below:
i. Incorporation of plant residues, stover, straw etc. into soil.
ii. Avoid chemical fertilizers.
iii. Prevent compaction of soil caused by animals, farm machinery etc.
iv. Promote pasteuring, mulching and avoid excessive tillage.
v. Fallowing the land etc.
vi. Application of formulations BD - 500 and BD - 501.
vii. Preparation of organic compost using formulations BD-502 to BD-507.
viii. Preparation of liquid manure with formulations BD - 502 to BD - 507.
ix. Development of cow dung manure using formulations BD-502 to BD-507.
A total of nine biodynamic preparations have been formulated, designated as formulations
500 to 508. Dr. Steiner provided two preparations (numbered 500 and 501) meant for direct
application on soil or plants and six preparations (numbered 502 to 507) intended for use in
compost creation. The later-developed formulation 508 serves as prophylactic purpose, and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

managing fungal diseases.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Influence on Soil Health:

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
In terms of Agriculture, organic and biodynamic practices have set an example of
innovation and promise towards farming community. It has a profound impact on Soil Health,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Soil Quality with the better quality produce. Soil quality indicates the inherent ability of a soil
system working within ecosystem boundaries a n d sustaining biological production and
productivity, preserving environmental quality, encouraging plantArticle
growthID:and
AG-VO2-I08-07
maintaining
animal health. Numerous physical, chemical and biological characteristics that provide
information on the impact of management practices are dependent on soil quality.
The organically managed surface soil has good physical conditions in terms of better soil
structure, optimum bulk density, low penetration resistance, higher porosity with maximum
water holding capacity that plays an outstanding role in plant growth and development.
Soil organic matter content also increases due to long term adoptation of organic farming.
Soil organic matter serves as a storage system for essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, S,
Zn, Cu, Fe etc., preventing the leaching of these vital elements crucial for plant growth. This

is facilitated by the high cation exchange capacity exceeding 300 cmol (p+) kg-1, enabling
nutrient adsorption. The interaction between humic substances and clays results in the
formation of clay-humus complexes, enhancing the n u t r i e n t exchange capability buffering
capacity of soil. Many biological parameters viz. Enzyme activity (urease, dehydrogenase)
microbial activity, earth worm population, basal soil respiration also is improved due to
application of organic inputs to the soil.
Conclusion
In conclusion, organic agriculture represents a sustainable and environment friendly
approach to farming. By prioritizing natural processes and avoiding synthetic inputs, organic
farming aims to enhance soil health, promote biodiversity, and produce nutritious crops. The
emphasis on organic practices not only benefits the environment but also contributes to the
well-being of consumers by minimizing exposure to harmful chemicals. Additionally, the use
of organic methods fosters resilience in agriculture, creating systems that are more
adaptable to changing environmental conditions. As we face challenges related to climate
change and food security, the principles of organic agriculture offer a promising pathway
towards a more resilient, ecologically sound, and socially acceptable farming future.

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Corrin, G. (1960). Composting and the Bio-Dynamic Preparations. London: Bio-Dynamic
Agricultural Association.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Dengel, L. (2007). Biodynamic Farming: A complex farming approach with superior results.
Goldstein, W. (1979). A report on previous work done with biodynamic preparations.
Biodynamics, 129(1): 1-10 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

http://nconf.dac.gov.in
Katyal, J,C. (2015). Soils and Human Societ,y. In R.K. Rattan, J.C. Katyal, B.S. Dwivedi, A.K.
Sarkar, T. Bhattacharyya, J.C. Tarafdar, & S.S Kukal (Eds.), Soil Science: An Introduction
(pp. 1-38). Indian Society of Soil Science.
Scilthuis, W. (2000). Biodynamic Agriculture. S and H Home Ag Library.
Selvaraj, N., Anita, B., Anusha, B., & Guru Saraswathi, M. (2006). Organic Horticulture:
Creating a More Sustainable Farming. Horticultural Research Station, Udhagamandalam.
Steiner. R. (1993). Spiritual foundations for the renewal of agriculture: A course of lectures.
Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association.
Steiner. R. (1924). Report to members of the Anthroposophical Society after the Agriculture
Course. (C. E. Creeger & M. Gardner, Trans.). In M. Gardner (Ed.). Spiritual Foundations
for the Renewal of Agriculture by Rudolf Steiner (pp. 112). Dornach. Switzerland.
Turinek. M., Grobelnik-Mlakar. S., Bavec. M., & Bavec, F. (2009). Biodynamic agriculture
research progress and priorities. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems: 24(2): 146-
154.
Uzunova, R. B. and Atanasov, D. (2017). Biodynamic farming method for sustainable
production of quality food. Agriculture Economics and Management, 62(3): 40-48.
Vlahova, V. and Arabska, E., Biodynamic agriculture- eco-friendly agricultural practice.
New knowledge Journal of Science, Vol. 4: 2, pp. 46-50, 2015a.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

PLANT DISEASE: PATHOGENS

OCCUPATIONAL AND
HEALTH HAZARDS CYCLES
OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-11

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

D. H. Tandel*, R. L. Joshi1, R.C.Patel, Hirani Dipali, Jeslin Jose and Sandhya G.

Department of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture,
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
A plant disease is defined as “anything that prevents a plant from performing to its
maximum potential.” This definition is broad and includes abiotic and biotic plant diseases.
Abiotic or non-infectious diseases
These diseases are caused by conditions external to the plant, not living agents. They
cannot spread from plant to plant, but are very common and should be considered when
assessing the health of any plant. Examples of abiotic diseases include nutritional deficiencies,
soil compaction, salt injury, ice, and sun scorch.
Biotic or infectious diseases
These diseases are caused by living organisms. They are called plant pathogens when
they infect plants. For the purposes of discussing plant pathology, only plant disease pathogens
will be discussed. Pathogens can spread from plant to plant and may infect all types of plant
tissue including leaves, shoots, stems, crowns, roots, tubers, fruit, seeds and vascular tissues.
Types of Plant Pathogens
Plant pathogens are very similar to those that cause disease in humans and animals.
Fungi, fungal-like organisms, bacteria, phytoplasmas, viruses, viroids, nematodes and parasitic
higher plants are all plant pathogens.
Fungi and Fungal-like Organisms (FLOs)
Collectively, fungi and FLOs cause the most plant disease than any other group of plant

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pathogens. These organisms cannot make their own food, lack chlorophyll, have filamentous
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
growth, and may or may not reproduce by spores. Fungi and FLOs are able to overwinter in soil
or on plant debris. However, some fungi and FLOs cannot overwinter in northern climates
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
because of low winter temperatures. These pathogens overwinter in southern climates and then
are transported by air currents back to northern climates. Disease movement from southern to
northern climates can be monitored during the growing season. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled microscopic organisms with cell walls that reproduce by binary
fission (one cell splits into two). Introduction to the plant must occur through natural openings or
wounds in the plant. Bacteria overwinter primarily in soil and in or on plant material that does
not decompose, but some survive inside insect vectors.
Phytoplasmas
Phytoplasmasare microscopic, bacteria-like organisms that lack cell walls and thus
appear filamentous.
Viruses and viroids
Viruses are intracellular (live inside the cell) nucleic acid particles with a protein coat that
infect other living organisms and replicate in the hosts they infect. Viroids are virus-like particles
but lack a protein coat. Viruses and viroids are primarily transmitted by vectors including insects,
nematodes, and fungi, which introduce the virus or viroid during feeding. Viruses and viroids
can also be transmitted through seed, vegetative propagation and pruning.
Nematodes
Nematodes are microscopic worm-like animals. The majority of nematodes are soil
dwelling animals and move with soil. However, there are some nematodes that are transmitted
through insects and infect above ground plant parts.
Parasitic Higher Plants
Parasitic high plants are plants that contain chlorophyll but cannot produce their own
food. They parasitize other plants to obtain nutrients and water. Examples include mistletoe and
dodder.
Disease Triangle
Three components are absolutely necessary in order for a disease to occur in any plant system.
The three components are:

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1. a susceptible host plant

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
2. a virulent pathogen
3. a favorable environment
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
When these three components are present at the same time, a disease (shaded region) will
occur if a susceptible host plant is in intimate association with a virulent plant pathogen under
favorable environmental conditions. This concept is represented by Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
the shaded portion of the
diagram above. When there is a high degree of overlap (as the shaded area becomes larger), there
will be a moderate to high amount of disease.
It is important to remember that within each of the three components –host, pathogen, and
environment –there are numerous variables that may affect both the incidence and severity of the
disease. These variables include genetic diversity, biology and lifecycle of the host plant and
pathogen, and environmental conditions.
Genetic diversity
Within one species of host plant there may be an incredible range of genetic diversity that
greatly influences susceptibility to any particular species of pathogen. If the host is resistant to a
pathogen, even when the pathogen is present under favorable environmental conditions, a
disease will not occur. Genetic diversity also plays a role in pathogen virulence or its ability to
infect a host and cause disease, which may also influence the amount and severity of a disease.
Biology and lifecycle of the host plant and pathogen:
Host plants may be resistant to pathogens at one stage of development but not at another.
In a similar manner, some pathogens must be at a critical life stage in order to cause infection.
Environmental conditions:
There are numerous variables in the environment that influence disease incidence and
severity including temperature, sunlight, moisture, relative humidity, and time of year. Pathogens
are typically restricted to an area based on the conditions of the macroclimate. A microclimate is
the prevailing climatic conditions in a certain geographical area. Within a macroclimate, small
areas may exist in which the climate may be different than the surrounding areas. This is called a
microclimate. Each landscape is filled with microclimates that exist because of differences in
exposure to sun and wind, soil type and many other factors.

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Variables within each component of the disease triangle may affect the presence of disease. This
diagram represents a system in which the host is displaying resistance to disease even in intimate
association with the pathogen under favorable environmental conditions.
Disease Cycles

In order for a disease to develop, a pathogen must be present and successfully invade
plant host tissues and cells. The chain of events involved in disease development includes
inoculation, penetration, infection, incubation, reproduction, and survival.

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Inoculation
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
This describes the introduction of the plant pathogen to the host. Different pathogen
groups employ different inoculation methods and are equipped with various specialized
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
mechanisms that aid in the inoculation process. For example, some fungal pathogens release
spores into the air and the spores are then spread with the aid of air currents.
Penetration Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Wound sites and natural plant openings, such as stomata and hydathodes, facilitate the
entrance of some plant pathogens; others have evolved unique mechanisms for direct
penetration. Fungi and nematodes are able to actively penetrate host tissues and cells if
environmental conditions, such as moisture and temperature, are favorable for the penetration
process.
Infection
This occurs when the pathogen invades the plant tissue and establishes a parasitic
relationship between itself and the plant. Viruses, bacteria, and phytoplasmas are not able to
actively penetrate or enter plant host tissues. Therefore they must rely on other methods to infect
plant tissues and cells. Associations with insect vectors have been established by these pathogens
to aid inoculation and dispersal.
Incubation
Once inside the plant, pathogens may undergo an incubation period and remain latent for
a period of time before initiating disease.
Reproduction
Plant pathogens can reproduce sexually and asexually. It is dependent on the pathogen.
Survival
Plant pathogens have evolved so they can survive prolonged periods of unfavorable
weather conditions. For example, brown spot is a fungal pathogen that produce spores that are
dark in coloration which reduces the amount of UV light penetrating and preventing cell death.
In addition, Soybean cyst nematode lay their eggs within a cuticle casing. The cuticle casing is
very hard and prevents other microbes and chemicals to penetrate killing the eggs prior to
hatching.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS FOR

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-12
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

K. Vinoth Kumar*
Principal, Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Institute of Agriculture and Rural Development,
Vidyalaya Campus, Periyanaickenpalayam, Coimbatore - 641020
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Over the past decade, nanomaterials have been the subject of enormous interest. These
materials, notable for their extremely small feature size, have the potential for wide-ranging of
applications (Buzea et al., 2007). Nanomaterial is a field which takes a materials science-based
approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and
especially those which have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions.
Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one
dimension) between 1 to 1000 nanometres (10−9 meter) but usually is 1 to 100 nm (the usual
definition of nanoscale). Nanomaterials research takes a materials science-based approach
to nanotechnology, leveraging advances in materials metrology and synthesis which have been
developed in support of micro fabrication research. Materials with structure at the nanoscale
often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties. Nanomaterials are slowly
becoming commercialized and beginning to emerge as commodities
Classification of nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are classified as one dimension, two dimensions and in three dimensions
nanoscales (Rao and Murthy, 2007).
 Nanoscales in one dimension are thin films, layers and surface coatings. They are used for
decades in the fields such as electronic device manufactures.
 Nanoscales in two dimensions are nanotubes and nanowires have generated considerable
interest because of their novel electrical and mechanical properties,

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for example, carbon nanotubes.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Nanoscales in three dimensions (nanoparticles) are less than 100 nm in diameter which can
be spherical, tubular, or irregularly shaped and can exist in fused, aggregates or agglomerated
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
forms. Nanoparticles are of interest because of the properties such as chemical and optical
behavior that they exhibit compared with larger particles of the same material. For example
Article
titanium oxide and zinc oxide become transparent at the nanoscale ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
level, and are able to
absorb and reflect the UV light and found to have many industrial applications. Nanoparticles
have larger surface area and enhanced activity in potential application such as catalysis.
Manufacturing of nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are not simply another step in the miniaturization of materials. They often
require very different production approach. Nanomaterials can be produced through ‘top down’
and ‘bottom up’ approaches (Rao and Murthy, 2007) (Figure1).
The bottom-up approach refers to the buildup of a material from the bottom,
i.e., atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule or cluster-by-cluster. The colloidal dispersion is a
good example of bottom-up approach in the synthesis of nanoparticles. Nanolithography and
nanomanipulation techniques are also a bottom-up approach. These techniques have been widely
used in the formation of structural composite nanomaterials. Top-down approach involves
starting with a block bulk material and designing or milling it down to desire shape. This
technique is similar to the approach used by the semiconductor industry in forming devices,
utilizing pattern formation (such as electron beam lithography). Both approaches play very
important roles in modern industry and most likely in nanotechnology as well.
There are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches. The main challenge for top-
down approach is the creation of increasingly small structure with sufficient accuracy whereas in
bottom-up approach, the main challenge is to make structure large enough and of sufficient
quality to be of useful as materials (Fendler, 1998). Bottom-up approach promises a better
chance to obtain nanostructures with less defects, more homogeneous chemical composition, and
better short- and long-range ordering. This is because the bottom-up approach is driven mainly
by the reduction of Gibbs free energy, so that nanostructures and materials such produced are in a
state closer to a thermodynamic equilibrium state. On the contrary, top-down approach most likely
introduces internal stress, in addition to surface defects.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08 Block materials

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Top-down

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Nanomaterials

Bottom-up

Atoms or molecules

Figure 1. Top-down and Bottom-up methods for production of nanomaterials

Properties of nanomaterials
The properties of material can be different at the nanoscale for two main reasons:
increased relative surface area and quantum effects. These two factors can change or enhance
properties such as reactivity, strength and electrical characteristics (Rathi, 2009).
Nanomaterials have a relatively large surface area as compared to the same mass of
materials produced in a larger form. As the particle size decrease, a greater proportion of atoms
are found at the surface compared to those inside. For example, a particle size of 30 nm has 5 per
cent of its atoms on its surface, at 10 nm 20 per cent of its atoms and at 3 nm 50 per cent of its
atoms. Thus, nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit mass compared to larger
particles. As growth and catalytic chemical reactions occurs at surface, this means that a given
mass of material in nanoparticulate form will be much more reactive than the same mass of
material made up of larger particles. In addition, with surface area quantum effects begin to
dominate the properties of the matter as size is reduced to the nanoscale. These can affect the
optical, thermal, mechanical and magnetic behavior of materials particularly as particle size
approach towards the nanoscale. The nanomaterials exploit these effects include quantum dots
and quantum well lasers for optoelectronics. The important properties of nanomaterials are listed
below.

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Optical Property
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
For last few decades, metallic nanoparticles have fascinated researchers due to their
colourful colloidal solutions. Mie was the first to explain the red color of gold nanoparticle in
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
1908 by solving Maxwell’s equation for an electromagnetic light wave interacting with small
metallic spheres. The colour exhibited by metallic nanoparticles is due to the coherent excitation
of all the “free” electrons within the conduction band, leading to an Article
in-phaseID:oscillation
AG-VO2-I08-07
and is
known as surface plasmon resonance. Thus, the colour of metallic nanoparticles may change
with their size due to surface plasmon resonance.
Unique optical property of nanomaterials may also be due to quantum size effect, which arises
primarily because of confinement of electrons within particles of dimension smaller than the bulk electron
delocalization length. This effect is more pronounced for semiconductor nanoparticle, where the band gap
increases with a decreasing size. The same quantum size effect is also shown by metal nanoparticles,
when the particle size is less than 2 nm.
Magnetic Property
Magnetic properties of nanostructured materials are distinctly different from that of bulk
materials. Ferromagnetic particles become unstable when the particle size reduces below a
certain size as the increase in surface energy provides a sufficient energy for domains to
spontaneously switch polarization directions and become paramagnetic.
But this transformed paramagnetism behaves differently from the conventional paramagnetism and
thus is referred to as superparamagnetism (Frankel and Dorfman, 1990). In other words,
ferromagnetism of bulk materials disappears and gets transferred to superparamagnetism in the
nanoscale due to the high surface energy.
Mechanical Property
The mechanical properties of nanomaterials increase with the decrease in size. Most of
the studies have been focused on the mechanical properties of one dimensional structure such as
nanowire. The enhanced mechanical strength of nanowires or nanorods is ascribed to the high
internal perfection of the nanowires. Generally, imperfections such as dislocations, micro-twins
and impurities in crystals are highly energetic and should be eliminated from the perfect crystal
structures. The smaller the cross-section of nanowires, the less is the probability of finding in it
any imperfections as nanoscale dimension makes the elimination of such imperfections possible.

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Thermal Property
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Metal and semiconductor nanoparticles are found to have significantly lower melting
point or phase transition temperature as compared to their bulk counterparts.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The lowering of the melting points is observed when the particle size is less than 100 nm and is
attributed to increase in surface energy with a reduction of size. The decrease in the phase
transition temperature can be ascribed to the changes in the ratio ofArticle
surfaceID: AG-VO2-I08-07
energy to volume
energy as a function of size.
Types of nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be divided into natural and anthropogenic particles (Table 1). The
particles can be further separated based on their chemical composition into carbon coating and
inorganic nanomaterials (Nowack and Bucheli, 2007).
Table 1. Types of nanomaterial based on their origin and compositions
S.No Origin Classification Formation Particles Examples
1 Natural C- containing Biogenic Organic colloids Humic,
Fulvic acid
Geogenic Soot Fullerens
Atmospheric Aerosols Organic acids
Pyrogenic Soot CNT, Fullerenes
Inorganic Biogenic Oxides, Metals Magnetite, Ag, Au
Geogenic Oxides, Clay Fe-oxides,
allophane
Atmospheric Aerosols Sea salts
2 Anthropogenic C- containing Combustion by- CNT,
By products
(Engineered) products Nanoglobules
Soot Carbon block,
Engineered Fullerenes
Polymeric Polyethylene glycol
Inorganic Combustion by- Platinum group
By products
products metals
Oxides TiO2, SiO2
Metals Ag, Fe
Engineered
Salts Metal-phosphates
Alluminosilicate Zeolites, Clay

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Buzea, C., I. Pacheco and K. Robbie. 2007. Nanomaterial and Nanoparticles: Sources and
Toxicity. Biointerphases, 2: 17-71.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Fendler, J. H. 1998. Nanoparticles and Nanostructured films: Preparation, Characterization and
Applications. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., New York, USA, p.488.
Article ID:inAG-VO2-I08-07
Frankel, J and J. Dorfman. 1990. Spontaneous and induced magnetization ferromagnetic
bodies. Nature, 126: 274-275.
Nowack, B and T.D. Bucheli. 2007. Occurrence, behavior and effects of nanoparticles in the
environment. Environmental Pollution, 150: 5-22.
Rao, T.K and Y.L.N. Murthy. 2007. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology. Techno
Science publications, Andhra Pradash. pp: 665-672.
Rathi, R. 2009. Nanotechnology: Technology revolution of 21st century. Chand and Company
publications, New Delhi. pp: 29-79.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CULTIVATION OF HEALTH
OCCUPATIONAL ORNAMENTAL ANNUALS
HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-13

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*1M. Lakshmi Kamala and 2 Dr. P. Pranuthi

1
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Horticulture, Dr. Y.S.R.
Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem – 534101, Godavari, Andhra Pradesh
2
Assistant Professor (Hort.), Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of
Horticulture, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem – 534101
Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Annuals are the most popular type of flowers in ornamental gardening. They are easily raised
from seed, grow, bloom, seed and exhaust themselves during a season. They may be grown in
beds, herbaceous borders, as an edging, for window boxes, pots etc. There are several things that
need to be done for the sustainability of the land and other resources before flower crops are
planted in an open field. Preparing the land and performing several cultural operations are among
the steps that need to be completed before planting or transferring the plant material from
nursery. The main objective of land preparation and cultural operations is to provide the ideal
soil conditions and allow plants to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. This will guarantee high-
quality produce and help the crop establish successfully.
Keywords: Annuals, season, herbaceous borders, nursery, cultural operations
Introduction
Ornamental annuals are grown in garden for their spectacular beauty when they flower.
They are seasonal in habit and grow up to a crop period of four months. Annuals are mostly
propagated by seeds which are sown directly in the beds or raised to seedlings in the nursery.
These seedlings are transplanted into beds and pots and routine cultural practices like watering,

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pricking, hoeing, weeding etc. are followed. For raising annual flowering plants, site selection is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
a must for nursery raising as well as for transplanting of seedlings. The main purpose of these
cultural operations is to provide necessary soil/plant conditions to grow and flower profusely and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
enable the plant to escape biotic and abiotic stress.
Cultivation of annuals
Propagation Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Almost all the flowering annuals can be easily propagated by seeds. Seeds of some annuals like
Morning Glory, Sweet Pea, Lupin and Nasturtium can be sown directly in the garden at the
selected location. many other annuals do best if seedlings are raised and then transplanted.

Soil and bed preparation

Most of the annuals prefer slightly acidic, deep, well-drained soil with moderate humus
content. For gardeners with poor soils, two to three inches of compost, well-rotten manure or
other organic material should be added to the soil. The beds should be of 2-3m length, 60-80 cm
width and 15-50 cm height above the ground level. Depth of bed should be 30 cm, digging
should be repeated 2-3 times and pulverize thoroughly. Media consists of 1:1:1 part of soil: sand:
vermicompost that is moistened before sowing the seeds
Nursery raising
Before sowing, seeds should be treated with a fungicide to protect the seedlings from
fungal diseases. Seeds sown at 3-4 cm apart at a depth of 0.5-0.6 cm. small or minute sized seeds
should be sown at high density in the raised beds. After sowing, seeds should be covered with
soil mix and sprinkle water immediately. The beds should be covered with dried plant parts or
newspapers, which help for better germination. It takes about one month to grow the seedlings
and ready for transplanting.

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Pricking
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It is transferring of young seedlings to another pan or tray. This ensures healthy growth of
seedlings.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Pricking
Transplanting
Generally done at one month stage or 3-4 leaf stage. Transplanting is done on cool cloudy
days or in the evening which enables the seedlings to establish well.
Irrigation
Most of the annuals need regular irrigation because they do not have deep root system.
Some annuals are drought-tolerant, most need plenty of water. So, it is important to irrigate at
regular intervals. It’s also important to keep the foliage and flowers as dry as possible to prevent
disease. Soaker hoses and drip irrigation do this best. If you use sprinklers, run them in the
morning so that the plants dry quickly in the sun.
Fertilization
Most annuals need fertile, well-drained soil and nutrients for healthy growth. It’s
important to incorporate organic matter before preparing beds and granular fertilizers before
planting. Slow -release source of nitrogen applied at planting can meet nitrogen needs for the
entire season.
Pinching and Staking
Many of the flowering annuals grow tall and lanky with less branches, so to break the
apical dominance and encourage axillary branching and thereby improve the flower production.
Pinching slightly delays flowering but improves flower production. Pinching 20-25 days after
transplanting, has been found to be optimal, e.g.: Carnation, Marigold, Asters, Cosmos etc.

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Pinching of apical meristem Staking

Many tall annual flowering plants must be staked or provided with other support system,
especially in windy and exposed areas. Wind, rain or the weight of foliage and blossoms can
bend or break the stems of the plant and ruin the display. Dahlias, Hollyhocks and others of the
kind can grow to reach 6-7 ft in height and because of the weight of heavy stalks and bloom, they
may need support or staking for which split bamboo sticks may be used.
Weeding
Keep annuals free from weeds. A combination of hand weeding and organic mulch
application is effective. Weed regularly to prevent weeds from setting seeds and establishing
themselves. At least 3-4 manual weedings are required for the full cropping period.
Seed collection
For most families such as Leguminosae, Lilliaceae, Cruciferae and Papapvaraceae, seed
or pod collection should be started when the ovary wall starts to change from green to yellow
colour. With other families such as Compositae, Labiatae and Umbelliferae, each flower head
should be harvested individually when the seed is turning brown in colour. The dried flowers
should be threshed and winnowed to obtain the seeds. The seeds should be stored in muslin cloth
bags or paper bags in a well-ventilated place.

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Pests and Diseases

Many pests and diseases attack ornamental annuals. Assessment of symptoms and
damage at initial stages is very important. Thus, timely diagnosis of a pest or disease attack and
selection of appropriate control measures is critical for initiating suitable interventions to save
the crop from damage
PESTS
The annual flowering plants are attacked by a number of insect pests, which damage the
plants and their flowers. Among them aphids, thrips, bud worms are of major concern.
Aphids
Aphids are usually found on young leaves and flower buds. They suck the sap of foliage
and bud, and cause retarded growth of the plant with poor quality flowers. Two sprays of
Endosulfan or Rogor @ 1.0-1.5 ml per litre of water at 15-20 days interval can control aphids.

Caterpillars
The caterpillars are particularly active in summer. They damage the foliage and flower
buds. They can be controlled by spray of Malathion @ 1.0-1.5 ml per litre of water.

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Thrips
The thrips suck sap from the under-surface of the leaves and also from the flower buds.
Thrips thrive in dry hot summer season. Spraying of Rogor or Monocrotophos @ 0.1% controls
the thrips.

Mites
Mites infect the annual flowering plants and give them a dusty appearance. These can be
controlled by spraying Kelthane (Dicofol) @0.1%.

Leaf hoppers
The hoppers suck sap from the leaves and stem. The infected plants show cupped or
rolled leaves and give wilted appearance. Spraying of Rogor (0.2%) controls the hoppers.

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

DISEASES
The annual flowering plants are affected by a number of fungal diseases, which damage
the plants and their flowers. The most destructive diseases are botrytis, root rot and foot rot.
Botrytis
In a botrytis infected plant, brown colour spots are developed and are developed and are
visible on the flower petals during the period of high humidity. It can be controlled by spraying
Mancozeb @ 2.0 g per litre of water.

Damping off and Root-rot

Root rot is caused by the fungus Pythium, which prefers moist conditions. Infected plants
lose the root system and suffer heavy loss in flower production. It generally attacks the plants
grown in heavy and compact soil.

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Root rot can be controlled by sterilization of soil before planting, better air circulation and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
decreasing the moisture content of the growing media. The disease can be controlled by
prophylactic drenching of nursery beds with Captan (0.1%) and Bavistin (0.1%). Seed treatment
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
with Captan (0. 1%) also reduces the incidence of the disease
Leaf spot and Blight
Article
Various pathogens cause leaf spots and blights in annual flowers. TheID:symptoms
AG-VO2-I08-07
appear
as small brownish spots on the leaves. This leaf spot disease can be controlled by spraying
Dithane M-45 @ 0.2%.

Inflorescence blight
Infected inflorescence gives a burnt appearance in severe cases. This disease can be
controlled by spacing Dithane M -45 @ 0.2%.

Powdery mildew
Initially, whitish tiny spots appear on the leaves. The entire plant shows white, powdery
appearance in severe case. The disease can be controlled by spraying Karathane @ 0.1%

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
In a garden there are certain operations that are to be followed judiciously for successful
cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants, most of these operations, such as pinching,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
deshooting, disbudding, staking etc, are of vital importance for the growth of the plants.
Knowledge about different pests and disease attack, symptoms and timely management helps to
develop beautiful annuals Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

POST-HARVEST DISEASES
OCCUPATIONAL AND ITSOFCONTROL
HEALTH HAZARDS WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-14

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

D. H. Tandel*, R.C.Patel, Hirani Dipali, Jeslin Jose, R. L. Joshi1, and Sandhya G.

*Department of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture,
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The diseases which develop on harvested parts of the plants like seeds, fruits and also on
vegetables are the post-harvested diseases. The harvested products may get infected on the way
to storage or to market or even before their final consumption. The plant parts may get infected
in the field, but expression of symptoms may take place later, at any stage before final consump-
tion. The plant products may get infected by microorganisms and cause rotting or decaying —
partially or totally. The quantity of plant products becomes reduced due to the above infection.
The seeds or grains may get damaged by accumulation of toxic substance, the mycotoxin pro-
duced by the infected microorganism.
The fleshy fruits, vegetables etc., like tomato, banana, citrus, strawberries, rhizome of
zinger, bulb of onion, tuber of potato etc., may get damaged. This results in reduction of
quantity, quality or both of the affected parts or products as a whole. The amount or extent of
damage depends mainly on the pathogen(s) involved, on the condition of the products and the
condition of storage.The pathogens involved are mainly fungi like Pythium, Phytophthora,
Rhizopus, Aspergillus, etc. and some bacteria like Pseudomonas, Erwinia, etc.
Classification of Post-Harvest Diseases
1. Field pathogen
2. Storage pathogen.

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1. Field Pathogen
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The field pathogens are those, which cause infection during development of plants or
their products before harvest.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
2. Storage Pathogen
The pathogen which cause infection during storage are the storage pathogen. Symptoms
Article
from infection caused by the ‘field pathogens’ may be very inconspicuous ID:noted
to be AG-VO2-I08-07
at the time
of harvest. In fleshy and/or juicy fruits and vegetables, infection by field pathogen continues to
develop even after harvest.
They may become infected during storage by the same field pathogen(s) or by other
pathogen(s). In seeds and grains, the disease caused by field pathogens ceases to develop further
soon after harvest. But, they may be infected further by the other pathogens during storage.
Types of Post-Harvest Diseases
1. Diseases of dry, bulk materials, such as seeds and grains, and
2. Diseases of fleshy storage organs, such as vegetables (tubers, rhizomes, bulbs etc.) and fruits.
Observations of many investigators indicate that the real cause of the spoilage of
vegetables and fleshy fruits in transit and also in storage are due to high moisture, high
temperature, and injuries caused during marketing. Due to high moisture content and nutrient in
harvested vegetables and fruits, they are vulnerable to attack by the pathogenic organisms.
Injuries of fruits and vegetables may be caused during harvesting, packing and
transposition they help the pathogen to enter the host and cause damage. But the seeds and grains
can be stored for long time due to low moisture content (about 12-14%), where most of the
pathogens cannot grow favourably.
I. Diseases of stored seeds and foodgrains
Field fungi, like Alternaria, Fusarium, Cladosporium, Verticillium, Helminthosporium,
Colletotrichum etc., attack seeds and grains on growing crops, but are unable to grow in storage
due to low relative humidity i.e., below 90%. During storage or transit the seeds and grains are
damaged by the different species of Aspergillus and PeniciHum, which can grow well at a rela-
tive humidity ranges from 70-90%. The commonly available Aspergillus species are A. repens,
A. ruber, A. flavus, A. candidus, etc.
Aspergillus and a number of other storage fungi invade the embryo of the seeds and
grains and they discolour the embryo or seeds as a whole, thereby the germination percentage

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

reduces markedly. In some cases, spoilage of stored grains and seeds results in drastic increase of
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
temperature up to 70°C or more, which encourage the growth of different thermophilic and
thermotolerant fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Absidia spp., Mucor pusillus, etc.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
In addition to storage fungi, other microorganisms may grow in/or on seeds and accele-
rate the deterioration process. During breeding period of insects, the moisture content and tem-
perature of seeds increase, thereby rapid growth of the pathogen takesArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
place producing enormous
amount of spores. During storage, the fungi produce mycotoxins that cause great damage to both
domestic animals and human beings. The important fungi in this respect are Aspergillus and
Penicillium, which produce aflatoxin and other toxins.
Most Important Toxins are
1. Yellow Rice Toxins
Produced in grains of rice, barley etc., by species of Penicillium.
2. Tremorgenic Toxins
Produced on prepared food during storage in refrigeration or in other places and also on food
produced from infected grains and/or seeds.
3. Penicillic Acid
It is a carcinogenic substance produced by the different species of both Aspergillus and
Penicillium in molded cereal grains.
Control
The above-mentioned loss or damage by decay and spoilage of seeds and/or grains by storage
fungi can be controlled by the following procedures:
1. Low Moisture
The moisture content of the rooms for storage should be kept below 70%.
2. Low Temperature
Temperature in store house should be maintained below 30°C, because most of the storage fungi
can grow well at temperatures between 30°C and 55°C.
3. Ventilation
Proper ventilation should be maintained during storage and also during holding period before
sending to market.
4. Sanitation
Proper sanitation should be maintained to keep storage products clean.

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5. Use of Insecticide
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Insecticides like methyl bromide and some other fumigants are used to treat the harvested seeds,
thereby they regulate the storage fungi and reduce economic loss.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
6. Clean
Clean, uninjured and properly ripened seed should be selected for storage, then only they are
able to resist the action of the storage pathogen(s). Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

II. Diseases of Vegetables and Fruits

Different members of Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina cause the major post-harvest diseases
of fruits and vegetables.
These are Alternaria, Botrytis, Fusarium, Penicillium, Sclerotinia etc.
1. Alternaria
Different species of Alternaria cause rot of many fresh fruits and vegetables, e.g., black rot of
orange, tuber rot of potato, rot of sweet potato, purple blotch of onion, Alternaria rot of onion,
Alternaria rot of cabbage, etc.
2. Botrytis
It causes “grey mold rots” of fruits like pear, apple, citrus etc., and vegetables like onion, tomato
etc. Every year it causes great economic loss.
3. Fusarium
It causes different diseases, commonly called “pink or yellow molds”. Different species
of Fusarium cause damage to tubers, bulbs, storage roots etc. and frequently on cucurbits, tomato
etc. It also cause brown rot of fruits like lemon, orange etc.
4. Penicillium
Species of Penicillium are commonly called “blue or green molds”, these cause rots of
different fruits like onion, sweet potato etc. They also cause spots on different fruits. Under
storage, the spotted fruits bear tufts of spores. Though most of the Penicillium species prefer
relatively high temperature for their growth in storage, they still remain active near freezing
temperature — at a slow rate.
A few species produce ethylene which increases respiration of fruits, thereby it reduces
the storage life of the fruits. It also produces patulin — a mycotoxin — which directly
contaminates the sauces and fruit juices prepared from infected partly rotten fruits.

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5. Sclerotinia
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It infects different fruits and vegetables. Most common diseases are cottony rot of lemon,
watery soft rot of bean pods, cucurbits etc. Storage diseases like bacterial soft rot of vegetables
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
such as onion, carrot, potato etc. are mainly carried out by different species of Erwinia, such as
E. carotovora, E. chrysanthemi etc.
Control of Post-Harvest Diseases Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The diseases can be controlled or reduced following the preventive procedures are
1. The fruits and vegetables should be harvested and handled carefully to avoid any injury which
may facilitate the pathogen to cause infection.
2. The infected region on the vegetables should be cut off to avoid further infection during
transportation and storage.
3. Storage container, warehouses etc., should be properly cleaned with CuSO4, formaldehyde etc.
to avoid contamination.
4. The crop should be stored or transported at a temperature low enough to slow down the
development of disease.
5. Proper ventilation in storage reduces the spread of further development of disease.
6. The crops should be free from Insects and other pests, thus creation of new wounds and
disease can be avoided.
7. Hot water and hot air treatment help to reduce further spread of the disease.
8. Chemical control. Post-harvest diseases may be controlled by the application of thiabendazole,
dichloran, dosa-ash, etc. These chemicals help to prevent infection and suppress the development
of pathogen on the host surface.
Some other chemicals, such as vapours of acetaldehyde, biphenyle/nitrogen chloride forming
chemicals etc., are used as supplementary measures to control the post-harvest diseases during
storage and transportation.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

PROMOTION OF HYBRID MAIZE THROUGH FRONT

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
LINE DEMONSTRATIONS (FLDs) IN BUNDELKHAND
REGION: CASE STUDY
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-15
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Amit Tomar*
Teaching/Research Associate, Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
Directorate of Extension, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, U.P., India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) under SCSP were conducted on 40 hectares (ha) area
involving 80 farmers during kharif season in three districts/two states of Bundelkhand region i.e.,
Uttar Pradesh (Jhansi-District) & Madhya Pradesh (Datia & Tikamgarh). The Front Line
Demonstrations (FLDs) focused on demonstration of released two single cross hybrids i.e.,
DHM-117 & DHM-121 in Bundelkhand region during kharif-2020. The average yield in FLDs
was 35 quintals per hectare (q/ha), which was three times higher than that obtained in farmers
practices (12 q/ha) during kharif-2020.
table:-1. input details of front line demonstrations (flds) on maize during kharif-2020.

Sl. Details Quantity to be used

No.
1. Total number of FLDs conducted 40 FLDs
2. Total area covered (1 hectare for 1 FLDs) 40 hectare/100acre
3. Total quantity of seeds used to distribute to 800 kg/8 Quintal
the farmers to conduct FLDs on Maize
4. Quantity of seed distributed for 1 acre area 8 kg/acre
5. Quantity of fertilizers (18:18:18 super 3 kg/acre
phosphate) used to distribute to the farmers
6. Hybrids used to conduct FLDs on Maize DHM-117 = 48 kg
DHM-121 = 752 kg
Total = 800 kg

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The yield gains over the farmers practices in different states/districts in kharif season ranged
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
from 35-40 %. Input details of FLDs are given in the table-1.
1. SELECTION OF THE FARMERS FOR CONDUCTED FLDS ON MAIZE DURING
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
KHARIF-2020: 80 Schedule Caste (SC) farmers were selected for conducted FLDs on maize
during kharif-2020 under SCSP which were covered three districts of Bundelkhand region
(Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh) i.e, Jhansi (Village-Pipra), Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Datia (Village-Sanora) &
Tikamgarh (Villages-Dargaon Kala, Punchampura & Kunwarpura) (Table-2).
2. SEEDS INPUT DISTRIBUTION UNDER SCSP: Total 800 quintal seeds of two single
cross maize hybrids i.e., DHM-117 & DHM-121 were distributed to the 80 farmers. The
farmers were selected under SCSP for conducted FLDs on maize during kharif-2020 in three
different districts (Jhansi, Datia & Tikamgarh) of Bundelkhand region and covered the five
different village of Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh. 8 kg seeds / acre were distributed to
the farmers for conducted FLDs on maize during kharif-2020. The details of the seeds
distribution are given below in table-3:
3. SOWING OF FLDS ON FARMERS FIELD: The sowing of FLDs at farmers field were
completed during 15/07/20 to 21/07/20. Sowing of FLDs were done following the FLDs
technology i.e, “Hybrid vs. traditional cultivars” at the farmers field in the villages/districts;
Pipra-Jhansi, Sanora-Datia, Dargaon Kala, Punchampura, Kunwarpura-Tikamgarh of
Bundelkhand region during kharif-2020 under SCSP. The details are given in table-4.
4. FERTILIZERS (UREA) DISTRIBUTION UNDER SCSP: 6 kg/acre fertilizers (18:18:18
super phosphate) were distributed to the farmers for conducted FLDs on maize under SCSP
during kharif-2020 at five villages namey; Pipra (Jhansi), Sanora (Datia), Dargaon Kala,
Punchampura & Kunwarpura (Tikamgarh) Bundelkhand region which were covered the 80
farmers.
5. FARMERS TRAINING UNDER FRONT LINE DEMONSTRATIONS (FLDs) ON
MAIZE DURING KHARIF-2020: Farmers training on Maize Production Technology had
been conducted during 22nd & 25th March, 2021 in Tikamgarh, Datia, Jhansi & Lalitpur
Districts of Bundelkhand region. Total ten Farmers were trainings organized under SCSP
programme funded by ICAR-IIMR, Ludhiana. Total ten villages were selected for conducted
farmers trainings namely; Kunwarpura & Punchampura of Tikamgarh District, Sanora,
Dikauli, Parbai, Lakara & Ronija of Jhansi District & Dhovalkheri, Pachoni & Varkhiriya of

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Lalitpur District. Total 150 farmers were benefited by training in each villages. Scientists
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
with different streams delivered a lecture on maize production technology in Bundelkhand
region.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
TABLE-2: RESULTS OF THE DEMONSTRATIONS DURING KHARIF-2020.
Hybrids No. of Average Local Yield gain Net B:C ratio
demos. yield check (%) Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
returns
(q/ha) yield
(q/ha)
DHM- 10 32 20 12
55100 1.13
117
DHM- 40 35 12 23 60500 1.39
121
TABLE-3: PERCENT FALLL ARMY WORM INFESTATION ON MAIZE FIELD IN
DIFFERENT VILLAGES OF BUNDELKHAND REGION DURING KHARIF-2020.
Sl. Name of Village No. of field Percent infestation
No.
1 Pipra Jhansi 5 46
2 Sanora-Datia 5 64
3 Daryan Kala-Tikamgarh 5 56
4 Kuwarpura-Tikamgarh 12 48
5 Punchampura-Tikamgarh 25 40.55

TABLE-4: A TOTAL 52 SOIL SAMPLES WERE COLLECTED FROM DIFFERENT

VILLAGES ANALYZE IN LABORATORY:

Sl. No Name of Villages No. of Soil Samples

1 Pipra- Jhansi 05
2 Sanora- Datia 05
3 Daryan Kala- Tikamgarh 05
4 Kunwarpura- Tikamgarh 12
5 Punchampura- Tikamgarh 25

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Conclusion:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The Farmers with or without resources keep their land fallow in Kharif and cultivate
wheat, gram, linseed and lentil in Rabi. Here we found Kharif Maize a promise crop to increase
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Cropping intensity in Bundelkhand region. With majority of Scheduled Castes population living
in villages under studied area were economically isolated. Those were below poverty line and
their livelihood dependent solely on agriculture and livestock rearing Article
the SCSPID:Plan
AG-VO2-I08-07
seems to be
boon for uplifting their status.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

INDIAN AGRICULTURE'S JOURNEY TOWARDS GDP

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
DOMINANCE SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-16
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr.R.Abishek1*
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science And Agricultural Chemistry,
Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India-638315.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
India, the land of diverse cultures and traditions, has always been deeply rooted in
agriculture. At the time of independence in 1947, the agricultural sector stood as the backbone of
the economy, providing livelihoods to millions and contributing significantly to the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). Over the decades, Indian agriculture has witnessed a remarkable
journey, marked by transformations, challenges, and strategic initiatives.

The Green Revolution

In the 1960s and 1970s, India underwent a revolutionary transformation known as the
Green Revolution. This agricultural marvel was characterized by the adoption of high-yielding

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

varieties of seeds, advanced irrigation techniques, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides. The
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
result a surge in food grain production, making India not only self-sufficient but also a global
player in agricultural productivity.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The Green Revolution had a profound impact on Indian GDP by significantly boosting
agricultural productivity and ensuring food security. The term "Green Revolution" refers to a set
Article
of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives that took placeID:inAG-VO2-I08-07
the 1960s and
1970s. This period marked a transformation in Indian agriculture, primarily focused on
increasing the production of staple crops like wheat and rice.
Key factors and contributions of the Green Revolution to the Indian GDP include:
1. Increased Agricultural Productivity
 The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds, modern irrigation techniques,
and the use of fertilizers and pesticides led to a substantial increase in crop yields.
 The productivity gains were particularly notable in the cultivation of wheat and
rice, the main staple foods in India.
2. Food Security and Self-Sufficiency
 The Green Revolution played a crucial role in making India self-sufficient in food
production. Prior to the Green Revolution, the country had faced periodic famines
and relied on food imports to meet domestic demand.
 With increased crop yields, India was able to feed its growing population, reducing
dependence on foreign food aid and imports.
3. Contribution to GDP Growth
 The surge in agricultural productivity had a direct positive impact on the overall
economy. As the agricultural sector flourished, it contributed significantly to the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
 The increased income and purchasing power of farmers stimulated demand for
goods and services in other sectors of the economy, fostering overall economic
growth.
4. Rural Development and Employment
 The Green Revolution brought about rural development by enhancing agricultural
practices and infrastructure.

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This development contributed to improved living standards in rural areas.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 The increased agricultural productivity also generated employment opportunities
in rural communities, reducing poverty and promoting economic stability.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
5. Technology Transfer and Research:
 The Green Revolution was characterized by the effective transfer of technology
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
and agricultural practices from research institutions to farmers.
 Scientific research and development played a critical role in developing and
disseminating new farming techniques, which contributed to sustained agricultural
growth.
While the Green Revolution brought about significant positive changes, it is essential to
note that it also faced criticism for certain negative consequences, including environmental
degradation, overuse of water resources, and social inequalities. However, in terms of its impact
on the Indian GDP and ensuring food security, the Green Revolution remains a landmark period
in the country's agricultural history. It laid the foundation for subsequent developments and
discussions around agricultural policies and practices in India.
Land Reforms and Redistribution
Post-independence, several states embarked on ambitious land reforms aimed at
addressing issues of land ownership and tenancy. The objective was to reduce the stark
disparities in land distribution, ensuring that the benefits of cultivation reached the small and
marginal farmers. While the success of these reforms varied across states, the initiative marked a
significant step towards equitable growth in the agricultural sector.
Shift in Crop Patterns
Over the years, there has been a notable shift in crop patterns, reflecting changing market
demands and economic aspirations. Indian farmers, once predominantly engaged in traditional
crops, have diversified towards cash crops and high-value produce. This shift has not only
contributed to increased income for many farmers but has also presented challenges related to
sustainability, water usage, and environmental concerns.
Technological Advancements
The 21st century has witnessed a technological revolution in Indian agriculture. The
integration of precision farming, biotechnology, and information technology has become more
prevalent, promising to elevate productivity, reduce losses, and enhance overall efficiency. From

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

soil health cards to mobile apps providing real-time market information, technology is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
empowering farmers across the country.
Challenges and Solutions
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Despite these positive developments, Indian agriculture faces a spectrum of challenges.
Small and marginal farmers struggle with issues such as access to credit, technology, and fair
Article ID:
market prices. Water scarcity and climate change pose threats to agricultural AG-VO2-I08-07
sustainability, and
market access remains a persistent concern. In response, the government has launched initiatives
like PMKSY, PMFBY, and e-NAM to address these challenges and promote inclusive growth.
Current Scenario
As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, the Indian government continued to
focus on agricultural reforms, with ongoing dialogues between policymakers and farmers
regarding new agricultural laws. The commitment to finding solutions that balance the needs of
both farmers and the economy reflects a nuanced understanding of the challenges faced by the
agricultural sector.
Conclusion
Indian agriculture's journey since independence is a testament to resilience, adaptation,
and progress. From the Green Revolution to embracing technological innovations, the sector has
evolved to meet the changing needs of a growing nation. As we look ahead, the challenges
persist, but with strategic reforms, sustainable practices, and inclusive policies, Indian agriculture
is poised to continue its crucial role in shaping the nation's economic landscape. Cultivating
growth isn't just about crops; it's about nurturing the very foundation of our nation's prosperity.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BENEFITS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
AGRICULTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-17
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Deepika R1 and Yuvarani R*2

1
Junior Research Fellow, Department of Agronomy, Tamilnadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore – 641003. Tamil Nadu, India
*2
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, Adhiparasakthi Agricultural College,
G.B.Nagar, Kalavai, Ranipet – 632506, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Artificial intelligence technology is being used by several agricultural businesses to boost
productivity and efficiency. Artificial Intelligence solutions are assisting in removing traditional
barriers in all industries. AI in agriculture is helping farmers reduce their impact on the
environment and increase crop output. Crop productivity has improved using artificial
intelligence, as has real-time tracking, harvesting, processing, and sales. Many cutting-edge
computer-based technologies aim to detect a multitude of important elements, such as crop
quality, yield detection, weed identification, and many more. Artificial intelligence (AI) has been
widely adopted by the agriculture industry in an effort to enhance overall performance. The
current study presents a perspective of how artificial intelligence can be used to drive the various
sectors of agriculture.
Key words: Artificial intelligence, Crop Productivity, Real time tracking
Introduction
Artificial intelligence is predicated on the notion that human intelligence can be
adequately characterized to enable a computer to replicate it and carry out even the most
challenging tasks. Perception, thinking, and learning are the three tasks that artificial intelligence
seeks to perform. Technologies based on artificial intelligence (AI) have the potential to greatly
boost production in many different economic areas, including agriculture. Soil content sensors,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

irrigation, crop yield, crop monitoring, weeding, and crop establishment are a few examples of
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
agriculture sectors. Agricultural robots are meant to offer high-value AI (artificial intelligence)
solutions in various industries. The growing world population is causing problems for the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
agriculture industry, but artificial intelligence (AI) holds the promise of offering much-needed
answers. Artificial intelligence (AI)-based technical solutions have helped farmers attain higher
Article
yields with less input while also enhancing the quality of their produce ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
by ensuring a speedier
time to market for harvested crops. (Shilpa et al., 2022)
Applications of AI in agriculture
In the food supply chain, artificial intelligence technologies help grow healthier crops,
control pests, monitor soil and growth conditions, organize data for farmers, reduce labor costs,
and improve a range of agriculture-related tasks. Compared to human laborers, robots are meant
to complete basic agricultural jobs like harvesting crops significantly more swiftly and
efficiently. The following are two examples of robot applications: (a) See and Spray (a weed
control robot) and (b) CROO harvesting (a robot that harvests crops). The major AI applications
are provided by agricultural robots, specifically milking robots (Albellan et al., 2010).
Crop management:
The process of managing crops begins with planting and continues with growth
monitoring, harvesting, storage, and distribution. PROLOG assesses the operational behaviour of
a farm system by using meteorological data, machinery capacity, labour availability, and details
on authorised and prioritised operators, tractors, and tools. Additionally, it calculates crop yield,
total farm revenue, and net profit for each field. (Lal et al.,1992).
Crop prediction methodology uses sensors to measure soil properties such as PH,
nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, organic carbon, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, manganese,
copper, iron, depth, temperature, rainfall, and humidity to decide on the ideal crop. (Snehal and
Sandeep, 2014) With two cameras for recording and a GPS sensor for navigation, Demeter is a
computer-controlled speed-rowing device. It can plan harvesting procedures for an entire field
and then carry out those activities by repositioning itself in the field, slicing crop rows and
discovering unanticipated impediments. (Pilarski et al., 2002)

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Table 1: Different AI tools in crop management

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
AI techniques Function
CALEX An integrated expert decision support system for
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
crop management
PROLOG PROgramming in To assess the operational behaviour of a farm
LOGic Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
system, it makes use of meteorological data,
machinery capacity, labour availability, and details
on authorised and prioritised operators and
implements.
ANN Artificial Neural Can predict the response of crops to soil moisture
Network and salinity.
Widely used for predicting rice yield
Soil and crop health monitoring system
Soil health deteriorates over time, forcing farmers to shift to other fields despite the fact
that good soil produces an abundance of healthy produce. Climate and geographic variables
influence the condition of the soil. Because they break down more easily under irrigation in arid
regions, soil nutrients are more likely to produce salinity—that is, chemicals that retain water—if
they are not managed properly. The chemical state of rich and healthy soils can be tracked with
IoT sensors. The amount of fertilizer required can be estimated by analyzing data readings from
certain sensors (such as moisture sensors), which are then transmitted to the data control and
interpretation layer for analysis (Cadavid et al., 2018)
Weed management
For site-specific weed management, a map-based approach requires developing
trustworthy processes for collecting, evaluating, and drawing management zones for later use.
Weeds within a crop can be identified and their spatial distribution mapped using remote
sensing, which makes use of satellite and satellite pictures. Another technique for detection is
proximal sensing, which describes in-field machine-mounted sensors (such those on tractors,
robots, and harvesters) (Srinivasan, 2006). In contrast, a weed management system that can
simultaneously detect and manage weeds is used in real-time monitoring and spraying. This
tactic calls for constant forward motion of the vehicle while decision-making, processing
technique monitoring, and spraying are carried out. Therefore, for map-based SSWM, remote

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

sensing is advantageous, whereas proximal sensing is advantageous for both (LoPez-granados ,

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
2011).
Some of the Artificial intelligence techniques employed in weed management are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Optimization using invasive weed optimization (IVO)
 Support Vector Machine (SVM),
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Digital Image Analysis (DIA),
 Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ)
Soil and crop health monitoring system:
AI-based applications are able to identify illnesses and pests that impact plants as well as
nutritional deficits in the soil. Farmers can use the generated data to determine when to apply
fertilizer to enhance the quality of their yield. This uses computer-assisted and deep learning
algorithms to analyze data from plant sensors and soil health, i.e., the PEAT pest and soil
problems, based on a thorough investigation with Plantix diagnostics. a deficiency in soil
nutrition. Trace Genomics is a more example to add to the list. This machine learning service
aids farmers in diagnosing deterioration and doing soil analyses. This uses mechanical learning
to give farmers an awareness of both the potential for healthy crop production and the means of
preventing low yields.
Plant Monitoring and Disease Diagnosis:
Monitoring plant health is typically done in a time-consuming and labor- intensive
manner. Monitoring and identifying possible issues with plant health or deficits in nutrients in
the soil can be done efficiently with AI. Applications to analyse crop health trends in agriculture
are developed with the aid of thorough research. Applications with artificial intelligence (AI)
features might assist with soil health, plant diseases, pests, and improved understanding.
A serious threat to the economy, the environment, and food security is plant disease. For
plant diseases to be effectively controlled, early detection is crucial. The use of mobile devices
like smartphones for field-based diagnostics may be made possible by the high accuracy with
which AI-based imagery recognition algorithms can identify some plant diseases. (Peter et
al.,2021). "Enhancing agricultural research with artificial intelligence" generated AI-powered
devices that assist land owners and farmers in making environmental decisions by utilising big
data and location-based science. The aforementioned tools direct the choice of sustainable crop
management techniques and offer early warning of pest and disease outbreaks. A disease

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management technique includes Computer vision system (CVS), genetic algorithm (GA), Fuzzy
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Logic (FL), Web-Based Intelligent Disease Diagnosis System (WIDDS) and Expert system using
rule-base in disease detection. (Ngozi Clara Eli-Chukwu., 2019)
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 1: Uses of artificial intelligence in agriculture

Challenges
Among the numerous major obstacles that agriculture faces are temperature fluctuations,
groundwater density, paucity of food, and a lack of irrigation infrastructure. The future of
cultivation is mostly determined by the cognitive approaches that are received. Even if the
industry is still terribly undeserved, there is still a lot of unfinished research being done and
certain applications are already available. Agriculture is still in its infancy when it comes to
facing and conquering the obstacles that farmers face in the real world through experience and
insight. To fully explore AI's enormous promise in agriculture, applications need to be more
dependable.
Future scope
In agriculture, artificial intelligence not only helps farmers automate their operations, but
also helps them achieve more precise cultivation, which yields higher-quality and higher-yield
crops with less resource consumption. Future technological advancements will enable businesses
that are enhancing machine learning- or artificial intelligence-based goods and services—such as
drones, automated machinery, and training data for agriculture—to offer more beneficial

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applications to this industry, assisting the global community in addressing the challenges
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
associated with food production for an expanding population.
References
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Abellan-Nebot, J. V., and Subiron, F. R., 2010. "A review of machining monitoring systems
based on artificial intelligence process models," The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 47, no. 1-4, pp. 237-257. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Cadavid, H., Garzon, W., Pérez Ruiz , A., Lopez, G., Mendivelso ,C., Ramírez, C. 2018.
"Towards a Smart Farming Platform: From IoT-Based Crop Sensing to Data Analytics:
13th Colombian Conference, CCC 2018, Cartagena, Colombia, September 26–28,
Proceedings," pp. 237-251.
Kale, S and Patil, P.S., 2019. "Data Mining Technology with Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and
Machine Learning for Agriculture," in Data Management, Analytics and Innovation:
Springer, pp. 79-87.
Lal, H., Jones, J.W., Peart, R.M., Shoup, W.D. 1992. “FARMSYS-A wholefarm machinery
management decision support system” Agricultural Systems, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 257-273.
Lo´ Pez-Granados, F. 2011. Weed detection for site-specific weed management: mapping and
real-time approaches. Weed Research 51, 1–11.
Ngozi Clara Eli-Chukwu., 2019. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture A Review.
Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research Vol. 9, No. 4,4377-4383.
Peter O'Brien, Katherine Kral‐O'Brien, Jerry L. Hatfield., 2021."Agronomic approach to
understanding climate change and food security", Agronomy Journal, Vol. 113, pp. 4616,
Pilarski,T., Happold,M., Pangels,H., Ollis,M.,Fitzpatrick, K., Stentz,A.2002. The Demeter
System for Automated Harvesting, Springer.
Shilpa Kaushal, Shivam Kumar, Sayed Tabrez., 2022. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture .
International Journal of Science and Research. Vol. 11 Issue 5.
Srinivasan, A., 2006. Precision Agriculture: an Overview. In: Handbook of Precision
Agriculture: Principles and Applications (ed. A SRINIVASAN), 3–18. Food Products
Press, The Haworth Press. New York.
Snehal, S.S., and Sandeep, S.V. 2014. “Agricultural crop yield prediction using artificial neural
network approach”. International Journal of Innovative Research in Electrical,
Electronics, Instrumentation and Control Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 683-686/.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
SUCCESS STORY
ON
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
DIVERSIFIED AQUACULTURE: PABDA CATFISH CULTURE WITH
MONOSEX TILAPIA
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-18
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*1Mr. Samiran Patra and 2Dr. Uttam Roy

1
SMS (Fishery Science), 2Senior Scientist and Head
Murshidabad KVK, Murshidabad-742135, West Bengal, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Mr. Ansarul Hoque, a teacher in primary school at lalgola Murshidabad, West Bengal,
has 1 acre area. He is mainly interested in duck farming in his farm area, excavating 0.13 ha
pond for duck rearing. Established duck shade house for 2000 ducklings. After communication
with KVK fisheries SMS decide to start fish culture in that pond, suggested them to stock
monosex with catfish like pabda (Ompok bimaculatus) introduced as a diversified high value fish
species through KVK FLD demonstration programme in 2023. After 20 days of stocking 10000
monosex tilapia fry (3-5cm size), released 2000 pabda fingerling in 0.13ha pond. After one
month of culture facing algal bloom problem then suggested to stock advanced fingerling of
silver carp and catla, 100 nos. each. Maintained good water quality with continuous support of
KVK supervision. Regular health checks up for pabda and monosex tilapia and recorded. With in
150 to 180 days of culture harvest monosex tilapia and pabda, sell it local market.

Name Ansarul Hoque

Address Subarnamrigi, Murshidabad
Age 38 yrs.
Education B.A.
Contact no. 9563809173
Email Id -
Size of land holding (acre) 1 acre

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Profit
The farmer gets annual income (per cycle) of Rs. 116980.0 from culture of monosex
tilapia with pabda and IMC in a duck cum fish farming system. Now, he can generate an income
of Rs.9748.0/- per month.

Farmer’s field:

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KVK contribution:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
With KVK interventions like, giving need-based training, proper farm management
OCCUPATIONAL
practices like IFS based, HEALTH
guided in every step throughHAZARDS OF WORKERS
grow out culture system, advised to apply
organic juice or bio-juice for reducing feed cost and produce huge amount of zooplankton which
serve as primary live food during culture.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Impact on other farmers/ youth:

1. He is confident enough to culture such types of species in duck cum fish farming system.
2. Serving as a master trainer and source of motivation for other fish farmers.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BUTTER FLY PEA- AN UNTAPPED

OCCUPATIONAL FORAGE
HEALTH HAZARDS LEGUME
OF WORKERS
CROP
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-19
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1*Krishnan, V 2A. Anuratha, 1D. Umamaheswari, 1T. Anandhan, 1M. Tamilzharasi, 3A.
Harivignesh and 3Maddu Geethanjali
1
Faculty & 3PG Scholar, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal, U. T. of Puducherry 609603. Tamil Nadu, India
2
Faculty, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Keezhvelur,
Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Butterfly pea or Sangupoo (in Tamil), botanically called Clitoria ternatea (2n: 16),
belonging to plant family Fabaceae and sub family Papilionoideae is a tropical forage legume.
Butterfly Pea Flower is also known as as Asian pigeon wings, blue bell vine, blue pea, cordofan
pea and Darwin pea. It is a tropical legume that climbs over a trellis or a fence and produces
vivid blue, purple, mauve and white flowers. It is also grown as ornamental flower plant in
houses and also used for adorning God by the hindus. It is a high quality protein rich legume and
also called tropical alfalfa. Livestock tend to prefer it to other legumes and grasses and therefore
much valued as a pasture legume.
Botanical Description of Clitoria
Habitat: Adapted to wide range of soils and drought tolerant, but cannot tolerate water logging
and flooding. It can tolerate light shade and hence grown as cover crop in rubber and plantations.
Habit: Vigorous trailing, scrambling or climbing, strongly persistant herbaceous perennial
legume
Roots: Deep penetrating tap root with root nodules.
Stem: Fine stemed twining sparsely pubscent, sub-erect and woody at base and may grow up to
5 m long.

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Leaves: Leaves pinnate with 5-7 leaflets; petiole 1.5-3 cm long, stipules persistent, narrowly
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
triangular, 1-6 mm long, subulate, prominantly three nerved; stiples filiform to 2 mm long,
leaflets elliptic, ovate or nearly orbicular, tip acute or rounded often notched, base rounded or
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
cuneate; both surface sparsely appressed pubscent.
Inflorescence: Axillary racemes with single or paired flowers.
Article ID:
Flowers: Colour ranges from white, mauve, light blue to dark blue; Pedicle 4-9,AG-VO2-I08-07
twisted to 180
degree so that standard inverted, bracteoles persistant, broadly ovate or rounded.
Calyx: Gamosepalous; 5 lobed, 1.7-2.2 cm long with few fine hairs, companulate, 0.8 to 1.2 cm
long, lobes triangular or oblong.
Corolla: Standard obovate, funnel shaped, 2-5.5 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, notched or rounded at
apex with a pale yellow base or entirely white, a few fine hairs at apex
Androecium: Diadelphous (9+1).
Gynoecium: Ovary superior, ovules few in marginal placentation.
ruit: Pods linear to oblong, flattened with persistent style, with 8-11 seeds
Seed: Oblong somewhat flattened, dehiscent when dry, seeds olive brown to almost
black, shiny, often mottled, minutely pitted.
Pollination: Predominantly self-pollinated
Center of origin: Tropical Africa
Related Species: Clitoria laurifolia
Cultural Method
Clitoria ternatea is easy to grow from seed. It is easy to grow with minimum care. They
require less water and is tolerant to drought. But if irrigated it performs well and produce best
results. It should not be watered heavily and cannot withstand heavy waterlogging for a too long
time. The soil can be fertile to moderate level and can be moist. It is adapted to many types of
soil from sandy to heavy clays. It can grow very well in full sun as well as in partial shade. In
spring, prepare the seeds by lightly scratching the surface with a nail file and soak them
overnight in water. The next day, sow them either direct or raise as seedlings by planting 2cm
deep. Rooted cuttings may also be transplanted. Pinching can be done to keep the vine leggier
and bunchy. Once in a fortnight it should be fed with liquid fertilizers and once in a month with
solid fertilizer. The plant is usually free of pest and diseases, but monitoring should be done to
avoid catter pillars and grasshoppers as they will damage the leaves as well as the plants. Once

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

it’s established, it becomes drought tolerant. As a legume, its nitrogen fixing capabilities means
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
it needs little fertiliser. If you’ve prepared the soil beforehand, as is my preference, it doesn’t
need additional fertiliser. Furthermore, the vine seems to be fairly resistant to garden pests.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 1. Butterfly pea-Clitoria ternatea- Botanical illustration

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USES OF CLITORIA
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Used as short and medium term pastures
2. Used as green manure crop
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
3. Used as cover crop to prevent soil erosion
4. Also used as cut and carry fodder crop
5. Used as hay after drying Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

6. Widely planted as an ornamental and as fence rows

7. Have some medicinal value in some ethnic medicines
8. The flowers are used to adorne gods by the hindus.
9. Dried leaves are used as feed diluent for broilers.
10. It is grow on trellises as an ornamental species for its showy flowers.
11. Its petals are used for extraction of dye.
12. It is grown as a cover crop in rubber and coconut plantations.
13. It contains peptide Cliotides that have potential antimicrobial property against
Echericheria coli that is found in mamalian duct.
14. It fixes admospheric nitrogen in the soil and enriches the soil.
15. It is useful in revegetaion of coal mining sites.
FODDER VALUE OF CLITORIA
Green fodder: Excellent nutritive value with high protein and digestibility upto 80 per cent. It
is mostly suited to ruminants and monogastric animals. its forage quality persist even when
mature, without affecting digestibility or feed intake. Green fodder is suited to sheep, goat, cattle,
pigs and even rabbits. The green fodder yield ranges from 6 to 12 tonnes of Dry Matter/ha/year
depending upon the growing conditions. Under irrigated condition even up to 30 t DM/ha/year is
possible. This species is best suited for cut and carry system. For this it should not be cut too low
or too often.
Nutritive value: Protein: 10 per cent, Fiber: 30 per cent, and Ash: 8 per cent . It is rich in
calcium, Potassium, manganese and zinc.
Palatability: Very palatable for almost all types of farm animals. It is highly palatable for sheep,
goat and cattle since it has high fiber content. Livestock tend to prefer it over other legumes and
grasses and it is therefore much valued as a pasture legume.

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Toxicity: No toxicity has been observed. But seed contain condensed tannins and trypsin
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
inhibitors which act as a purgative and impair digestion to some extent.
Pasture: Clitoria is mostly used as pasture legume and allowed to graze at low to moderate
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
levels. It is sensitive to tampering and should not be allowed to graze until establishment. Once
established, it can be allowed to graze 2-3 hours per day on rotational basis.
Article
Hay and Silage: Hay is a supplementary feed to dairy cows at different ID:of
stages AG-VO2-I08-07
lactation. The
dry mater digestibility ranges from 72 to 74 per cent, which reflects the high fiber content of the
forage. Dried leaves are used as feed diluent for broilers.
ADVANTAGES OF CLITORIA
1. It is an high quality, protein rich pasture legume fodder.
2. It is drought tolerant and can withstand 5-6 months drought in drier tropics.
3. It can grow in sodic soil with pH range of 5.6 to 8.9.
4. Can be grown in association with forage grasses and cereal fodder crops.
5. It has a low establishment cost and can quickly cover the soil.
6. Fodder quality is maintained even when mature without affecting digestibility
or feed value.
7. Can grow in light shaded condition in rubber and coconut plantations.
LIMITATIONS OF CLITORIA
1. Clitoria has low tolerance to flooding.
2. It should not be cut too low or too often
3. It is sensitive to trampling and may hamper regrowth

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

NATURAL FARMING: A DIVERSIFIED FARMING

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
SYSTEM
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-20
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dinesh Kachhawa1, Navab Singh2, Seema Dangi3 and Anjani Agrawat4

1
Scientist (Plant Protection), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dholpur, India
2
Senior Scientist and Head, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dholpur, India
3
Ph.D (Home Science), Dept. of EECM,CCAS, MPUAT, Udaipur
4
B.Sc. (Ag.) IV year, COA, Baseri, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Natural farming, also known as zero budget natural farming, is an innovative farming
approach. It is low input based, climate resilient, and low cost farming system because all the
inputs (insect repellents, fungicides, and pesticides) are made up of natural herbs and locally
available inputs, thereby reducing the use of artificial fertilizers and industrial pesticides. It is
becoming increasingly popular among the smallholder farmers. Natural farming is a special form
of agriculture that does not requires any financial expenditure to purchase the essential inputs
such as seeds, fertilizers, and plant protection chemicals from the market. Natural farming,
though in its preliminary stages, is showing increased positive results and is being adopted by
farmers in good faith. It is even cited by farmers that labor and production costs have drastically
reduced 14–45% (Chandel et al., 2021).
It can be defined as a “chemical- free farming and livestock based ”. Soundly grounded in
agro-ecology, it is a diversified farming system that integrates crops, trees and livestock,
allowing the optimum use of functional biodiversity. It holds the promise of enhancing farmers’
income while delivering many other benefits, such as restoration of soil fertility and
environmental health, and mitigating and/or reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Natural farming
also referred to the Fukuoka Method” “the natural way of farming” or “do –nothing farming” is

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an ecological farming approach. This farming approach was introduced by Masanobu Fukuoka, a
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Japanese farmer and philosopher, in his 1975 book The One-Straw Revolution. It builds on
natural or ecological processes that exist in or around farms. Internationally, Natural Farming is
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
considered a form of regenerative agriculture—a prominent strategy to save the planet. It has the
potential to manage land practices and sequester carbon from the atmosphere in soils and plants,
where it is actually useful instead of being detrimental. There are Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
many working models of
natural farming all over the world, the Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) is the most popular
model in India. This comprehensive, natural, and spiritual farming system was developed by
Padma Shri Subhash Palekar.
.Principles of Zero Budget Natural Farming
 Zero external inputs
 Crops to cover the soil for 365 days (Living Root)
 Soil disturbance at a minimum
 Biostimulants as essential catalysts
 Utilize native seed for mixed farming
 Mixed cropping
 The incorporation of trees onto the farm
 Conservation of moisture and water
 Bring animals into farming
 More organic debris in the soil
 Using plant extracts to control pests
 No artificial pesticides, herbicides, or fertilisers
Concept
Natural Farming is a chemical-free farming system rooted in Indian tradition enriched
with modern understanding of ecology, resource recycling and on-farm resource optimization. It
is considered as agroecology based diversified farming system which integrates crops, trees and
livestock with functional biodiversity. It is largely based on on-farm biomass recycling with
major stress on biomassmulching, use of on-farm cow dung-urine formulations; maintaining soil
aeration and exclusion of all synthetic chemical inputs. Natural farming is expected to reduce
dependency on purchased inputs. It is considered as a cost- effective farming practice with scope
for increasing employment and rural development.

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Components of Natural Farming

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
There are four primary components and models:
1. Bijamrita
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Bijamrita is utilised to treat seeds.Bijamrita is a natural seed treatment solution for crops,
prepared by soaking seeds in a mixture of cow dung, water, lime and cow urine. the seeds are
Article
treated with formulations made using their dung and urine. After soaking, theID: AG-VO2-I08-07
seeds are dried
and then sown. This traditional practice is believed to enhance seed germination, protect
against diseases, and promote healthy plant growth in an organic and sustainable manner.
While neem leaves and pulp, tobacco, as well as green chilli extracts are used to manage insects
and pests.
Benefits:
Fungal and other seed- and soil-borne infections may impact the seeds sowed in the field.
The seeds are shielded against illnesses by the “Bijamrita” seed treatment (Devakumar et al.
2014).
2.Jeevamrit
Jeevamrit acts as a biostimulant made by re-establishing and promoting the activity of
existing farmers’ friendly soil microbes. Cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour and water
are used to make Jiwamrita by fermentation process . A gramme of cow dung may contain 300–
500 billion helpful microorganisms. These bacteria help decompose the soil’s biomass and
transform it into readily usable nutrients for crops. . When applied to soil, this fermented
microbial culture enriches the soil with nutrients and acts as a catalyst to encourage the activity
of earthworms and microorganisms. For each hectare of land, 500 litres of jeevamrutha should be
applied twice a month; following three years, the system might become self-sustaining. This
nutrient-rich liquid fertilizer enhances soil fertility, stimulates microbial activity, and aids
plant nutrient absorption, contributing to sustainable agriculture by reducing the need for
synthetic inputs (Ganesan, P. 2013).
Benefits: By promoting soil microbial activity, this culture improves the availability of nutrients
to plants, shields crops from soil diseases, and raises the carbon content of the soil.
3.Acchadana/Mulching:
Mulching is the process of covering the topsoil with plant material such as leaves,grass,
twigs, crop residues and straw etc. In natural farming, the term mulching refers to the use of

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organic and biodegradable plant materials. However, m ulching may also include covering the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
soil surface using live crops with fast growth and short life spans. Mulching has multiple benefits
such as decomposition of mulch material helps in increasing the organic matter content of the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
soil, conserves moisture in the soil through lowering of soil temperature, prevents soil erosion
and also weed growth (Saldanha LF,2018).
Types of mulching: Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Crop Residue Mulch: This comprises any dried vegetation, farm stubble, such as dried
biomass waste etc. It is used to cover the soil against severe sunlight, cold, rain etc.
Residue mulching also saves seedsfrom birds, insects, and animals.
 Live Mulch: Live mulching is practiced by developing multi-cropping/inter cropping
patterns of short durational crops in the rows of a main crop. It is suggested that the
pattern should be of monocotyledons and dicotyledons in the same field, in order to
provide all the essential nutrients. Monocots, like wheat and rice, supply nutrients such as
potash, phosphate and sulphur, while dicots are capable of nitrogen-fixation in fields.
Such practices reduces the demand fo some essential plant nutrients required for their
optimal growth.
Benefits
Decomposing the materials used for mulching results in humus, which not only improves soil
nutritional status but also conserves topsoil, boosts soil water retention, reduces evaporation loss,
and promotes soil fauna. It also inhibits weed growth.
4. Waaphasa/Moisture (Soil Aeration)
Whapasa means the mixture of 50% air and 50% water vapour in the empty space
between two soil particles.It is the soil’s microclimate on which soil organisms and roots depend
for most of their moisture and some of their nutrients. It increases water availability, enhances
water-use efficiency and helps crop growth in drought conditions. The basic principle for
Whapasa formation is irrigation should be done six inches outside the shadow circumference of
any plant/tree formed at 12 noon during the day time.
Benefits
Applying Jiwamrita and mulching promotes soil aeration, humus content, availability of
water, water retention capacity, and soil structure, all of which are essential for crop growth,
particularly during dry spells.

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Plant protection measures of natural farming

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Neemastra: Neemastra is a bioinsecticide and pest deterrent for natural farming that is
incredibly simple to manufacture. it is used to prevent or cure diseases, and kill insects or
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
larvae that eat plant foliage and suck plant sap. This also helps in controlling the
reproduction of harmful insects. Neemastra is very easy to prepare and is an effective
pest repellant andbioinsecticide for Natural Farming. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Agniastra: it is a natural insecticide prepared by the combination of neem leaf pulp,

tobacco powder, greenchilli, garlic paste and turmeric powder. It is used to mange all
sucking pests and caterpillars like leaf roller, stem borer, fruit borer, pod borer.
 Brahmastra: This is a natural insecticide prepared from leaves of neem, karanj, custard
appleanddatura which have specific alkaloids to repel pests. It is used to manage all
sucking pests and hidden caterpillars that are present in pods and fruits.
 Dashaparni ark: turmeric powder, ginger paste, Asafoetida, tobacco powder, chilly
pulp, garlic paste, ginger paste, any 10 leaves are used to prepare dashparni ark. It is
used to mange all types of pests and used depending on the level of infestation.
 Fungicide: cow milk and curd are used to prepare fungicides that are found to be very
much effective to mange the fungul disease.
References
Chandel, R. S., Gupta, M., Sharma, S., Sharma, P. L., Verma, S., and Chandel, A. (2021). Impact
of Palekar's natural farming on farmers' economy in Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Ecol. 48,
873–878.
Devakumar N, Shubha S, Gouder SB, Rao GGE (2014) Microbial analytical studies of
traditionalorganic preparations beejamrutha and jeevamrutha. Building Organic Bridges
2:639–642.
Ganesan, P. 2013. Manures-Jeevamrita. Agriculture for everybody.
https://agricultureforeverybody. blogspot. com/2013/06/manures-Jeevamritha.html
Saldanha LF. (2018). A Review of Andhra Pradesh’s Climate Resilient Zero Budget Natural
Farming, Environment Support Group, Bangalore. http://esgindia.org.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES FOR CONTAMINATED

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ENVIRONMENTS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-21
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Prathamesh Jagdeo Ade1*, Pratiksha Venudasji Nimbarte2 and Panchakarla Sedyaaw3

1
* Post Graduate Scholar. Department of Aquatic Environment Management. College of
Fisheries, Ratnagiri, India
2
Post Graduate Scholar. Department of Aquaculture. College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri
3
Ph. D Scholar. Department of Fish Processing Technology. College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Strategies for bioremediation provide economical and environmentally friendly ways to reduce
pollutants in the environment. The many bioremediation strategies for polluted habitats are
examined in this abstract. Microorganisms are used in microbial bioremediation to break down
contaminants into less hazardous forms. Using plants to absorb, detoxify, or accumulate
pollutants from soil, water, or the air is known as phytoremediation. Bioaugmentation, which
involves introducing particular microorganisms to speed up degradation, and biostimulation,
which entails supplying nutrients or other growth-promoting agents to increase microbial
activity, are two further ways to improve both approaches. Many toxins, such as pesticides,
heavy metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons, have been successfully treated via bioremediation.
But before it can be widely used, issues including extensive maintenance times and site-specific
requirements must be overcome. For contaminated areas, bioremediation procedures must be
optimized by continued study and technical improvements.
Keywords: Bacteria, microbes, plants, pollutants, soil and water
Introduction
The area of bioremediation has attracted a lot of attention because of its potential to solve
problems with environmental contamination. With an emphasis on current developments and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

their applications, this thorough analysis seeks to investigate several bioremediation techniques
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
for contaminated areas. Microorganisms plays key role bioremediation technique to break down
or change pollutants into less harmful forms. The utilization of bacterial strains for the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in polluted soil were done and it
was found that PAHs were efficiently broken down by the bacterial consortium, underscoring the
Article
potential of microbial bioremediation in polluted environments. Similarly, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
bacterial strains were
used to degrade diesel-contaminated soil, leading to a substantial decrease in diesel hydrocarbon
levels. Bioremediation is the utilization of living organisms to eliminate or counteract pollutants
from the environment, proving to be a sustainable and economical method for environmental
cleanup. It provides a hopeful remedy for the increasing issue of environmental contamination
resulting from diverse industrial operations such as mining, agriculture, and manufacturing. This
strategy harnesses the metabolic capabilities of bacteria, plants, or enzymes to break down or
convert pollutants into less hazardous forms, ultimately rejuvenating the health and equilibrium
of ecosystems. Recent study has greatly enhanced our comprehension of bioremediation
mechanisms and their utilization in polluted environments.
Bioremediation Strategies
Various subcategories of bioremediation use various techniques and species to remove
toxins from damaged environments. Using plants to remove, break down, or stabilize
contaminants in soil, water, or the air is known as phytoremediation. Phytoextraction is the
process by which pollutants are stored in the tissues of plants; phytodegradation is the process by
which toxins are broken down by biochemical processes in plants. It has been demonstrated that
phytoremediation works well in eliminating pesticides, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals from
contaminated areas. Microbial bioremediation, a different category, uses bacteria, fungi, and
algae among other microorganisms to break down contaminants. Through metabolic processes,
microorganisms can decompose complex organic pollutants into simpler, less dangerous
compounds. To increase degradation efficiency and increase the range of contaminants that can
be treated, consortia of different microorganisms are commonly used. Another important
subclass that uses enzymes to remove contaminants is enzymatic bioremediation. Certain
pollutants, including hydrocarbons or pesticides, can be catalysed to break down into less
dangerous molecules by the enzymes that are produced by bacteria or plants. Enzymatic
bioremediation provides a targeted and effective approach to decontaminate environments.

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Bioaugmentation and Bioventing

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Two distinct bioremediation methods that have gained notoriety for their efficacy in
clearing contaminated areas are bioaugmentation and bioventing. The addition of specific
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
microorganisms to contaminated areas in order to enhance the degradation of pollutants is known
as bioaugmentation. These microorganisms may be local natives or may have undergone genetic
Articlethat
modification to enhance their degradation potential. Research has indicated ID:bioaugmentation
AG-VO2-I08-07

can significantly accelerate the breakdown of contaminants such pesticides, chlorinated solvents,
and petroleum hydrocarbons. Conversely, bioventing is a method that uses oxygen delivery to
boost microbial activity and hasten the natural biodegradation of contaminants in soil. This
method works especially well for treating soil that has been contaminated by volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or petroleum hydrocarbons. Bioventing promotes the growth of aerobic
bacteria, which can break down contaminants more effectively, by increasing the amount of
oxygen available.
Phytoremediation
Using plants to heal damaged surroundings is a promising and environmentally
responsible approach known as phytoremediation. Utilizing plants to extract, break down, or
render contaminants in the soil, water, or air is this tactic. Phytoextraction is the process by
which contaminants are absorbed by plants through their roots and then deposited in their tissues.
Moreover, they are capable of breaking down contaminants through a process called
phytodegradation, which occurs during internal metabolic processes. Furthermore, through
mechanisms including Phyto immobilization and rhizosphere degradation, plants can stabilize
contaminants in the soil. Phytoremediation is a flexible and long-lasting method of repairing the
environment since it has been effectively applied to remove a wide range of contaminants, such
as radionuclides, organic pollutants, and heavy metals.
Mycoremediation
Fungus is used in mycoremediation, a kind of bioremediation, to break down or sequester
environmental toxins. Because of their special enzymatic properties, fungi can degrade a variety
of contaminants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, and hydrocarbons. The ability of fungi to
survive in a variety of environmental conditions and colonize areas where other remediation
techniques might not be feasible is one of the main benefits of mycoremediation. Recent studies
have highlighted the applicability of mycoremediation in many environmental settings. By using

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

biosorption, the fungus Aspergillus niger has the ability to effectively remove heavy metals from
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
contaminated water, offering a viable substitute for heavy metal remediation.The breakdown of
textile dyes in wastewater by fungal strains highlights the potential of fungi in the treatment of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
industrial effluents .Furthermore, mycoremediation has been studied for oil spill cleanup; fungi
having the ability to break down petroleum hydrocarbons include Trametes versicolor .
Factors Influencing Bioremediation Efficiency Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Numerous variables affect bioremediation efficacy, all of which are essential for a
successful cleaning of the environment. The kind of contamination is an important consideration
since various microorganisms and enzymes are needed to break down different contaminants.
Both the amount and distribution of contaminants are important because high concentrations can
suppress microbial activity and uneven distribution can reduce the amount of time that pollutants
and microorganisms come into contact. The effectiveness of bioremediation can be changed by
environmental factors that impact microbial activity and enzyme performance, including
temperature, pH, and moisture content. Furthermore, co-contaminants and environmental
stressors such as heavy metals can affect the development and metabolism of microorganisms,
reducing the effectiveness of bioremediation. Low nutrient levels can reduce the effectiveness of
bioremediation. Microbial growth and metabolism depend heavily on the availability of
nutrients, especially carbon and nitrogen sources.
Furthermore, co-contaminants and environmental stressors such as heavy metals can
affect the growth and metabolism of microorganisms, reducing the effectiveness of
bioremediation. Low nutrient levels can reduce the effectiveness of bioremediation. Microbial
growth and metabolism depend heavily on the availability of nutrients, especially carbon and
nitrogen sources. The success of bioremediation can also be influenced by the richness and
makeup of the microbial community at the contaminated site, since some microbial species may
be better at breaking down contaminants than others.
Enhancing the solubility and bioavailability of contaminants through the use of natural or
synthetic surfactants can improve the effectiveness of bioremediation. The efficiency of
bioremediation can be greatly impacted by the design and application of bioremediation
procedures, including the selection of technology (such as bioaugmentation or biostimulation)
and the use of suitable inoculum or amendments.

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Another important factor influencing the effectiveness of bioremediation is oxygen

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
availability, since many aerobic biodegradation processes need for adequate oxygen levels. The
efficacy of bioremediation can be increased, and oxygen limits can be addressed with the use of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
techniques like bioventing, which entails infusing air or oxygen into polluted soils. Pollutants
must be bioavailable in order for degradation to take place, as toxins need to be in a form that
Articleby
microbes can reach. The effectiveness of bioremediation can be hampered ID:elements
AG-VO2-I08-07
such as
pollutant sorption to soil particles or organic materials, which can reduce their bioavailability.
The efficacy of bioremediation is also significantly influenced by the metabolic
flexibility of bacteria. Widely varying metabolic capabilities improve the likelihood that different
contaminants will be broken down by microorganisms, increasing the efficacy of bioremediation.
The efficiency of bioremediation can be increased by using genetic engineering techniques to
increase the metabolic capacity of microorganisms for particular contaminants. Efficiency can
also be impacted by how long bioremediation treatments are given; for complex contaminants or
in regions with low microbial activity, longer treatment durations may be required. The best
possible efficiency and efficacy in cleaning up contaminated places can be ensured by tracking
and refining bioremediation procedures over time.
Conclusion
With its wide range of techniques, bioremediation has proven successful in eliminating a
variety of pollutants, such as pesticides, heavy metals, and oil spills. These techniques not only
lessen pollution in the environment but also have a positive economic impact because they are
affordable and require little outside assistance. In addition, compared to mechanical or chemical
techniques, bioremediation frequently causes less ecological disruption. In order to handle new
and emerging pollutants, bioremediation methods show potential for further study and
development. All things considered, bioremediation is a flexible and sustainable method of
environmental remediation that has the potential to be extremely important in guaranteeing a
better and more sustainable future for our world.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

IMPACTS OF SOIL SICKNESS

OCCUPATIONAL AND ITS
HEALTH HAZARDS CONTROL
OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-22

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Hanamantappa Meti*1, Girish K. S2, Bharati K. B3 and Sindhushree T. S4.

1*
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, V. C. Farm,
Mandya-571401, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore (Karnataka), India
2
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, V. C. Farm, Mandya-571401
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore (Karnataka), India
3
Department of plant pathology, College of Agriculture, V. C. Farm, Mandya-571401
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore (Karnataka), India
4
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, GKVK,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore (Karnataka), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Soil sickness, a phenomenon characterized by declining soil fertility and increased
susceptibility to diseases, poses a significant challenge to sustainable agriculture. This abstract
explores the causes of soil sickness, including monocropping and chemical inputs, and evaluates
strategies for its control. Techniques such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and organic
amendments emerge as effective measures to mitigate soil sickness and restore soil health. The
abstract underscores the importance of holistic approaches to agriculture that prioritize soil
regeneration and biodiversity conservation. Through targeted interventions, it is possible to
alleviate soil sickness and foster resilient agricultural systems conducive to long-term
productivity and environmental sustainability.
Introduction
One of the key elements influencing crop health and productivity in an agro-ecosystem is
the quality of the soil. The ability of the soil to work within ecosystem limits in order to sustain

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biological productivity, preserve environmental quality, and advance plant and animal health is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
referred to as soil quality. Crop rotation, use of mineral fertilisers and organic amendments,
tillage practises, and the use of agrochemicals are all agricultural practises that have a significant
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
impact on soil quality.
In fact, physical, chemical, and microbiological factors interact to influence soil quality
Article
in relation to its water retention capacity, soil structure and aggregate ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
stability, organic matter
dynamics, nutrient mineralization, and pathogen suppression (Bennett et al, 2012). The growth
of intensive agriculture in recent decades has resulted in a considerable decline in primary output
worldwide. There are many factors that affect soil quality, including soil erosivity, salinity,
sodicity, soil compaction, pollution by heavy metals and a decline in soil organic carbon, and the
loss of beneficial microbiomes.
The term soil sickness is describes the phenomenon of the reduction in growth and yield
caused by continuous monocropping (Mazarura et al, 2012). Soil sickness (SS) is the
development of unfavourable conditions for plant vegetative and reproductive performances that
the plant itself has introduced into the soil, this phenomena is referred to as "replant disease
problem" or "soil fatigue" in agronomy (Cesarano et al, 2017). It has been shown that SS is very
species-specific, i.e., it primarily affects members of the same species. Particularly, sensitivity to
SS decreases as evolutionary distance between species increases (Huang et al, 2013).
In addition, during the past three decades, scientists have realised how crucial SS is to
maintaining the species variety of natural plant communities as well as altering their structure.
Negative Plant-Soil Feedback (NPSF), a term used by plant ecologists to emphasise the
reciprocal, albeit unfavourable, interactions between plant and soil, is referred to as SS. In
ecology, NPSF is frequently referred to as "Soil Carry-over Effects", "Legacy Effects", or
"Historical Contingencies". Nevertheless, despite decades of research on SS and NPSF-related
issues, the fundamental causal mechanisms remain poorly understood and hotly contested.
Impacts
• Soil sickness is the rise of negative conditions for plant vegetative and reproductive
performances induced into the soil by plant itself.
• In natural ecosystem, plant ecologists refer to soil sickness as negative plant-soil
feedback (NPSF).
• This phenomenon is known in agronomy as “soil fatigue”, or replant disease problem.

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• It is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon determined by an overall deterioration of soil

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
quality.
• Soil sickness is species specific
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
• Ultimate effect is decline in yield
Reasons behind Soil Sickness
• Soil nutrient depletion/imbalance Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

• Phytotoxic and Autotoxin compounds

• Continuous mono-cropping
• Use of agro-chemicals and others
• Synergic interaction between pathogens and toxins leads to Imbalance in soil micro-
ecosystem.
• Dry land rice-based cropping systems
• Deterioration of soil physic-chemical properties
• Soil borne pathogens and microbial shift
Soil sickness in crop plants
Autotoxicity is regarded as a significant problem since it directly causes soil sickness or
replanting disease in a number of crop species. The secondary metabolites or chemical
compounds generated by the crop plant interfere with the germination, growth, or other
biochemical processes of other neighbouring crop plants belonging to the same crop species.
This is a unique intraspecific allelopathy occurrence. Autotoxicity encourages the
development of plant dysplasia, which is brought on by repeated cultivation of the same crop
species on the same plot of land over a number of years. This results in major plant diseases
and a significant reduction in the quantity and quality of crop production.

Fig.1. Biotic and abiotic factors implicated in yield decline of crops grown in short rotation
or monoculture (Source: Bennett et al, 2012).

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Control measures for soil sickness

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Farmers face Soil Sickness since the time of ancient Greek and Roman Empire, being so
forced to developed agronomic practices to overcome this problem. Following mechanisms to be
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
used for overcome of soil sickness.
1. Proper Crop Rotation.
Article soil
Crop rotation is likely the oldest agronomic strategy for treating ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
sickness. Crop
rotation minimises the inoculum of pathogens and the impact of autotoxic chemicals in the soil,
which both help to treat soil sickness. To combat soil sickness, utilise the below strategies.
i. Deep rooted crops -shallow rooted crops such as cotton, castor, pea potato, lentil, green gram
ii. Leguminous crops - non leguminous crops (green gram-wheat)
iii. Exhaustive crops-restorative crops such as potato, sorghum, sugarcane, castor, black gram,
and cowpea.
iv. Grain crops should be followed by foliage crops such as, wheat- dhaincha, black gram.
v. Long duration crops -short duration crops such as sugarcane cowpea, black gram, ground nut.
vi. Heavy irrigation to low irrigation.
2. Polyculture and Organic Amendment.
The best method to prevent SS is polyculture, which involves growing multiple plant
species simultaneously in the same field. In actuality, SS cannot develop in polyculture since it
takes time for a monoculture to establish itself in the soil. A natural ecosystem in which various
plant species coexist in mixed populations is what polyculture most closely resembles.
Polyculture minimises the occurrence of illnesses and pests through "herd" protection.
3. Soil sterilization:
Soil steam sterilization is a farming technique that sterilizes soil with steam in open fields
or greenhouses. Pests of plant cultures such as weeds, bacteria, fungi and viruses are killed.
4. Removal of soil toxins
Another method to reduce SS and NPSF has been suggested: selective elimination of
phytotoxic substances. Because of its powerful ability to absorb organic molecules, including
contaminants and allelopathic substances, activated carbon (AC) has been used in this context

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig.2. Soil health comparison in optimized cropping systems and monocultures

(T. Yang et al, 2020).
5. Soil Flooding:
Soil flooding overcome Soil Sickness due to potentially leachate water soluble auto toxic
substances and control some soil borne pathogens (Nie et al, 2009).
Conclusion
As a response to the dilemma of global food security, crop production in reduced
rotations or monoculture appears certain to continue. So, in the near future, the issue of yield
decline may very possibly become more significant. The aforementioned discussion suggests that
auto-toxicity, also known as the phenomenon of self-toxicity, in which a plant's own compounds
impede or reduce the growth of its own type, plays a key role in agricultural fields, wastelands,
orchards, plantations, and natural forests. Biodiversity, which enables maintaining a balanced
proportion between the species and their metabolites, is required to stop this phenomenon. Crop
rotation, the use of cover plants, interspecies or intercultivar crop mixes, or other practises can
help agro-systems reach higher levels of biodiversity.

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Bennett, A.J., Bending, G.D. Chandler, D., Hilton, S. and Mills, P. (2012). Meeting the demand
for crop production: the challengeof yield decline in crops grown in short rotations.,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
BIOL REV 87(1): 52-71.
Cesarano, G., Zotti, M., Antignani, V., Marra, R., Scala, F. and Bonanomi, G., (2017). Soil
Article
sickness and negative plant-soil feedback: A reappraisal of ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
hypotheses. J.Plant
Pathol 99(3): 545-570.
Huang, L.F., Song, L.X., Xia, X.J., Mao, W.H., Shi, K., Zhou, Y.H. and Yu, J.Q., (2013). Plant-
soil feedbacks and soil sickness: from mechanisms to application in agriculture. J.Chem.
Ecol, 39(2): 232-242.
Nie, L., Peng, S., Bouman, B.A., Huang, J., Cui, K., Visperas, R.M. and Park, H.K., (2007).
Alleviating soil sickness caused by aerobic monocropping: responses of aerobic rice to
soil oven-heating. “Plant Soil”, 300(1-2): 185-195.
Mazarura, U. and Chisango, C., (2012). Effects of long term cropping systems on soil chemical
properties. Asian J Agric Dev, 2(4): 632-640.
Tony Yang., Kadambot, H. M., Siddique., Kui Liu., (2020). Cropping systems in agriculture and
their impact on soil health-A review. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 23(2020): e01118

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

NURTURING NATURE: THE ESSENCE OF NATURAL

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
FARMING
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-23
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr.P.Reddypriya*1, Dr.W.Jessie Suneetha2, Dr.E.Sathyanarayana3, Dr.R.Ramesh4

G.Amuktamalyada5, Dr.Gopala Krishna Murthy6 and Dr.J.Hemantha kumar7
12345
Assistant professor, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Telangana, India.
6
Associate professor, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Telangana,
7
Professor, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Telangana, India.
*Corresponding author. Department of Agricultural Microbiology and bioenergy
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
In a world increasingly dominated by industrial agriculture, there's a quiet revolution taking root.
Natural farming, often referred to as "regenerative agriculture" is gaining momentum as a
sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional farming practices. Let's
delve into the beauty of natural farming and why it's becoming a popular choice for farmers and
consumers alike. Natural Farming, deeply rooted in Indian tradition, is a farming approach that
eschews chemical inputs in favor of a holistic understanding of ecology, resource recycling and
on-farm optimization. It embodies the principles of agroecology, integrating crops, trees, and
livestock within a biodiverse ecosystem. Emphasizing on-farm biomass recycling, it employs
techniques such as biomass mulching and the use of cow dung-urine formulations to nurture soil
health and maintain aeration without resorting to synthetic chemicals. This method aims to
decrease reliance on purchased inputs, making it a cost-effective practice while also offering
potential for rural development and increased employment opportunities
Understanding Natural Farming
At its core, natural farming is about working with nature rather than against it. Instead of
relying on synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), natural

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

farmers focus on nurturing the soil and creating a balanced ecosystem where plants, animals, and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
microorganisms thrive together. This approach emphasizes the use of organic matter, compost,
cover crops, and crop rotation to improve soil fertility and structure naturally.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Hence, Natural Farming is defined as a chemical-free traditional method, integrates crops, trees
and livestock within a diverse agroecology-based system to promote functional biodiversity and
sustainable agriculture. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Principles of Natural Farming

A robust soil microbiome is essential for optimal soil, plant, animal, and human health.
To nurture this, the soil should be consistently covered with crops throughout the year,
promoting diverse crop rotations with at least eight different crops annually. Minimizing soil
disturbance through practices like no-till farming or shallow tillage is crucial. Integrating animals
into farming systems is also beneficial. Integrated farming systems play a pivotal role in
advancing natural farming methods. Maintaining a healthy soil microbiome is vital for retaining
and enriching soil organic matter, facilitated by the use of bio stimulants. In India, popular bio-
stimulants are derived from fermenting animal dung, urine, and uncontaminated soil. Increasing
the quantity and diversity of organic residues returned to the soil is paramount, including crop
residues, cow dung, compost, etc. Pest management should prioritize agronomic practices
outlined in Integrated Pest Management, supplemented by botanical pesticides when necessary.
Synthetic fertilizers and other biocides are detrimental to the regenerative process and are not
permitted in natural farming approaches.
Approaches to Natural Farming
Natural farming strives for soil health, biodiversity, animal welfare, efficient use of local
resources, and ecological balance. It involves working with natural biodiversity, enhancing soil
biology, and managing diverse organisms to support food production. Key practices include:
 Avoiding external inputs
 Using local seed varieties
 Employing on-farm microbial formulations like bijamrita for seed treatment
 Enriching soil with on-farm microbial inoculants such as Jivamrita
 Utilizing cover crops and mulching with organic matter for nutrient recycling and
creating favorable soil conditions
 Implementing mixed cropping
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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 Integrating trees for biodiversity management

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Controlling pests through diversity and on-farm botanical concoctions like neemastra and
agniastra OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Incorporating native livestock, especially cows, for dung and urine as essential inputs
 Prioritizing water and moisture conservation
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Key goals of Natural farming:
The primary objectives of natural farming encompass a range of sustainable practices
aimed at nurturing both the environment and agricultural productivity. Central to this approach is
the preservation of natural flora and fauna, ensuring the ecosystem's resilience and biodiversity.
By restoring soil fertility and promoting biological life within the soil, natural farming seeks to
enhance agricultural productivity while minimizing reliance on external inputs. Emphasizing the
diversity of crop production and efficient utilization of land and natural resources such as light,
air, and water, it strives to create balanced and resilient farming ecosystems. Furthermore,
natural farming advocates for the promotion of indigenous insects, animals, and microbes in the
soil, harnessing their innate abilities to support crop health and resilience. Integrating local
breeds of livestock into agricultural systems not only enhances genetic diversity but also
strengthens the connections between farming and local ecosystems. Through the use of natural
and locally sourced inputs, natural farming reduces the input costs associated with agricultural
production, making it a financially viable and sustainable option for farmers. Ultimately, by
improving the economy of farmers and promoting ecological stewardship, natural farming offers
a pathway towards a more resilient and equitable agricultural future.
The Benefits of Natural Farming
1. Soil Health
The foundation of natural farming lies in healthy soil. By avoiding chemical inputs and
tilling practices that disrupt soil structure, natural farmers promote the growth of beneficial
microorganisms and earthworms that contribute to soil fertility. Healthy soil retains water more
efficiently, reduces erosion, and sequesters carbon from the atmosphere, mitigating the effects of
climate change.
2. Biodiversity
Conventional monoculture farming often leads to the loss of biodiversity as large swathes
of land are dedicated to a single crop. In contrast, natural farming encourages diversity by

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

incorporating a variety of crops, trees, and livestock into the agricultural landscape. This
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
diversity not only enhances ecosystem resilience but also provides habitat for beneficial insects,
birds, and other wildlife.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
3. Reduced Chemical Inputs
One of the most significant advantages of natural farming is the reduction in chemical
Article can
inputs. Without the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, farmers ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
minimize their
impact on the environment and protect the health of consumers. By promoting natural pest
control methods and biological pest management, natural farming fosters a balanced ecosystem
where pests are kept in check without the need for harmful chemicals.
4. Sustainability
Natural farming is inherently sustainable, as it seeks to mimic natural ecosystems and
cycles. By closing nutrient loops and reducing waste, natural farmers minimize their reliance on
external inputs and foster self-sufficiency. Additionally, the emphasis on local production and
distribution reduces the carbon footprint associated with food transportation, further enhancing
the sustainability of the agricultural system.

Case Studies: Success Stories in Natural Farming

1. Fukuoka's Natural Farming Method
Masanobu Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher, pioneered the concept of natural
farming in the 20th century. His "do-nothing" approach to farming, based on observation and
minimal intervention, inspired generations of farmers around the world. By embracing the
principles of simplicity, diversity, and harmony with nature, Fukuoka demonstrated that high
yields could be achieved without the need for chemical inputs or heavy machinery.
2. The Rise of Permaculture
Permaculture, a design system that integrates human activities with natural ecosystems,
shares many principles with natural farming. By designing agricultural systems that mimic the
structure and function of natural ecosystems, permaculture practitioners aim to create
regenerative landscapes that are productive, resilient, and sustainable. From urban gardens to
rural homesteads, permaculture offers practical solutions for addressing food security,
environmental degradation, and social equity.

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3. Small-Scale Success Stories

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Natural farming isn't just for large-scale operations; it's also thriving among small-scale
farmers and gardeners. Across the globe, individuals and communities are reclaiming their food
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
sovereignty by growing their own food using natural farming methods. From rooftop gardens in
urban centers to community-supported agriculture (CSA) schemes in rural areas, natural farming
Article
is empowering people to take control of their food supply and reconnect ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
with the land.
The Future of Farming: Embracing Natural Solutions
As the challenges of climate change, soil degradation, and food insecurity loom large,
natural farming offers a ray of hope. By harnessing the power of nature and embracing
sustainable practices, farmers can not only feed the world but also regenerate the land and protect
the planet for future generations. As consumers, we have the power to support natural farming
practices by choosing organic, locally grown produce and advocating for policies that prioritize
ecological farming methods.
Conclusion
In conclusion, natural farming represents a paradigm shift in agriculture, away from the
destructive practices of the past and towards a more harmonious relationship with the natural
world. By working in partnership with nature, we can cultivate abundance while preserving the
health of the planet. As we face the challenges of the 21st century, let us draw inspiration from
the beauty of natural farming and sow the seeds of a brighter, more sustainable future.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

HERBAL BEVERAGES – BOON

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTHTO THE HUMAN
HAZARDS HEALTH
OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-24

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*M.Chitra and R.Uma Sankareswari

Dr.M.S.S.Agricultural College and Research Institute, (TNAU), Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
About 70 – 80% of the world population still relies on traditional healers for day-to-day. In
some rural areas the percentage is around ninety compared to 80% reported world-wide.
WHO estimates that the usage of traditional medicine in developing countries is higher (Ramadan
and Al-Ghamdi, 2012).This indicaes herbal medicine is important in primary health care provision
in India. For centuries, cultures around the world have relied on traditional herbal medicine to
meet their healthcare needs. Despite medical and technological advancements of the modern era,
the global demand for herbal remedies is on the rise. In fact, it’s estimated that this industry
grosses about $60 billion annually. Some natural remedies may be more affordable and
accessible than conventional medicines, and many people prefer using them because they align
with their personal health. Herbal beverages can be made with fresh or dried flowers, immature
fruits, leaves, seeds, and/or roots by steeping (infusion) or boiling (decoction) of the source
materials including herbs.
Natural foods
Natural foods are associated with fewer side effects and consequently safer for use and for health
management has stood the test of time and are often considered relatively cheaper compared to synthetic
drugs. Diet alone cannot and should not replace medicine in all circumstances. Although many
illnesses can be prevented, treated, or even cured by dietary and lifestyle changes, while many
others cannot. Foods are typically deficient in vitamins and minerals and substantially increase

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

the risk of disease. On the other hand, diets rich in plant foods and low in processed products
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
strengthen our health. Genetics, stress, pollution, age, infections, occupational hazards, and
lifestyle choices such as lack of exercise, smoking, and alcohol use also have an effect.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Medicinal foods having specific therapeutic or preventive effects, compared with the ordinary
similar types, when are consumed regularly in adequate amounts.
Formulation and industrial production of medicinal plants are Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
rather difficult; because on
one hand, they must preserve their medicinal effects in food matrices (which are much complex
than drug matrices from variety, reactivity and perishability points) until the end of product shelf
life, and on the other hand, they must render sensory characteristics (flavor, texture and
appearance) as acceptable and pleasant as the control or ordinary products demanded by the
consumers.
Herbal bevarages
An herb is a plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor, or therapeutic properties.
Herbal medicines are one type of dietary supplement. They are sold as herbal bevarages, teas, and
extracts of fresh or dried plants. People use herbal medicines to try to maintain or improve their
health in traditional Indian system of medicine (Krupa,2008).It aims to preserve health and
wellness by keeping the mind, body, and spirit in balance and preventing disease rather than
treating it. To do so, it employs a holistic approach that combines diet, exercise, and lifestyle
changes. Ayurvedic herbs and spices are also an important component of this approach. They’re
thought to protect our body from disease and offer a variety of health benefits, including
improved digestion and mental health.
Plants were administered mostly in their crude forms as infusions (herbal teas), tinctures
(alcoholic extracts), decoctions (boiled extracts), and syrups (extracts of herbs made with syrup or
honey) or applied externally as poultices, balms, and essential oils (Rivera,2005). A strong connection
existed between food and pharmacology for maintaining health and treating various ailments. Spices
normally are used as flavour or taste enhancers in food were described as “influencers of body metabolism”
(Srinivasan, 2005). Traditionally used in Indian cooking, turmeric (Curcuma longa) contains the active
ingredient curcumin which is considered to have antioxidant, antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic
properties (Saunders and Wallace, 2010). This is thought to be mediated through inhibition of several
cell signaling pathways, inhibition of enzymes.

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Herbal teas
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Herbal teas are long been considered warriors in the battle against bad
health. Ginger, tulsi, mint, even pepper and cinnamon are all extremely healthy, landing a strong
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
upper cut against illness of any kind. For instance, a gentle chamomile tea will ease anxiety and
calm enough to put us to sleep – it's great for insomniacs; peppermint tea is well-known as an
Article
antidote to stomach ailments and has a mild laxative effect on our ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
digestive system.
Herbal teas – they aren't actually teas (hence they have no caffeine), but rather a decoction or
infusion of herbs and spices. Herbal tea contained roots, flowers, leaves, seeds, and fruit. Herbal
teas like chamomile, peppermint, and ginger tea offer several health-promoting properties and
could help improve heart health, digestion, sleep quality, and more. Leaves of the Camellia
sinensis plant, herbal teas are made from dried fruits, flowers, spices, or herbs. In addition to
being delicious, some herbal teas have health-promoting properties and have been used as natural
remedies for a variety of ailments for hundreds of years.
Ginger tea packs a punch of disease-fighting antioxidants and is a well-known remedy for
nausea. Studies consistently find that ginger is effective at relieving nausea, especially in early
pregnancy, although it may also relieve nausea caused by cancer treatments and surgery (Qian-
Qian Mao,2019) Ginger is abundant in active constituents, such as phenolic and terpene
compounds. The phenolic compounds in ginger are mainly gingerols, shogaols, and paradols. In
fresh ginger, gingerols are the major polyphenols, such as 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-
gingerol. Echinacea tea is a popular remedy that’s said to prevent and treat the common cold.
Evidence has shown that echinacea may help boost the immune system, which could help the
body defend against infections. Lemon balm tea has a light, lemony flavor and seems to have
health-promoting properties. In one small study, drinking lemon balm tea for 6 weeks improved
arterial stiffness, which is a risk factor for heart disease, stroke, and mental decline. Research has
also found that drinking lemon balm may increase the body’s natural antioxidant enzymes, which
help protect the body from oxidative damage.
For example Glycyrrhiza glabra may be useful in conventional and naturopathic medicine
is commonly used in herbal formulae to harmonize the other ingredients in the formula and to
carry the formula to the twelve regular meridians and to relieve a spasmodic cough. (a)
Demulcent, adrenal modulator, antibacterial, antiviral, antimutagen, anti-allergenic, expectorant

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

with secretolytic and secretomotor activity, anti-inflammatory, nutritive, spasmolytic,

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
antioxidant, estrogenic, immune modulator, mild laxative, hepato protective.
Natural antibiotics
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Various nutrients and phyto- chemicals associated with benefits of herbal teas. One of the major
issues of the WHO was to deepen investigation of plants as a promising source of therapies for human
Article ID:
disease management. Rationally designed polyherbal preparations are progressively AG-VO2-I08-07
being developed as
alternative for multi target therapeutic and prophylactic usage. This has resulted in growing lines of evidence
to show that old molecules are finding new applications through a better understanding of traditional
knowledge and clinical observations (Gurib-Fakim, 2011). Till date, a miscellany of
phytochemicals has been identified in medicinal plants to have versatile profile of effectiveness
(Konaté et al., 2012) One sole plant may, for example, contain bitter substances that stimulate
digestion, anti-inflammatory compounds, polyphenols that can act as antioxidant, and venotonics,
antibacterial, and antifungal tannins that perform as natural antibiotics (Gurib-Fakim,2011). In certain
cases, when a combination of medicinal plants or extracts is consumed at the same time or mixed in
appropriate formulation, the therapeutic effects could be a result of total sum of different classes of
compounds present within them (Ncube, 2012). Indeed, there have been reports highlighting that
intake of whole medicinal plants which have resulted in significantly better outcomes compared when an
equivalent dose of single isolated active ingredient was given. Thus, it can be argued that synergism
can occur when two or more compounds interact in ways that mutually enhance, amplify, or potentiate
each other’s effect (Williamson, 2001). The different plants included were based on the criteria
that they are consumed as fruit or vegetable for their nutritive value but have also other parts which are in
common use in folk medicine. Food plants that came from different families have previously gained
scientific momentum and demonstrated to have medicinal virtues against panoply of ailments.
Conclusion
Herbal teas come in a variety of delicious flavors and are naturally free of sugar and
calories. Many herbal teas also offer health-promoting effects, and modern science has begun to
validate some of their traditional uses. However, keep in mind that more research is needed to
understand the effects of drinking herbal tea rather than taking extracts or other supplements.
Recent years there is seen growing interest on the part of consumers and the food industry
focusing into herbal food ingredients to maintain human health? Herbal beverages need

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

validation of plant components and always stressing on safety, efficacy and quality of phyto-
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
medications.
References
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Gurib-Fakim, 2006. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow, 27(1):1-93.
Ramadan and Al-Ghamdi, 2012. Bioactive compounds and health-promoting properties of royal
jelly: A review, Journal of Functional Foods, 4:39-52 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Rivera, W. M., G. Alex, 2005. Extension reform for rural development: Case studies of
international initiatives. Vols. 1–5. Washington, D.C.: World Bank and United States
Agency for International Development.
Simon Saunders & David Wallace, 2008.British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 59
(3):293-305
Williamson, E.M. 2001. Synergy and Other Interactions in Phytomedicines, Phytomedicine, 8,
401-409.
Qian-Qian Mao, Xiao-Yu Xu., 2019. Bioactive Compounds and Bioactivities of Ginger (Zingiber
officinale Roscoe), Foods. Jun; 8(6): 185
. Nagoor Meeran MF, Hayate Javed , Charu Sharma , Sameer N Goyal, Sanjay Kumar , Niraj
Kumar Jha , Shreesh Ojha, 2021. Can Echinacea , Can Echinacea be a potential candidate
to target immunity, inflammation, and infection, The trinity of corona virus disease 2019,
Heliyon, ;7(2):e05990

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

HYDROGEL – A SUPER
OCCUPATIONAL ABSORBENT
HEALTH HAZARDS OFPOLYMER
WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-25

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*D. Sravanthi1, R. Shivakumar2, Y. Swathi3, P.Laxman Rao4, G.Amuktamalyada5 and

C.Yasmin6
1&5
Agricultural College Aswaraopet, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
2
School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, SVKM's Narsee Monjee Institute of
Management Studies (NMIMS) Deemed-to-be-University, Shirpur, Maharashtra, India
3
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jagtial, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
4
College of Agricultural Engineering, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
6
ARS, Ananthapuram, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Polymer: Material that, according to its relative mass, can absorb and hold a large amount of
liquid (IUPAC, 2004). Available under a variety of commercial names, including root watering,
drought crystals, and super absorbent polymers, which are commonly referred to as "hydrogels,"
these three groups of superabsorbent polymers are typically used: natural, semi-synthetic, and
synthetic polymers. These hydrogels have a great capacity to absorb available water and release
it gradually so that plants can use it (Akhter et al., 2004). At first, hydrogel was a substance that
could absorb 20 times its own weight in water. Hydrogel is a biodegradable, amorphous
polymer that holds water approximately 400 times its original weight. Within the permanent
wilting point (PWP) of 15 bar tension, at least 95% of the absorbed water is made available to
the crop (Johnson and Veltkamp, 1985). Hydrogel particles are thought of as "miniature water
reservoirs" in soil.
History of Hydrogel
In early 1960’s, an American enterprise “Union Carbide” introduced the super absorbents

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

in to the markets. Production was started at the later period of twentieth century and were
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
manufactured from the chemically altered starch and cellulose, and from other polymers like
polyvinyl alcohol or polyethylene oxide. Presently, hydrogels are prepared from moderately
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
nullified, less cross-linked polyacrylic acid and are water swelling which were required in large
quantities per hectare (Wallace and Wallace, 1986).
Water absorption mechanism of hydrogel Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The hydrophilic groups (viz. acrylamide, acrylic acid, acrylate, carboxylic acid, etc.) of
the polymer chain are responsible for water absorption in hydrogels. The acid groups stick off
the main chain of the polymer. When these polymers are put in water, the latter enters into the
hydrogel system by osmosis and hydrogen atoms react and come out as positive ions. This leaves
negative ions along the length of the polymer chain. Hence the hydrogel now several negative
charges down its length. These negative charges repel each other. This forces the polymer chain
to unwind and open up. They also attract water molecules and bind them with hydrogen bonding.
When exposed to water again, it will rehydrate. And repeat the process of storing water. This
process can last up to 2–5 years, by which time biodegradable hydrogel decomposes.
General uses of Hydrogel
Diapers, hair gels, sanitary napkins, sweat, soaking body powder, sealing, artificial snow,
agriculture, drug delivery systems, pharmaceuticals, biomedical applications, tissue engineering
and regenerative medicine, wound dressing material, separation of biomolecules or cells, and
barrier materials to regulate biological adhesion

Fig. 1. Hydrogel polymer

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Use of Hydrogel in Agriculture

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
• Improve the ability of soil to absorb water
• Enhance soil permeability and infiltration.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
• Reduce irrigation frequency.
• Reduce fertilizer leaching.
• Reduce compaction tendency of soil. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

• Reduce soil erosion and runoff.

Preparation of Hydrogel
• When cellulytic derivatives get irradiated, the radiation breaks some of carbon bonds of
glucose molecules in the cellulose chain, resulting in free radical sites on the polymeric
backbone.
• Cellulose radicals formed during irradiation add to one side of the acrylamide to form
cellulose–acrylamide graft copolymer.
Key characteristics of Hydrogel
• Perform well at high temperatures (40°–50°C)
• They can absorb water 400 times than its weight
• They are neutral in PH
• Increases the porosity of soil
• Increases the biological/microbial activities in the soil
• Delaying the onset of permanent wilting point
Application of Hydrogel
Area of application
Nurseries and seedling beds, crops requiring large quantities of water, and container
gardens –pot cultures
Rate of application
• It depends upon the texture of soil
• For clay soil: 2.5 kg/ha (at the soil depth of 6–8 in)
• For sandy soil: up to 5.0 kg/ha (at the soil depth of 4 in)
Application methods
1) For field crops
Prepare an admixture of hydrogel and fine dry soil (1 : 10 ratio) and apply along with the

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

seeds/fertilizer or in the opened furrows before sowing. For best results, hydrogel should be
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
close to seeds
2). In nursery bed for transplants
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Apply 2 g/m2 (or according to recommended rate) of nursery bed mix of hydrogel
uniformly in the top 2 in of the nursery bed. In pot culture, mix 3–5 g/kg of soil before planting
3). While transplanting Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Thoroughly mix 2 g (or according to recommended rate) of hydrogel per litre of water to
prepare a free flowing solution and allow it to settle for half an hour. Dip the roots of the plant in
the solution and then transplant in the field.
Hydrogels are environmental friendly
• Biodegradable hydrogels contain labile bonds either in the polymer backbone or in the
cross-links used to prepare the hydrogels
• The labile bonds can be broken under physiological conditions either enzymatically or
chemically over a period of time
• End-products after degradation are CO2, water and ammonia. Acrylamide, a monomer
used for hydrogel preparation is neurotoxic, but polyacrylamide itself is non-toxic
• The polyacrylamide can never reform its monomer. Hence there is no residual amount of
acrylamide present in the soil after degradation of hydrogel, especially when cellulose is
used as backbone
• Acrylamide residue is also not detected in crop products which are grown with hydrogel
application
Conclusion
• Hydrogel can be use in almost all field crops especially in cereal crops the use is more
• Its application improves the germination percentage of crops like wheat and barley
• Application of hydrogel @ 2.5 to 5 kg ha-1 in fields and 10-20 grams’ kg-1 of seeds in
case of seed coating can improve the nutrient uptake, WUE, growth and yield of the
crops.
• Hydrogel improves the water holding capacity of the soil, especially in case of light soil
which are having low water holding capacity
• Water absorption by hydrogel is well in case of water with less salts content than high
salt content (saline water)

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

• Finally, the B:C ratio can have improved by the application of hydrogel when compared
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
with without hydrogel application
References
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Singh, H. 2012. Effect of hydrogel on growth, yield and water use efficiency in pearl millet
(Pennisetumglaucum) production. Forage Res. 38(1): 27-28.
Articlewater
Singh, I., Verma, R. R and Srivastava, T. K. 2018. Growth, yield, irrigation ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
use efficiency,
juice quality and economics of sugarcane in pusa hydrogel application under different
irrigation scheduling. Sugar Tech 20(1): 29–35.
Vundavallia, R., Vundavallia, S., Nakkab, M and Rao, S. D. 2015. Biodegradable nano-
hydrogels in agricultural farming - Alternative source for water resources.Procedia
Materials Sci. 10: 548-554.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

AGATHI TREE FODDER: NOURISHING THE LIVESTOCK

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
AND GREENING THE FUTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-26
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Umasankari, B. , 2*V. Krishnan, 2V. Vengadessan, 1Maddu Geethanjali,

1A. Harivignesh, 1S. Samuel Raj and 1J. Umabalan
1
PG Scholar,2Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal 609603, UT of Puducherry, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Agathi or Sesbania grandiflora L. (Agast) is a well-known small, loosely branching,
legume plant of the Tropical Asia including, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and
Philippines. It belongs to the family Leguminosae. It is closely related to Sesbania formosa, an
Australian species. Though the flowers feature in some traditional cuisines, one gets the
impression that their inclusion was born from necessity rather than taste. Leaves, seeds, pods and
flowers of S. grandiflora are edible. Flowers are the most widely used part, and white flowers are
preferred to the red. In the Philippines, unopened white flowers are a common vegetable,
steamed or cooked in soups and stews after the stamen and calyx have been removed. The raw
flowers are eaten as salad in Thailand. Young leaves are also eaten, usually chopped fine and
steamed, cooked or fried. Tender pods are eaten like string beans. Agathi leaves taste bitter, sour,
and mildly tart. Most cooks counteract this bitterness with coconut milk, and some swear by the
addition of garlic to combat the stomach pain arising from consuming too much Agathi.
The flowers are also bitter and astringent, but the white are less so than the red. It’s
possible to reduce the bitterness by removing the stamen. The flower’s texture is mildly crunchy
and fibrous, but pressure cooking or steaming for ten minutes will soften it.. In India, agathi is
grown in abundance in many states, like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Gujarat,
and Bengal. It thrives well in hot, humid areas and can grow like weeds. Agathi known as agati

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

sesbania, August flower, Australian corkwood tree, flamingo bill, scarlet wisteria tree, vegetable
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hummingbird, West Indian pea, white dragon tree in English; agasti, agati, anari in Sanskrit;
agasti, bak, basma, basna, chogache, hatiya in Hindi; agati, agusta, bagphal, bak, bake in
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Bengali; kacang turi, petai belalang, sesban, sesban getih in Malayalam; agasti in Nepali; Avisi
in Telugu; Heta in Marathi; Agase in Kannada and agathi, agati, peragathi in Tamil.
Origin and Distribution Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Agathi originates in Asia, specifically India, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Its native
range extends to Burma and Australia. According to the World Agro Forestry Centre, the precise
origin is unknown, but there are links to a closely related species found in Australia (S.
formosa). This close connection gives credence to the theory that the plant is native to Indonesia.
One of the plants’ earliest links to India lies in its namesake, agasthi. It is believed that Sesbania
grandiflora is named after the Vedic sage, Agastya. Considered the father of Tamil literature,
Agastya specialized in medicine, spirituality, and language, probably lived between 6th and 7th
century BC. At present, agathi grows throughout Mexico and the south west USA, the warmer
areas of South America, and parts of Africa. In West Africa, for example, agathi’s been
cultivated for the past 150 years. It’s also an exotic plant in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and
Nepal. Agathi is distributed and cultivated in Benin, Mexico, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Puerto Rico,
Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, United States of America. In India, the plant
grows in abundance throughout many states, including Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Assam, Gujarat, and West Bengal. They thrive in hot, humid areas and can grow like weeds in
close quarters.
Botany
The genus Sesbania, consisting of about 50 species, pantropically distributed, is placed in
the family Leguminosae, sub family Papilionoideae. It was recently moved from the tribe
Galegeae to the tribe Robinieae by Polhill and Souza (1981). The genus Sesbania is divided into
at least four subgenera, of which two, Sesbania and Agati, contain species of potential
agricultural value. The important species under the genus Sesbenia includes Sesbania
benthamiana, Sesbania dalzielii, Sesbania drummondii, Sesbania exasperata, Sesbania formosa,
Sesbania goetzei, Sesbania grandiflora , Sesbania hirtistyla, Sesbania hobdyi and Sesbania
javanica. Sesbania grandiflora is a small, loosely branching tree that grows up to 8- 15 m tall
and 25-30 cm in diameter, stem is tomentose, unarmed, roots are normally heavily nodulated

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With large nodules and the tree can also develop floating roots. Leaves are alternate, compound,
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and pinnate, 15-30 cm long with 12-20 pairs of oblong, round leaflets, 3-4 cm long and about 1
cm wide and leaves borne only on terminal ends of branches. The leaves turn bright yellow
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
before shedding. Flower clusters hanging at leaf base have 2-5 large or giant flowers. The colour
of the flowers may be pink, red or white. The pea like flowers are 5- 10 cm in length, curved,
Article
about 3 cm wide before anthesis. The large-flowered hermaphroditic ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
species appears to be
pollinated by birds. Pods are long and narrow, hanging down 30-50 cm by 8 mm, septate, wide,
flat, with swollen margins and about 15-40 pale coloured seeds. The seed is bean like, elliptical,
red brown, 6-8 in a pod, 3.5 mm, each weighing 1 g.

Fig. 1. Sesbania grandiflora- Agathi: Botanical illustration

Ecology
S. grandiflora is well adapted to hot, humid environments. It is a lowland species that lacks
tolerance for cool temperatures (below about 10°C). It has an outstanding ability to tolerate water
logging and is ideally suited to seasonally flooded environments. When flooded, it initiates
floating, adventitious roots, and protects their stems. It seems to prefer a bimodal rainfall
distribution, growing rapidly during the wet season, but is capable of withstanding prolonged dry

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seasons of up to 9 months. It is not wind resistant. It is commonly seen growing on rice bunds,
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along roadsides, in home gardens and in mixed crop lands.
Climate and Soil
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
It is best adapted to regions with annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000mm and is also grown
successfully in semi-arid areas with 800mm annual rainfall and up to 9 months dry season. It is
adapted to the lowland tropics up to 800m, occasionally to 1,000m Article
msl andID:the
AG-VO2-I08-07
environments
with mean annual temperatures of 22- 30ºC. It is frost sensitive and intolerant to extended
periods of cool temperatures. Poor shade tolerance, less than that of S. sesban, S. grandiflora is
more suitable for the wetter/humid sites. It can be grown on a wide range of soils including those
that are poor and waterlogged. It tolerates saline and alkaline soils and has some tolerance to
acidic soils. Agathi may grow in alkaline, poorly drained, saline, low fertility soils. It is well
adapted to heavy clay soils
Varieties
In agathi, no varieties have been identified till now through systematic breeding programme.
But based on the flower colour, agathi can be classified in to four distinct groups, which are as
follows:
 Sita: This group produce white colour flower.
 Peeta: It is a yellow flowered strain.
 Neela: This group of plant produce blue colour flower.
 Lohita: It is a red flowered strain.
Among these four groups, white and red flowered groups are used as vegetable and other two
groups are more popular for their medicinal uses. Red flowered strain is more nutritious than
white flowered one due to their high content of phenolic compound.
Propagation
Agathi is mainly propagated by seeds. It may also be easily propagated by stem and branch
hardwood cuttings. Sesbania species tend to seed prolifically from early age. It is thought that
Sesbania sesban is pollinated by bees, whilst the larger flowers of S. grandiflora are pollinated
by birds. The seed can be easily harvested and can be grown without problems of dormancy. It is
able to produce ripe pods within nine months of planting. The seeds are collected from the best
trees in May and sown for raising of seedlings in nursery. Scarification may improve uniformity
of establishment but is not considered essential. The viability of seed is about six months and 1

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kg seed contains about 16000 seeds. The seeds are sown during May- June in polythene bags or
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in nursery beds. The seeds germinate in a week. The seedlings become ready for transplanting
after 30-45 days of sowing. The seedlings are planted in 30cm3 size pits.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Sowing and Spacing
One should wait for warm weather for sowing. A soil temperature of at least 25°C is
needed for proper germination. In subtropical areas it is sown duringArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
November – December,
while in tropical areas sowing should be done from October to January. Seedlings are planted
at 1.5m × 2 m spacing
Harvesting
Harvesting leaves for fodder must be done selectively, to avoid complete defoliation, and
cannot be done more than a few times per year. More intensive harvesting, such as managing as
a hedgerow, reduces the life of the tree. For example, cutting at 1 m high five times a year can
result in tree mortality. Because grandiflora establishes so rapidly, frequent replanting is a
management option if heavy harvesting results in tree decline. Whereas leaves, flowers and pods
of the agathi are harvested for consumption as vegetables at proper maturity stage. Ripe agathi
leaves are green, edible. Dried, desiccated leaves ready to fall from the tree should be avoided
from harvesting for human consumption. Young white agathi flowers have closed white petals.
The full grown flowers are harvested for vegetable purpose.
Nutritive Value
According to the USDA nutrient database, 100g of Sesbania grandiflora flower contains
91.58g water, 27kcal, 113 kJ, 1.28 g protein, 0.04g fat, 0.38g ash, 6.73g carbohydrates, 18mg
calcium, 0.84mg iron, 12mg magnesium, 30mg phosphorous, 184mg potassium,15mg
sodium,0.8mg selenium, 3mg vitamin C, 0.083mg thiamin, 0.081mg riboflavin, 0.430mg
niacin and 102µg folate. On the other hand as per the book on “Nutritive Value of Indian Foods,”
100g agathi leaves contain 93kcal energy, 73g moisture, 8g protein, 1g fat, 3g minerals, 2g fibre,
12g carbohydrate, 1130mg calcium, 80mg phosphorus and 4mg Iron. Certainly, the leaves are an
excellent source of calcium and iron. The plenty of these nutrients is one reason for its reputation
as a bone strengthener.
USES
Culinary
Different plant parts of agathi viz., the young leaves, giant white flowers, seeds, and

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tender pods are generally used in the preparation of several dishes. Ripe agathi leaves are green
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and malleable. Dried, desiccated leaves ready to fall from the main stem should be avoided for
use as leafy vegetable. Young white agathi flowers having closed white petals in the shape of a
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
crescent are used as vegetable. For vegetable preparation small, ovoid leaves are first removed
from the stem by pinching the stalk with the thumb and forefinger, and then sliding down the
Articleare
main branch. The leaves should fall away with ease. Removed leaves ID:then
AG-VO2-I08-07
rinsed in a
colander to remove any dirt or sediment and are ready for sautéing, pressure cooking and boiling.
To prepare the flower, the stamens and calyxes are removed. This step will improve the flavour
of the preparation; otherwise, the prepared dishes will taste bitter. Dishes from flowers are
prepared by deep-frying in butter, sautéing, stewing, steaming, grilling or simply sometimes
eaten raw as salad. From the leaves, agathi keerai is one of the widespread dish is simply sauteed
greens with oil, mustard seed, onion, garlic, urad or moong dal, asafoetida, green chilli, turmeric
and salt. Sometimes leaves are also added in coconut milk soup. From the flowers, a Bengali
delicacy blossom fritters is prepared by frying flower after removing the stamen and calyx. It is
also prepared as stuffed flowers. In Myanmar sour soup is also prepared from the agathi flower.
In Indonesian dish, pecel, agathi flower is used as one of the ingredients.
Fodder
Sesbenia grandiflora is valued as a fodder in many regions. In south-central Lombok,
Indonesia, it is grown on bunds around paddy fields, provides up to 70 percent of the diets of
cattle and goats during the annual eight-month dry season. The leaves contain as much as 25-30
percent crude protein. Leaves and pods are valued for fodder. The tree produces leaves for
fodder within 4 months of establishment. The leaves also contain 9600 IU vitamin A in every
100 g. For fodder production, the tree is cut when 90-120 cm tall (1.8 kg) and fed to animals
mixed with rice straw.
Fuel
The wood is rather light and not highly regarded as a fuel because it smokes excessively
when burnt. Having a weight of only 500 kg/square meter, it burns rapidly without much heat.
But its fast growth and availability within a year of planting make it a locally popular fuel wood.
The wood should be well dried, as it deteriorates in storage and becomes corky, dusty and unfit
for burning. Its calorific value is 17.91 MJ/ kg, with a high ash content (6%) and low
percentage of carbon (11.7%).

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Soil improvement
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Sesbenia grandiflora is often maintained in gardens and around crop fields for its nitrogen
contribution to the soil. The light shade cast by its canopy does not block much light, allowing
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the growth of companion plants. Falling leaflets and flowers recycle nutrients to the ground. Due
to its fast growing habit, seedlings are used for green manuring similar to annual green manure
crops. Fruits, falling leaflets and flowers make excellent green manureArticle ID:and
or mulch AG-VO2-I08-07
improve soil
fertility. It is a well-suited annual for dense planting, growing for short periods and ploughing
under to improve soil before planting food crops. S. grandiflora is ideal for rehabilitating eroded
soils.
Fibre
At a very short rotation of 3-4 years, S. grandiflora is capable of producing much higher
cellulose raw material per unit area than most of the other pulp woods. Even trees 3-4 years old
can be pulped without debarking and are suitable for chemical pulping for use as cheap printing,
writing, magazine and newsprint paper. The fibres are short. Fibre can also be blended with long-
fibred bamboo pulp in suitable proportions to provide good strength. On a 3 year rotation, about
41 ton of pulp can be harvested from one hectare area in a year.
Gum or resin
Bark exudates and seed endosperm gums are produced from agathi. The clear gum from
the bark is used in foods and adhesives as a substitute for gum arabic. The bark also yields
tannins.
Ornamental, boundary or barrier or support
S. grandiflora is widely planted for beautification because of its giant showy flowers and
long pods. It can be used as a live fence or a live support for crops such as vanilla and pepper
Health benefits and therapeutic uses
Agathi has several health benefits and the plant features in a number of traditional
therapies for thousands of years. In Ayurveda, agathi leaves are used to treat fever, sinus, and
respiratory problems. It also acts as a coolant, purgative, and worm-killer. According to thebook,
“Home Remedies,” the agathi leaves are anthelmintic, diuretic, laxative, and can aggravate
pitta. It has the potential for the treatment of toxicosis, itching, and excess kapha. The flowers are
acrid, bitter, and astringent. Local healers use the flowers to treat night blindness, headaches,
catarrh, cough, an fevers. Several studies confirm these benefits, and illuminate several others.

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Antioxidant property of the aqueous suspension of agathi leaf protected rats from oxidative heart
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damage resulting from exposure to cigarette smoke. Ethanol flower extracts had great wound
healing potential. Agathi also help to decrease serum cholesterol levels in hyper lipidemic rats.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Ethanol extracts of agathi plant exhibited anticancer activity in carcinoma induced rats.
References
Article
Anantaworasakul P, Klayraung S and Okonogi S. 2011. Antibacterial ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
activities of Sesbania
grandiflora extracts. Drug Disc. Therap. 5(1): 12-17.
Malviya R, Sharma R, Mishra A and Rama murthy A. 2013. Agasty (Sesbenia grandiflora Lin.):
Ayurvedic approaches. Universal J. Pharm. 2(4): 1-5
Orwa. 2009. Sesbania grandiflora. Agroforestry Database . 4: 1-6.
Rageeb M, Usman M, Patil SB, Patil SS and Patil RS. 2013. Sesbania sesban Lin.: An overview.
Int. J. Pharm. Life Sci. 4(5):2644-2648.
Reji AF and Alphonse NR. 2013. Phytochemical study on Sesbania grandiflora. J. Chem.
Pharm. Res. 5(2):196-201.
Veasey EA, Schammass EA, Vencovsky R, Martins PS and Bandel G. 1999. Morphological and
agronomical characterization and estimates of genetic parameters of Sesbania Scop.
(Leguminosae) accessions. Genet. Mol. Biol. 22(1): 81-93

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS THE FOXTAIL GRAIN

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
AMARATH –A PROMISING PSEUDOCEREALS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-27
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Maddu Geethanjali, 2*V. Krishnan, 2D. Umamaheswari 3A. Anuratha,

1A. Harivignesh, 1S. Samuel Raj B. Umasankari and 1J. Umabalan
1
PG Scholar, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal,
U. T. of Puducherry 609603.
2
Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal, U. T.
of Puducherry 609603.
3
Faculty, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Keezhvelur, Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu 611104
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The foxtail amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) having 2n = 32 is one of the most
popular species of domesticated amaranths. It has been cultivated for a long time as a
multipurpose pseudocereal of high nutritive value, as a vegetable and as an ornamental plant . It
belongs to the group of grain amaranths, along with Amaranthus cruentus . The plant residue
after grain harvest may be fed to livestock or used for thatching. A. caudatus is most
recognizable for its striking flowering panicles that can reach up to 90 cm (35.4”) long. The
colour of these highly dense flowering panicles ranges can be black, red and more commonly
white. The red varieties of A. caudatus are due to a high content of betacyanins.
Botanical description of Amarathus caduatus
Habitat:
Native to the Andes region in South America. It grows between 1 to 2.5 meters, reaching
maturity in 4–6 months (or up to 10 months in highland regions). It is having loam and loam-
sandy soils with rich organic matter and good drainage. Soil pH is 6-7 but can tolerate up to 8.5.

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Habit: Amaranthus caudatus is an annual herbaceous plant, meaning it completes its life cycle
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within one year. It grows as a herb, with a relatively short life span. It is erect, reaching up to 1.5
meters in height.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Root: Amaranth has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures. It
has well-developed root system that aids in nutrient absorption and anchoring.
Articleand
Leaves: Surface of leaves glabrous or ± sparingly pilose along the margins ID: lower
AG-VO2-I08-07
surface of
the primary venation. Petiolate are Long-petiolate, with petioles up to about 8 cm but not longer
than the lamina. Lamina Shape has broadly ovate to rhomboid-ovate or ovate-elliptic.
Dimensions is 2.5-15 x 1-8 cm. Apex of Obtuse to subacute at the mucronulate tip. Base is
Shortly cuneate to attenuate below.
Inflorescence: Inflorescence is called as glomerule. The inflorescence is in the form of a large
panicle, which varies in terminal or axial position, color, and sex. The tassel of the inflorescence
can be either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species.

Flowers: Male and female flowers are intermixed throughout the spikes. Deltoid-ovate, pale-
membranous, acuminate, with a long, pale or reddish, rigid, erect arista formed by the yellow-

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green or reddish stout, excurrent midrib. The longest bracts may be up to twice as long as the
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perianth . Male Flowers are Oblong-elliptic, 2.5-3.5 mm, acute, aristate. Female Flowers are
1.75-2.5 mm, broadly obovate to spathulate, distinctly imbricate, abruptly narrowed to a blunt or
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
sometimes faintly emarginate, mucronate tip. Stigmas are 3, approximately 0.75 mm, erect or
flexuose.
Calyx: The passage mentions that flowers in Amaranthus have three toArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
five tepals. Tepals are
structures that cannot be clearly differentiated into sepals and petals, and they often look similar.
The number of tepals can vary among species.
Corolla: In many wind-pollinated plants, including some Amaranthus species, the corolla may
be reduced, inconspicuous, or absent.
Androceuim: Filaments are almost completely fused and 5-toothed at the apex with entire or
deeply lobed teeth . Anthers are 1-2-locular, meaning they have one or two compartments. They
usually dehisce (open) by one or two slits.
Gynoceuim: ovary is superior and unilocular, indicating that it has a single chamber. Ovules are
usually solitary, sometimes two to numerous. They can be erect to pendulous, and the
placentation is basal. The style is described as very short or obsolete to long and slender. Stigmas
are capitate (simple or penicillate) or up to 2-3 (-6) and long and slender.
Fruit: Irregularly rupturing capsule. Alternatively, it may be less frequently circumscissile,
rarely a berry, or crustaceous.
Seed: Black, shiny. 2-2.5 mm long, ovoid-globose, circumscissile (splits open at maturity).
POLLINATION: Each panicle is self-pollinating. Grain type is cross pollination
CENTRE OF ORIGIN: Central and South America.
RELATED SPECIES:
Amaranthus caudatus var. caput-medusae .
Amaranthus tricolor.
Amaranthus palmeri.
Uses of Amaranthus caduatus :
1. Food Source:
In India and South America, Amaranthus caudatus is used as a source of food. Known as kiwicha
in Peru, its seeds are flavorful, highly nutritious, and do not contain saponins (unlike quinoa).
2. Culinary Uses:

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 The seeds of foxtail amaranth can be used in various recipes and preparations.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 They produce a crunchy, nutty "popcorn" when heated and can be used as a snack or in
sweets. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 The seeds can be used in cold cereals with milk and honey, or as a "breading" on chicken
or fish.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 The grain can be ground into flour, rolled into flakes, "puffed," or boiled for porridge.
 The flour can be blended with other cereal flours to enhance their nutritive value,
providing higher protein, better amino acid balance, and increased vitamin content.
 Foxtail amaranth can be used in bakery specialties.
3. Traditional Uses in Ethiopia:
In Ethiopia, foxtail amaranth seeds are considered a famine food during scarcity and are
combined with teff to make injera flatbread in times of abundance.
4. Food Coloring:
The plant contains pigments that can be used for food coloring.
5. Edible Greens:
Young leaves and stems of foxtail amaranth can be boiled and consumed as greens, similar to
spinach.
6. Livestock Feed:
After grain harvest, the stover (the residual plant material) can be fed to livestock.
7. Ethnomedicinal Applications:
All parts of foxtail amaranth have ethnomedicinal applications. The plant has been reviewed for
its potential health benefits, including anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-atherogenic, and
cardioprotective properties.
8. Widespread Cultivation:
Although not reported in statistics, various amaranths, including foxtail amaranth, may be among
the most widely grown vegetable crops in the humid tropics.
FODDER VALUE OF CADUATUS:
GREEN FODDER: Amaranthus caudatus get well established after every 2 to 4 weeks on the
growing condition , with a focus on the nutrient-rich leaves as the primary fodder source, while
that the stems, though less palatable. The maximum yield of amaranth green mass (245.5 t/ha)
and the yield of dry matter (62.5 t/ha) was obtained in the phase of wax maturity..
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Nutritive value: A. caudatus is high in dietary fiber and minerals such as iron, magnesium and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
manganese. Its frequent consumption could help to reduce hypertension and cholesterol.
Palatability: While some livestock, notably horses, may show reluctance to consume
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Amaranthus caudatus, animals like goats, sheep, rabbits, and poultry generally find it palatable,
especially in its young, leafy stage. Amaranthus caudatus leaves are rich in nutrients, including
protein, vitamins, and minerals Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Toxicity: It was concluded that the low concentration of saponins in amaranth seeds and their
relatively low toxicity guarantee that amaranth-derived products create no significant hazard to
the consumer.
Hey and Silage: Typically grass or legumes, that is cut, dried, and then stored for later use as
animal feed. The nutritional composition of amaranth silage can include proteins, fibers,
vitamins, and minerals.
Advantages of Amaranthus Caudatus
 High nutritional content, including proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
 Amaranthus caudatus is adaptable to various climates and soil conditions, making it a
versatile and cosmopolitan plant.
 The plant has culinary versatility, with its seeds used in various recipes, including snacks,
cereals, and as a breading on chicken or fish.
 Various parts of the plant have ethnomedicinal applications, contributing to potential
health benefits, such as anti-diabetic and cardioprotective properties.
 Its cosmopolitan distribution allows for widespread cultivation and utilization in different
regions, contributing to food security.
 In times of scarcity, the seeds of Amaranthus caudatus are considered a famine food in
regions like Ethiopia.
 The plant has potential as a forage crop, producing a large amount of biomass with high
protein content.
 Amaranthus caudatus requires little fertilization, contributing to its ease of cultivation.
 Once established, foxtail amaranth is drought-tolerant, providing resilience in varying
environmental conditions.

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Limitations of Amaranthus Caudatus

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 In some regions, Amaranthus caudatus may exhibit invasive tendencies, competing with
native vegetation.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Certain species within the Amaranthus genus, including some varieties of A. caudatus,
may be considered weeds in agricultural settings.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Seed shattering during harvest can be a challenge, as it may result in loss of seeds and
affect overall yield.
 Effective management practices are needed to control potential weediness and optimize
cultivation practices.
 While the absence of saponins in the seeds is an advantage for consumption, it may limit
certain industrial uses where saponins are desired.
 Seed yields of grain amaranths, including Amaranthus caudatus, can be variable,
influenced by factors such as climate and cultivation practices.
References
Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Bastianelli D., Lebas F., 2021. Foxtail amaranth
(Amaranthus caudatus). Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.
Vetter, J., Szocs, Z., & Tansz, N. (1991). Quality studies on cultivated Amaranthus species
grown as green fodder. I. Allattenyesztes es Takarmanyozas (Hungary), 40(3).
Townsend, C. C. (1993). Amaranthaceae. In Flowering Plants· Dicotyledons: Magnoliid,
Hamamelid and Caryophyllid Families (pp. 70-91). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin
Heidelberg.
Amaranth in animal nutrition: A review. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume
30, Article #88. Retrieved November 27, 2023, from
http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd30/5/peir30088.html
GelotarMayuri, J., Prajapati, N. N., & Solanki, S. D. Flower Morphology and Reproductive
Biology In Different Species of Grain Amaranthus.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BROWN TOP MILLET – AN UNDERUTILIZED RARE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
MILLET
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-28
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
1Praveen, R., 2*V. Krishnan, 1K. Preetha,1FS. Aparna, 1J. Arathi, 1S. Lakshmipriya and
2D. Umamaheswari
1
PG Scholar & 2Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal 609603, U. T. of Puducherry, India
*Corresponding author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Brown top millet (Urochloa ramosa)) is small-seeded annual grass cultivated as grain
crop, primarily on the marginal lands in dry areas in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.
It is increasingly receiving attention of the scientific community. The scientific literature based
on brown top millet has been found scanty. According to the few studies available energy ranges
from 338.0 kcal to 368.62 kcal. The, crude fiber and fat content of BTM is 71.32 gm, 8.06–
16.08%,1.89 gm, respectively. Protein is between 11.64% and 10.72%. Brown top millet
contains phytochemicals such as flavonoids, quinones, tannins, and resin. There is galore scope
for development and standardization of value added products made from brown top millets such
as ready to eat foods (cookies, bars, deserts, etc) and ready to cook foods (idli mix, poha, etc) in
which the millet can be used in combination with other cereal grains. Thus, brown top millet
holds great potential in alleviating food and nutrition insecurity. It has good nutritional value. It
can be used for the prevention and management of several non-communicable diseases. In order
to make this smart food popular among farmers and consumers, systematized studies in the field
of agriculture, nutrition, toxicology, naturopathy and biomedical sciences need to be done and
documented properly. From ancient times BTM has been used in many forms such as forage,
staple food or in many traditional dishes. An e-repository can be made of the traditional Indian
foods made from BTM to popularize its use among the younger generations (Figure 1).

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Common name Brown top millet

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Scientific name Urochloa ramosa
Chromosome no. 2n = HAZARDS
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 8 OF WORKERS
Origin Africa
Family Poaceae
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Name of the inflorescences Panicle
Duration of the crop 70-80 days

Fig. 1. Urochloa ramosa Fig. 2. Grains of Urochloa ramosa

Distribution
The domestication of brown top millet probably occurred in South India, in the Deccan,
and it spread during prehistory outward to other parts of India. Charred grains identified as
“Brachiaria ramosa type” have been recovered from most Neolithic South Indian sites where
systematic archaeo-botanical work has occurred. On these sites brown top millet has a high
ubiquity and relative frequency. Dating the time of domestication is complicated by the fact that
little archaeobotanic work has been carried out on early Neolithic or preceramic period
(Mesolithic sites); however, the evidence suggests that this crop, along with other South Indian
crops (i.e., Macrotyloma uniflorum, Vigna radiata and Setaria verticillata), developed from
indigenous wild populations around the beginning of the third millennium BCE. During this
period, local millets and legumes were incorporated into an agro-pastoral system, part of the ash-
mound culture of the southern Neolithic of India, which employed both mobile cattle pastoralism
and small-scale crop cultivation. Brown top millet spread out from the Deccan to Tamil Nadu in
the south and Gujarat in the north by the end of the second millennium BCE. Small quantities of

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the grain have also been found from Chalcolithic (late second–early first millennium BCE) sites
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
in Odisha (Orissa) in the east and some sites in the Ganges plains, however, the number of grains
recovered does not suggest cultivation and may represent wild plants. Over time, brown top
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
millet has seen reduced use, although it was still present at the site of Paithan in Maharashtra up
to the seventh century CE.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Its gradual reduction in use can be attributed to Brown Top Millet displacement by alternative,
more productive millets, including the African millets (Sorghum bicolor, Eleusine coracana), as
well as foxtail millet (Setaria italica) that probably contributed to this. Today brown top millet is
a relict cultivar but one with some important ritual uses.
Cultivation practices
Browntop millet is drought-hardy and heat tolerant, but can also be planted in low areas
that get flooded. The shadow tolerant nature of browntop millet makes it distinct from other
crops. The shade loving crop grown often as cover crop well even under perennial trees
Maximum cultivation happens in both the kharif & rabi seasons in areas that receive more than
800 mm of rainfall. The crop can be grown Sea level up to 8,000 ft
Land Preparation
Ploughing with a mould bould plough will help to plough soils deeply and to conserve
moisture. Green manuring involved distributing dhanica seeds. To improve the soil's fertility and
condition, a dhanicha crop was added after one month, also with 2 MT of FYM, which was
spread
Seed Rate & Seed Treatment
The seeding rate for browntop millet will depend upon the seedling method. For line sown crop
4-5 kg/ ha and for broadcasting seed rate @ 10-12 kg/ha is recommended for the healthy stand
and better yield. Treating the seeds with carbendazim or thiram @ of 2 g/kg before sowing is
highly recommended to manage the seed borne diseases.
Varieties
BTV1/ 2/ 3/ 5/ 6/ 9/ 10 & 12 are the promising varieties of Brown top millet that gives assured
yields under optimal conditions.
Soil
It grows best in sandy loam soils with a pH 5-6.5 under full sun. Browntop millet grows in
rocky, shallow soils from It is adaptable to almost all upland soil, but does not grow well in

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water- restricted, droughty conditions.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Time and Method of sowing
Brown top millet can be planted from mid-April until mid-August in most locations,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
though later plantings will result in lower yields. Whereas, in rainfed conditions farmers sow
seeds with the onset of monsoon. Recommended spacing is 45 X 15 cm. Plant population in
rainfed conditions is 1.35 lakh/ha and in irrigated conditions is 1.5-1.8Article
lakh/ha.ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Cropping System
Brown top millet + pulses in 4:1 row ratio is recommended cropping system for major
growing areas of India.
Fertilizers and manures
Farm yard manure (FYM) should be incorporated @ 10 T/ ha one month before sowing
will improve the yields significantly. The suggested fertilizer dosage per hectare is 40:20:20 kg
of nitrogen, P205, and potassium. When planting, all of the fertilizer should be incorporated into
the soil. After 25-30 DAS and if irrigation facilities are available, half of the nitrogen should be
top dressed in standing crops.
Weed Management
To manage weeds, it is best to plant in a well-tillaged field, weed-free bed with narrow
row spacing. Chemical weed control options are limited. Up to 25- 30 days after sowing, the
field should remain weed- free. The weeds in the field of browntop millet can be controlled with
just two weedings. In a line-sown crop, 4 weeding may be done using a hand or wheel hoe
Diseases/ Insect Pest & Management
Generally the diseases and insect pests infect the browntop millet are of lesser importance.
Water Management
Like other millets, irrigation is not necessary for browntop millet. However, if a prolonged dry
spell occurs, 01-02 irrigations must be administered at the critical stages. It is always preferable
to drain the field of extra water after a heavy storms.
Harvesting
Harvesting will be done at the physiological maturity. It is cut from the ground level with the
help of sickles and stacked in the field for about a week before threshing. Threshing is done by
trampling under the feet of bullocks. The grains should be dehusked before consumption.

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Nutritional and health benefits

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Millets have unique nutrient composition which is good for physical and mental health.
They have high fiber and vitamin content, low simple carbohydrates. Brown top millet is high in
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
nutrition and has high energy content; 100 grams of BTM contains 338 Kcal of energy, 71.32 g
of carbohydrate, 8.98 g of protein, and 1.89 g of fat. It is a rich source of natural fiber i.e.,
Articlebenefits
Consumption of dietary fiber has long been associated with health ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
like bowel
movement, and maintenance of normal blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Further, it is rich
source of micro nutrients such as iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, phosphorus,
and B group Vitamins. Therefore, BTM may serve as budding grain for therapeutic diets. The
fiber content i.e., 12.5 gm per 100 gram (Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR), 2022) and
fiber helps to detoxify the body by removing the waste from the intestine. Millets have low
glycemic index (GI). Because of the low GI, millets help in gradual increase in the post-prandial
blood glucose levels. This is particularly helpful for patients suffering from impaired glucose
tolerance as well as diabetes.
BTM contains good amount of minerals. It has significant levels of magnesium which is
94.5 mg/100 gm. Magnesium is a vital mineral which aid in increasing the efficiency of insulin
and glucose receptors by supporting many carbohydrate digesting enzymes, which manages
insulin action and it also helps to reduce the pressure on blood vessels (BTM is gluten free and
an excellent choice for people suffering from celiac disease. BTM contain 276mg per 100 gm
phosphorous. Phosphorous is involved in the structure of every cell in the body, forming the
mineral matrix of bone essential component in molecule i.e., adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Besides fiber and minerals, millets are also rich in health-promoting phytochemicals like
polyphenols, liganins, phytosterols, phyto-oestrogens, phytocyanins, phenolic compounds, tannis
and flavonoids like, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and tocopherols. They are natural antioxidant that
protect the phospholipid membrane around heart, nerves, muscles, and red blood cells from the
attack of free radicals and thus prevent carcinogenesis, and aging. Carotenoids are reported to
prevent cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis, maintain normal functioning of immune
system, and retina of eyes. These also function as, immune modulators and detoxifying agents.
BTM being rich in secondary metabolites (phytochemicals) can help to reduce the risk for gastric
ulcers and colon cancer.

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Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The comparison of macronutrients and micronutrients of different millets and staple
cereals with the browntop millet (in percent), BTM contains 8.98 gm/100 gm of protein which is
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
higher than protein of rice, wheat, sorghum, Proso millet, finger millet, little millet, barnyard
millet and Kodo millet. Fat content of BTM is 1.89 gm/100 gm which is much higher than fat
Article
content of rice, wheat and sorghum. 71.32 gm/100 gm is the carbohydrate ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
content of BTM that is
higher than wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, proso millet, finger millet, little millet, barnyard millet
and foxtail millet. Crude fiber value of BTM is 8.06 gm/100gm which is higher than rice,
prosomillet, littlemillet, foxtail millet and kodo millet. The energy value of BTM is 1414 kj/100
gm which is greater than energy value of wheat, sorghum, prosomillet, finger millet, barnyard
millet and foxtail millet. Calcium content of BTM is 28 mg/100 gm which is higher than calcium
content of rice, pearl millet, proso millet, little millet and barnyard millet. Iron content of BTM is
8.86 mg/100 gm which is higher than iron content of all the millets and staple cereal grains i.e.,
rice and wheat. So we can increase the production of the crop and increase the productivity and
create the awareness of that millet and consume it we get good healthy life.
References
Sujata Bhat*, Prabhu C Ganiger , Nandini C, Prabhakar and Thippeswamy V. 2018. Project
Coordinating Unit, University of Agricultural Sciences, India
Cooke, m., d. Q. Fuller, & k. Rajan. 2005. Early historicagriculture in southern Tamil Nadu:
archaeo-botanical research at Mangudi, Kodumanal and Perur, in U.Franke-Vogt & J.
Weisshaar (ed.) South Asian archaeology 2003: proceedings of the European Association
for South Asian Archaeology Conference, Bonn, Germany, 7th–11th July 2003: 329–34).
Aachen: Linden Soft.
Ahmed, M. B., Hamed, R. A., Ali, M. E., Hassan, A. B., and Babiker, E. E. (2006). proximate
composition, antinutritional factors and protein fractions of guar gum seeds as influenced
by processing treatments. Pakistan J. Nutr. 5, 481–484. doi: 10.3923/pjn.2006.481.484
Al-Mudaris MA. Notes on various parameters recording the speed of seed germination. Der
Tropenlandwirt- Journal of Agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics. 1998;99 (2):147-
154.
Harvey, E.L. 2006. Early agricultural communities in northern and eastern India: an
archaeobotanical investigation.Unpublished PhD dissertation, University College London.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

ROLE OFOCCUPATIONAL
EARTHWORM AS A REPLACEMENT FOR
HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
FISHMEAL IN AQUACULTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-29
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

* Lakkoju Nischal1, Dr. A. Chandrasekhara Rao2 , Samanthula Surya Teja3 and

Allen Shamuel George4
1
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Aquaculture, College of Fishery Science, Muthukur, SPSR
Nellore, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries University, India
2
Principal, Sri MVKR Fisheries Polytechnic, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries University.
3
Ph.D Scholar, ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, India
4
M.F.Sc Scholar, Department of Aquaculture, College of Fishery Science, Muthukur,
SPSR Nellore, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries University, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Aquaculture refers to the use of or in freshwater, seawater, brackish water, and inland
saline water for the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae.
Aquaculture is the highest-ranking food sector with an annual growth rate of 8.8 percent for the
past 25 years. It is one of the fastest growing animal food sectors and provides over 13% of the
animal protein for the human consumption. The aquaculture sector in India is expanding at a
greater frequency, surmounting significant obstacles including disease outbreaks and pollution
during its expansion. Feeding makes up the majority of the aquaculture farms' costs
(approximately 60% of the total economic balance). Therefore, the cost of feed must be
decreased while the effectiveness of its utilization must be raised. The primary and most
expensive component of a shrimp diet is protein. As a result, research efforts have been focused
on identifying efficient sources and optimal dietary levels. In shrimp, dietary protein is initially
used to replenish tissue proteins lost during normal metabolism. If there is excess, it is next used
to develop new tissue for growth and reproduction. Fishmeal, as well as other marine animal

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meals such as krill, shrimp, squid, and scallop waste are often included in aquatic diets as they
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
are considered an excellent source of high-quality proteins, highly unsaturated fatty acids,
minerals, and attractants. An another novel approach to replace fish meal is the supplementation
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
of earth worm meal as it contains crude protein and crude lipid around 52% and 18%
respectively. Because earthworm meal contains both required and non-essential amino acids, it
Articlewhen
actually improved the nutritional and health condition of cultured animals ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
added to their
meals.
Earthworm
Earthworms are renowned for being "farmers friends" since they are essential in the
process of turning organic waste and litter wastes into organic manure, which is the best kind of
natural fertilizer for the soil because it adds nutrients. In the same way the earthworms can
become best friend for “fish farmers” too if they are properly utilized. They serve as a good feed
for the ornamental fish industry, acting as a best nutritional food for the brood stocks. They are
also very easy to be produced with small capital rather than taking risks to collect some other
worms as feed for the fishes. Eisenia fetida is one of the several earthworm species that can
replace fish meal since it thrives in tropical climates. Normal reproduction for these species
occurs in the temperature range of 20 to 29°C. This epigeics earthworm lives on soil surface and
mainly feeds on plant litter and other organic debris. Consequently, these earthworms are the
most suitable for converting the organic wastes into useful organic manures. This species are rich
in amino acids and fatty acids such as omega 3. Some of the difficulties of the aquaculture are
the unavailability, the poor nutritive quality and the expensive cost of fish meal. Yet, because of
its nutritional quality and palatability properties, this feed stuff is still the main dietary protein
source.

Eisenia fetida

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Earthworm Meal and Its Importance

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
By employing earthworms as a feed element in supplement diets, farmers in rural regions
may be able to participate in semi-intensive aquaculture through the integration of earthworm
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
production (vermin culture) into small-scale farms in developing nations. Under laboratory
conditions and without access to natural food resources, partial replacement of fish meal protein
Article
by earthworm protein in full feeds for common carp (Cyprinus carpio), RohuID: AG-VO2-I08-07
(Labeo rohita) and
tetra had a positive effect on growth performance while total replacements in feeds resulted in
growth rates similar to those of fish on test diets that contained fish meal. However, in pond
conditions, where fish also have access to naturally occurring food sources that are known to be
of high nutritional value and contain high levels of protein and essential amino acids, it is
unknown if completely replacing fishmeal with earthworm meal generated on the farm would be
advantageous for growth. As an additional farming activity in integrated farming systems,
earthworm production methods (vermin culture) are being introduced into rural areas of
developing countries. Vermiculture accelerates nutrient cycling within the farms and generates
additional financial benefit due to utilization of underutilized wastes and by products of low
quality by producing a high qualitative feed resources for fish.

Earthworm Meal
Earthworm, a non-conventional protein source with 520-530 g protein kg-1 on dry matter basis
was used in three forms viz.
1) Whole earthworm
2) Earthworm custard

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3) Pelleted earthworm
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
As a result, three trial diets can be made at first, using earthworms in the three ways that
are detailed below:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Whole earthworm diet
The whole earthworm (after 48h of fasting) were boiled with a pinch of common salt in
Article
water thoroughly washed with a clean and chopped into pieces (0.5mm size) ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
using a sharp knife
and stored in a refrigerator at 4ºc until use.
Earthworm custard
The earthworms were first boiled for 45 minutes in water with a pinch of common salt,
followed by a thorough washing in clean water, and then ground using a household mixer grinder
(Philips India Limited, Mumbai) to make earthworm custard. The required quantities of skimmed
milk powder and hen’s egg (yolk + albumin) were added to the ground earthworm and mixed
thoroughly. A desired quantity of water was heated in a 1-L beaker to 80°C by using an electric
heater and the required amount of gelatin was dissolved in to it with slow stirring. Once the
gelatin had completely dissolved, it was mixed into the feed mixture. Then, using a kitchen
mixer grinder, the mineral and vitamin combination was added, and the entire feed mix was
thoroughly blended. After adding the necessary amount of lukewarm water to the feed mix and
thoroughly blending it, a dough of feed mix was created. The dough was placed into an
aluminum container and cooked with steam for 20 minutes using a home pressure cooker to
produce a custard made of insects. After being allowed to cool to ambient temperature, the
earthworm custard was refrigerated at 4°C until it was needed. The earthworm custard was
collected and chopped into tiny (0.5 mm) pieces for the earthworms' daily feeding.
Pelleted earthworm
The earthworms were first cooked in water for 45 minutes while adding a pinch of
common salt. They were then properly cleaned in clear water using the previously mentioned
method in order to prepare the pelleted food. The earthworm meal was then made after it was
oven-dried for 24 hours and ground into a powder using a household grinder. The required
quantities of dried earthworm meal, fish meal, groundnut oil cake, prawn meal, mineral and
vitamin mix and vegetable oil were mixed thoroughly using a kitchen mixer. Using an electric
heater, the desired amount of water was heated to 80°C in a 1-liter beaker, and the necessary
amount of gelatin was dissolved into it while stirring slowly. The gelatin was added to the feed

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mix when it had fully dissolved. The feed mix was combined with the necessary amount of warm
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
water, well mixed, and formed into a dough. To create feed pellets with a diameter of 2 mm, the
dough was run through a hand pelletizer. The pellets were dried at 60°C and stored in a
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
refrigerator at 4°C until use.
Conclusion
Article
The present studies indicate that the earthworm species had almostID:similar
AG-VO2-I08-07
nutrional
values to that of the fish meal, and thus it would be a potential source of animal protein in
supplementing fish meal. Naturally, the organically produced fish will have a high demand
among all section of consumers. There are several ways for the marketing of organically
produced food as it claims a high demand among the people. The farmers are to be given
awareness about the importance of earthworm meal as a supplement of the fish meal to augment
their production at the low cost. In an implication, year round production of this earthworm
species through standard mass culture system, and its radical use could play a pivotal role in the
sustainable fisheries and aquaculture production.
References
Deborah, P.T., Divya, V.V., Ulaganathan, P., Balamurugan, V. and Umamaheswari, S. (2011).
Replacing fish meal with earthworm and mushroom meals in practical diets of Labeo
rohita and Hemigrammus caudovittatus fingerlings. Indian Journal of Animal Research,
45: 115-119.
Fahrur, M., Asaad, A. I. J., & Fahmi, M. R. (2021, October). The utilization of black soldier fly
larvae meal as a substitution of fish meal in diet for white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei,
grow-out. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 860, No. 1, p.
012023). IOP Publishing.
FAO (2010) “Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome”, FAO Technical
Guidelines For Responsible Fisheries, Vol. 5, Suppl., 4, pp. 1020- 5292.
Hardy RW, Tacon GJ. Fish meal: historical uses, production trends and future outlook for
supplies. R.R. Stickney and J.P. Mac Vey editors. Responsible Marine Aquaculture, CABI
Publishing, New York, USA. 2002, 311-325.
Sogbesan, A.O., Ugwumba, A.A.A. and Madu, C.T. (2007). Productivity potentials and
nutritional values of semiarid zone earthworm (Hyperiodriluseuryaulos; Clausen, 1967)

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

cultured in organic wastes as fish meal supplement. Pakistan Journal of Biological

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Sciences, 10: 2992-2997.
Tuan, N.N. (2010). Development of supplemental diets for carp in Vietnamese upland ponds
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
based on locally available resources (PhD thesis). PhD in Agriculture Sciences, Stuttgart,
University of Hohenheim.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

WATER POLLUTION WITH REFERENCE TO AQUATIC

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
FAUNA
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-30
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Panchakarala Sedyaaw 1*, Sanket Sunil Kawade 1 and Prashant Telvekar2

1
Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (MH)-415712, India
2
Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur (MH)-440001, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Freshwater is a crucial natural resource that use for a variety of daily activities, including
drinking and numerous developmental goals. The natural environment becomes unstable when
pollution levels rise, causing harm to the ecosystem's living beings and physical processes. Toxic
substances released into the aquatic ecosystem from polluted water bodies include insecticides,
pesticides, heavy metals, mill waste, and crude oil. Water is an all-purpose ion solvent that is
essential for cellular signalling, enzyme activation and the mineralization of organic molecules.
Acute and chronic impacts of water pollution include suppression of the immune system, slowed
metabolism, damage to the fish species gills, and epithelial layer. Fin rot, tail rot, gill illness,
damage to hepatic tissues, and ulceration are a few of the ailments brought on by the pollution.
This article tries to review the multiple effects of the water pollution has on the environment and
the health of different fish species.
Keywords: water pollution, environmental impacts, immune suppression, gill damage, fish
diseases
Introduction
The most valuable resource on planet is water. One oxygen atom, two hydrogen atoms, and
two shared electrons make up the molecule of water. Being a polar V-shaped molecule, it was
positively charged near the hydrogen atoms and negatively charged near the oxygen atom. Earth
is made up of two thirds water and one third lands. The earth contains both fresh and salt water.

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Only 2.7% of the water on earth is fresh, with salinity making up roughly 97.3%. Rivers,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
streams, ponds, and lakes all contain fresh water. Water is a vital natural resource utilised for
drinking and other developmental functions. It also plays a significant part in the recycling of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
nutrients. Typically, aquatic systems are used to remove and reuse sewage and hazardous waste,
as well as to drain off any overflow into the ocean. Significantly less of their assimilative volume
Article ID:
results from the overuse of water resources for various developmental AG-VO2-I08-07
activities, such as
agriculture, construction, industrial processes, and thermal power plants to meet the needs of the
large population, as a result of the rise in pollution levels. Fish perish as a result of pesticide
pollution in the water from fields adjacent to agriculture. Pesticides that are released into the
environment endanger aquatic life.
Sources of Water Pollution
Pure water does not occur in nature. It contains-natural and manmade impurities. Natural
impurities are not essentially dangerous, but human activities are serious cause of water
pollution. Water pollution reduces the ability of the body of water to provide the eco-system
services. Water pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment.
Mainly two main sources of water pollution are-
1. Point sources - It includes factories, waste water treatment facilities, septic systems and other
sources that are discharging pollutants into water sources.
2. Non-point sources - Non-point sources are more difficult to identify because they cannot be
traced back to a particular location. It includes run off sediment, fertilizer, chemical and animal
wastes from farms, fields, construction sites and mines.
Types of water pollution
a.Marine Pollution
Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects result from the entry into the ocean of
chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive
organisms. For instance, fertilizers used by farmers in the field are gradually washed into
surrounding surface waters or groundwater by rain, which contaminates the water body. Many
particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to
become anoxic. Pesticides readily enter marine food webs after being introduced to the marine
ecology. These pesticides can cause mutations and diseases once they enter food webs, which
can be hazardous to humans and the entire food chain.

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b.Groundwater Pollution
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Complex interactions exist between surface water and groundwater. Because of this,
groundwater pollution, which is also known as groundwater contamination, is more difficult to
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
categorise than surface water pollution. Groundwater aquifers are by their very nature prone to
contamination from sources that might not directly impact surface water bodies. In some
Article
circumstances, the distinction between point and non-point sources may ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
not matter. The analysis
of groundwater contamination may concentrate on the geology, hydrology, hydrogeology, and
hydrology of the location as well as the nature of the contaminants.
c.Surface Water Pollution
Our oceans, lakes, rivers, and all the other blue areas on the world map are made up of
surface water, which makes up about 70% of the earth. More over 60% of the water distributed
to American houses is surface water from freshwater sources, meaning sources other than the
ocean. But a sizable portion of that water is in danger. Although these nutrients are necessary for
plants and animals to develop, farm waste and fertiliser runoff have turned them into a
significant contaminant. Toxins are also contributed by the discharge of municipal and industrial
garbage.
d.River Water Pollution
Most of the Indian rivers and their tributaries viz., Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna,
Sone, Cauvery Damodar and Brahmaputra are reported to be grossly polluted due to discharge of
untreated sewage disposal and industrial effluents directly into the rivers (Agrawal et al., 2010).
Identically Yamuna is another major river, has also been threatened with pollution in Delhi and
Ghaziabad area. Approximately 515,000 kilolitres of sewage waste water is re-ported to be
discharged in the river Yamuna daily. In addition, there are about 1,500 medium and small
Indus- trial units which also contribute huge amounts of untreated or partially treated effluent to
the river Yamuna every day. According to a report, over 32 thousand dead bodies were cremated
at the major burning Ghats per year in Varanasi alone in the year 1984.
Impact of pollutants on the aquatic fauna
1.Impact on Marine mammals
Marine animals include bottlenose dolphins, fins, humpback whales, sperm whales,
rights, sei whales, manatees, cetaceans, seals, sea otters, and pinnipeds. Because they rely on
their outer coats for buoyancy and warmth, furred mammals are negatively impacted by the

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direct contact of oil with them. As a result, "Oil flattens and adheres to the outer layer, causing
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
these animals to drown and suffocate frequently.
2.Biological effects on fish
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Pollutants might effect a given population without being lethal to adult organisms in many
ways.
a. Migration Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Mechanism used for orientation and navigation by migrating organisms is not well
known, but in some cases chemo-toxicants clearly plays an important role. Sub-lethal
concentration of pollutants may interfere with the normal migration pattern of organisms
thereby change the composition of population or species diversity. Pollution has kept salmon,
trout, and many other anadromous fish out of their native streams, but it's unclear if this is
because a chemical cue has been obscured or because the fish don't like the general chemical
environment of pollution. On the other hand, heavy siltation and flow of heated coolant water
may block migratory channels and long distance migratory fishes during some phases of
their life history may be adversely affected by highly localized pollution of river .
b. Incidence of diseases
A long-term exposure of sub lethal concentration of pollutants may make an
organism more susceptible to a disease. It is possible that some organic pollutants will
provide an environment suitable for the development of disease producing bacteria and
viruses. In such case, even though the pollutant is not directly toxic to the adult organism, it
could still have a profound effect on the population of the species over a longer period.
c. Behaviour
Much of the day-to-day behaviour of a species may also be mediated by means of
chemo-toxic responses. The finding and capture of food and the search for a mate during
the breeding season are included in this category of activity, and again any pollutant
interfering with the chemo-receptors of the organism would interfere with the behavioural
patterns essential to a survival of the population.
d. Physiological Processes
Pollutant may interfere with various physiological processes without necessarily
causing death, which may interfere in the survival of a species. DDT depresses
photosynthesis in planktonic algae, but only at concentrations greater than its solubility in

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water. Respiration might also be adversely affected, as could various other enzymatic
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
processes. The toxic substances and suspended sediments when injure the mucous membrane
of the gills effects the respiration. Heavy metals particularly mercury inhibit the activities
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
of digestive enzymes but it has most damaging effect on the nervous system.
e. Life cycle:
Article
The larval forms of many species are much was sensitive ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
to pollution than the
adults. In many aquatic species millions of eggs are produced and fertilized but only two of
the larval produced need to grow to maturity and breed in order to maintain the standing stock
of the species. For these species, the pre-adult mortalities rate is enormous even under the
best of natural conditions. An additional stress on the developing organisms might cause
failure of enough individual to survive and maintain the population of the species.
Interrupting any stage of the life cycle can be as disastrous for the population as death of the
adults from acute toxicity of the environment.
Ex: Silt sedimentation, eutrophication and increased pollution level had affected fish
stock in many Indian rivers by spectacular mass mortalities.
3.Effects of pollution on eggs, spawn, fry on breeding grounds and feeding grounds
Effects on fish eggs; spawn and fry
Fish eggs are much more resistant than the adult fish. Toxicity thresholds for lead,
zinc and nickel is about 20, 40 and 2000 ppm respectively, values are higher than those
found for adult animal. Eggs would develop normally between pH 4 to 5 on the acid side and 8
to 9 on the alkaline side. In water more acid than pH 4.0, the eggs displayed exosmosis and
collapsed. Water more alkaline than pH 9.0 there was endosmosis, the eggs swelled and yolk
became white. The critical oxygen tensions are about 40 mm Hg for newly fertilized eggs
and rises, as the embryo develops, to about 100 mg Hg (about 60% saturation) at the time of
hatching.
4.Survival of larval fish fry and fingerlings
(a) Food acquisition:
Larval fish is able to feed only on the tiniest of zooplankton and phytoplankton,
thus early growth and survival of fish depends upon the densities of small cladocerans and
rotifers and phytoplankton. Aquatic pollution is toxic to this plankton and poses threat to
survival of fish fry.

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(b) Predation
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Survival of larval fish is probably influenced more by predation than by feeding. These
very small fish are vulnerable to virtually every other predator. Not only visual feeding fish
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
but also other predators such as predaceous copepods may have considerable influence on
larval fish densities. Protective cover, such as aquatic macrophytes must be especially critical in
minimizing fish predation on small fish. Reducing or loweringArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
the water level (due to
siltation) below the vegetative zone would seem to be especially disastrous to larval fish.
Structural complexity, especially aquatic vegetation, while providing refuge for larval and
fingerlings fish, may reduce the ability of piscivorous fish to feed on small fish. Fry and
fingerlings are more susceptible to pollution than adult fish. Resistance to pollution: Egg>
Adult>Larvae.
5.Respiratory Changes
Amongst other alterations dichlorvos induces respiratory distress and calmness and
spontaneous air gulping at different rates in Clarias gariepinus fingerlings and juveniles at (250,
275, 300 and 325μg/L) and (400, 450, 500 and 600μg/L) respectively.Oreochromis niloticus was
shown to exhibit dose-dependent tail fin beats, with beats/m decreasing with increasing toxicant
concentration, while Ctenopharyngodon idella exposed to lethal (13.1mg/L) and sub-lethal
(1.31mg/L) concentrations of nuvan showed a decrease in oxygen consumption in a 24h static
bioassay.
6.Reproductive Changes
In a 4-week chronic exposure test, the fish Pimephales promelas (a fathead minnow) was
exposed to various concentrations of fluoxetine (from 100ng/L to 100g/L), and these exposures
significantly altered mating behaviour (primarily the ability to escape from predators in both
male and female as well as defending and nest building in males). In Danio rerio larvae and
embryos exposed to various doses of DDVP for 96 hours, developmental problems such as
delayed hatching, no blood flow, vertebral malfunctions, and cardiac edoema. After subjecting the
fathead minnow fish Pimephales promelas to clofibric acid, alterations in the sperm motility and
variations in plasma testosterone concentration were observed. After exposure to sublethal levels
of nuvan, histopathological alterations in the liver of Channa punctatus were recorded.
7.Mortality
Although the deadly effects of aquatic pollution on biota are widely known, a famous

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

example that illustrates the potential severity of such effects is the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
which released approximately 11 million gallons of crude oil into the ocean on March 24, 1989.
It was impossible to quantify the damage done to the planktonic, benthic, and other fishing
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
populations. According to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council's report (EVOSTC
2006:6), only 8 out of the 22 species had fully recovered as of 2006. Similar to this, Pounds et
Article
al. (2008) observed that exposure to ibuprofen from sewage treatment ID:influent
plant AG-VO2-I08-07
at LC50
resulted in mortality after 96 hours in the fish O. latipes.
Water Pollution—Related Legislation
The first significant law regarding the protection of environmental resources appeared in
the 1970’s with the setting up of a National Committee on Environmental Planning and
Coordination, and the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Since then, three main
texts have been passed at the central level that is relevant to water pollution: the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Cess Act, 1977 and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986). The Water Act 1974 established
the Pollution Control Boards at the central and state level. The Water Cess Act 1977 provided
the Pollution Control Boards with a funding tool, enabling them to charge the water user with a
cess designed as a financial support for the board’s activities. The Environment Protection Act
1986 is an umbrella legislation providing a single focus in the country for the protection of
environment and seeks to plug the loopholes of earlier legislation relating to environment. The
law prohibits the pollution of water bodies and requires any potentially polluting activity to get
the consent of the local SPCB before being started (Agrawal et al., 2010).
1. The water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974
2. The water (prevention and control of pollution) Rules, 1975
3. The water (prevention and control of pollution Cess) Act, 1978
4. The Environment (protection) Act, 1986.
Conclusion
Diverse pollutants and toxins infiltrate the aquatic ecosystem, impacting the water quality
and causing disruptions to aquatic creatures' life cycles. Some contaminants have a strong
tendency to harm aquatic animals in ways that are both morphological and metabolic. However,
there is insufficient proof that water contaminants and impurities are actually to blame for the
spread of disease in aquatic creatures. Therefore, it is crucial to develop some strategies using

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

molecular biology methods that will modernise affordable toxicological bids and do not require
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
aquatic animals to detect ecological stressors. It is crucial to prove that all pollutants have
significant fatal and sub-lethal impacts on aquatic organisms. More research is needed to
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
determine the concentration level and exposure time of all pollutants.

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

FONIO MILLET- AN UNDERUTILIZED

OCCUPATIONAL RARE
HEALTH HAZARDS OF MILLET
WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-31

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Lakshmipriya, S., 2*V. Krishnan, 1K. Preetha, 1FS. Aparna, 1J. Arathi, 1Praveen, R., and
2M. Tamilzharasi
1
PG Scholar & 2Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal 609603, U. T. of Puducherry
*Corresponding author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Fonio millet (also called Acha / Findi / Iburura / Hungry millet / Hungry rice/ Crab
grass millet), botanically called Digitaria spp with 2n= 28,34, 36 & 54, belonging to family
Poaceae, subfamily Panicoideae is the one of the oldest cereal crops domesticated by farmers in
West Africa. Its cultivation seems to have started about 7000 years ago. It is one of the world’s
fastest maturing cereals. It is staple food in some parts of Africa, like in regions of Mali, Burkina
Faso, Guinea and Nigeria. It is also known as “Grain of life” to eliminate hunger. It is tiniest
grain in the millet family, The fonio genome shows a systemic relationship with the genome of
foxtail millet. It is often considered to be one of the nine millet species. Unlike other cereals,
there has not been a big expansion of crop acreage, as fonio has been considered a secondary
crop in most countries where it is grown.
Origin and Wild Relatives
Origin: West Africa
Species Wild relatives Authors Characteristics
D. exilis D. longiflora* Stapf (1915) Annual and aggressive weed,
widely distributed in the tropics,
well found in West Africa.
D. barbinodis Henrard (1950) Annual, tropical Africa; present in

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fonio fields in Nigeria, Togo.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
D. fuscescens Henrard (1950) Same section but rather closed to
D. longiflora.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
D. iburua D. ternata* Stapf (1915) Annual and aggressive weed, hot
regions of Africa and Asia.
D. barbinodis Porteres (1956) Annual andArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
aggressive weed, hot
regions of Africa and Asia.
D. tricostulata Henrad (1950) Botanically closed, but different
geographical areas (North Kenya,
South Africa).
D. atrofusca Haq & Ogbe Botanically closed but
(1995) geographically more remote from
the areas of diversity of the crops.
*
Most probable progenitors
Cultivated Species
1. Digitaria exilis (White fonio) – 2n: 36
2. Digitaria iburua (Black fonio) – 2n: 36
3. Digitaria sanguinalis (Euro- pean millet or red manna) – 2n: 28, 34, 36 & 54
4. Digitaria cruciata (Raishan) – 2n: 38 (grown in India)
Fonio seeds germinate one week after planting. Fonio can be grouped into several types of
varieties:
 Very early varieties with a 70–90-day life cycle
 Early varieties with a 90–110-day life cycle
 Intermediary varieties with a 110-130-day life cycle; and
 Late varieties with a lifecycle of more than 130 days.
Botanical Description of Fonio Millet
Habitat: Fonio is tolerant to soil stress and seasonal droughts. It is grown on the plains as well
as in mountains, i.e., under annual rainfalls from 400 to 3000 mm. It is able to grown on poor,
shallow, sandy or rocky soils, where other cereals cannot grow. It thrives in rainy seasons only if
the soil has good drainage. Fonio is also less sensitive to pest damage and less vulnerable to
disease.

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Habit:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Fonio is a small annual herbaceous C4 plant, which produces very small (∼1 mm) grains
that are tightly surrounded by a husk. Plants grow about 40- 50 cm tall.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Roots:
The roots are well developed and attached firmly with soil with many fine roots and
abundant lateral rooting. The particular size of this root system, whichArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
can extend down to more
than one meter depth, helps explain the good behaviour of the plant during periods of drought
and its adaptation to poor soils, which it exploits efficiently.
Stem:
The stubble, cylindrical and hollow, is very fine (less than 1 mm in diameter), and on
maturity the stems lie on the soil. Fonio millet has good tillering (2 to 6 tillers or more for late
varieties)
Leaves:
The leaves are blade like or linear and tapering and can reach up to 15 cm length.
Inflorescence:
The single inflorescence possesses 2-5 racemes with spikelets arranged in pairs or in
threes or fours giving it lacy appearance of 5-12.5 cm length. Flowering starts about 6 to 8 weeks
after emergence.
Spikelets: The plant produces spikelets where the grain is produced on branched spike like
panicles.
Florets: The spikelet contains two bisexual florets with the lower unfertile whilst the upper is
fertile having three stamens with yellowish anthers, two lodicules and a pink or purplish stigma.

a c d

Fig 1. (a) Fonio plant; (b) Raceme portion; (c) Raw fonio grain; (d) Schematic cross section of
fonio caryopsis (Ezekiel et al., 2012)

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 2. Inflorescence off fonio millet and its components. (A) fonio plant in the field; (B)
inflorescence; (C) spikelet; (D) outer glume; (E) lemma; (F) ovary; (G) palea; (H) grain enclosed
in lemma and palea; (I) grain; (J) spikelet cluster; (K) matured spikelet (Abrouk et al, 2020)

Fig 3. Grains of maize, wheat, rice and fonio (from left to right) – grain size comparison (Abrouk
et al, 2020)
Fruit:
The fruit caryopsis is tightly enclosed within two brown husks (lemma and palea). In D.
iburua, the husks are intensively dark brown (black fonio) and in contrast to D. exilis known as
white fonio.
Pollination: Self - pollinated flower (cleistogamous nature).
Harvest and Yield
The grains are ready to harvest between 60 and 120 days after emergence. The plants
are usually harvested with a knife or a sickle, tied into sheaves, dried and stored under cover.

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Some variety of grain matures so quickly – in just six or eight weeks during the rainy season so
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
that they are ready to eat long before other staple grains. It also shatters at maturity and if it is not
harvested in time 10-30% of grains can be lost. The grains are small and the individual grain
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
weight is 0.5-0.6 mg. The grain yield varies from 600-800 kg/ha, but have reached over 1000
kg/ha. However, poor yields can only yield 150-200 kg/ha are obtained with poor weeding.
Post Harvest Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The grains of fonio are difficult to process. Because it is so small, which makes it
difficult to remove from the chaff. Traditionally, fonio sheaves are threshed by beating or
trampling and the grains are dehulled in holes (made in the soil) or in a mortar, a difficult and
time-consuming process. With the traditional husking methods, some sand remains with the
grain which is partially removed by a long process of cleaning in water before cooking.
Processing
To increase the market value of fonio, farmers can process fonio at home by:
Packaging: Package precooked and dried fonio for sale

Paddy fonio Hulled fonio

White fonio

Fig 4. Processing of fonio millet (Zan Ibrahima, 2019)

Hulling/ dehusking:
Remove the outer coating of fonio grains (“raw” or “paddy fonio”) with pestle and mortar.
Whitening: Remove the fonio germ and fruit wall (pericarp) from the grains.
Washing: Wash whitened fonio to remove impurities such as sand.
Pre-cooking: After washing, precook by steaming.
Drying: Dry moist, precooked fonio.

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Carbohydrates 67-91%
Protein 9-12%
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Crude fiber 0.4-11.3%
Ash 1-6%
Vitamins 0.05-3% Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The grain is also rich in phytochemicals including phytic acid, which is believed to
lower cholesterol and phytate which is associated with reduced cancer risk.
USES
 Because of its high methionine content, it is used to feed ruminant livestock like cattle,
sheep, goats and others, which can efficiently digest it.
 The crop can also be grown for hay and used to build houses or walls and can provide
heat for cooking or ash for potash.
 It also plays a critical role for food and nutrition security for several millions of people in
African region, especially due to short time life cycle.
 Besides, its grain is nutritiously valuable due to the presence of two human-vital amino
acids methionine and cysteine, which are absent in other staple food cereals such as
wheat, rice, maize or sorghum.
 Some antithyroid properties have been reported due to high flavonoid content in the
crude fonio grain.
 The grains are poor in gluten and beneficial for people suffering from coeliac disease and
overweight people, pregnant and breast-feeding women, as well as diabetic people.
 The husked grain of white fonio has been shown to contain 8% protein and in black fonio
11.8% protein.
 Fonio also has low sugar content and low glycemic index which ensures less fluctuations
in blood glucose and insulin levels, providing beneficial protection against diabetes.
 It is also rich in iron with 8.5 mg per serving, meeting at least half of the daily
requirement.
 In West Africa, fonio is traditionally cooked as couscous, made into porridge and
included in local beverages.

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 Like other grains, it can be milled into a flour and used in baked goods, such as bread,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
cookies and cakes.
References
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Abrouk, M., Ahmed, H.I., Cubry, P. et al. Fonio millet genome unlocks African orphan crop
diversity for agriculture in a changing climate. Nat Commun 11, 4488 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18329-4 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Adoukonou A. Sagbadja., (2010) Genetic Characterization of Traditional Fonio millets

(Digitaria exilis, D. iburua STAPF) Landraces form West-Africa: Implications for
Conservation and Breeding
David A. Animasaun, Peter A. Adedibu, Gabriel K. Olawepo, Stephen Oyedeji, chapter 8- Fonio
millets: An underutilized crop with potential as a future smart cereal, (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90537-4.00028-4
Ezekiel, C.N., Sulyok, M., Warth, B., Krska, R., 2012. Multi-microbial metabolites in fonio
millet (acha) and sesame seeds in plateau state, Nigeria. Euro. Food Res. Technol., 235(2),
285-293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-012-1755-2
Ibrahim Bio Yerima AR, Achigan Dako EG. A review of the orphan small grain cereals
improvement with a comprehensive plan for genomics assisted breeding of fonio millet in
West Africa. Plant Breed. 2021; 00:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbr.12930
Sharmili, K., Rajesh, P., Nutritious but underutilized Cereal Fonio Millet. Krishisewa (2021).
https://krishisewa.com/crop-varities/1274-nutritious-but-underutilized-cereal-fonio-
millet.html
Zan Ibrahima., Production and postharvest axtivites for fonio. Scripts (2019).
https://scripts.farmradio.fm/radio-script/backgrounder-production-posharvest-activities-
fonio/
Zargaran Khouzani, M.R., 2022. Evaluating the production, processing and storage stages of
fonio, an African grain. Cent. Asian J. Plan Sci. Innov., 2(2), 42-53

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

DRAGON’SOCCUPATIONAL
EYE FRUIT –HEALTH
LONGAN : LITTLE BROTHER
HAZARDS OF WORKERS
OF LITCHI
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-32
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Karishma Sebastian*, Anitrosa Innazent, Milsha George and Amrutha P.

School of Agricultural Sciences,
Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
* *Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Longan (Dimocarpus longan) belongs to Sapindaceae family is a close relative of litchi,
accepted by consumers over the world due to its sweet and juicy sensation in the mouth and
health benefits. This fruit is similar to litchi and is being referred as ‘little brother of litchi’ and
also known as ‘Dragon’s eye’ fruit because it resembles an eyeball when its fruit is shelled.
Longan originated in subtropical China or possibly in area between Myanmar and India (Menzel
et al., 2002). The Sapindaceae family contains more than 1,000 species from 125 genera, mostly
trees and shrubs, but rarely herbs and with wide distribution in the tropics and warm subtropics.

The majority of species are native to Asia although there are a few in South America,
Africa and Australia. Other popular cultivated species from Sapindaceae family with economic

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

importance are litchi (Litchi chinensis), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) and pulasan
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
(Nephelium mutabile). Longan is a medium to large (10 to 20 m tall) evergreen tree with dense
canopy, brittle wood and corky bark which splits and peels. Tree shape mainly depends on the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
cultivar, varying from erect to spreading. The compound leaves are arranged alternately on the
branches. The young flushes are red-brown in colour changing to light green with maturity.
Longan grow and crop satisfactorily in a range of tropical andArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
subtropical countries, but
are exploited commercially only in China, Taiwan and Thailand. The best growth and cropping
of longan are achieved on deep, well drained, fertile soils with a pH of 5.5 to 6.0 and low
salinity. Also it does well in areas with short, cool, frost free winter and long, hot, humid and wet
summer. Temperatures of 14 - 15°C and rainfall of 40 – 50 mm were favourable for flower bud
differentiation. Temperatures of 22 - 24°C were found to be best for flowering. Longans are
sensitive to wind damage. Strong cyclonic winds cause branch splitting, fruit fall and total tree
loss. Persistent cold winds may retard vegetative growth, while hot dry winds cause the flowers
to dry out and fruits to shed prematurely.

Longan can be readily propagated by seed. However, most seedlings do not bear upto 7-8
years and often have biennial bearing, small fruit, poor flesh recovery, poor eating quality and
low market returns. The preferred method of vegetative propagation in longan is air-layering. Air
layers are removed after two to four months, when the roots have turned from white to creamy
brown. Plants should be established in nursery bags or pots under warm humid and partial shade
conditions which become ready for planting after 6 to 12 months. Also inarching, whip and
tougue grafting, forkert budding and cutting are possible.
In Southern China there are over 300 to 400 longan cultivars out of which about 30 to 40
are cultivated commercially. Different genotypes vary with respect to tree size, shape and canopy
density, leaf size, colour and arrangement, bark characteristics, fruit yielding ability, disease and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

wind resistance, fruit size, pulp recovery and eating quality. Fu Yan is the most important
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
cultivar which yields large fruit of 18g with thin skin, small seed and thick crisp pulp. Other
choicest varieties for postharvest processing in Asia- pacific region are Wu Yuan (canning), She
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
pi (largest fruit), Kohala (large fruit, small seed, aromatic flesh), Chuliang (drying purpose),
Shixia (crisp flesh, high TSS), Fuyan (canning), Daw (early-maturing cultivar), Chompoo (pink
Article
colored, sweetish, aromatic), Biew Khiew (thick skinned longer shelf ID: Fengko
life), AG-VO2-I08-07
(yellow
fleshed), and 'Kohala' (high aril recovery).
Longan trees produced from seedlings can grow upto 12-18m which causes great
difficulty in harvesting and tree management. Pruning produced well formed tree crowns,
strengthens fruit bearing branches, ensures annual cropping and limits insect, pests and diseases.
Fruit thinning is also practiced to increase the fruit size as only large fruits (2.5 cm in diameter or
18 g in weight) attract a premium price and to reduce biennial bearing. It is done four to six
weeks after fruit set when they are of pea size.
Longan fruit are non-climacteric, and will not continue to ripen once removed from the
tree. Maturity can be determined by fruit weight, skin colour, flesh sugar concentration, flesh
acid concentration, sugar : acid ratio, flavour and/or days from anthesis. The fruits of longan
resemble with that of litchi in structure, but are smaller, smoother and yellow tan to brown in
colour. Fruits are also milder in flavour and less acidic. People in China and Thailand relish
longan like litchi and therefore, it is more popular in these countries.
Composition of longan fruit
Composition Content (per 100g)
Moisture (%) 72.4
Protein (g) 1.0
Fat (g) 0.5
Carbohydrate (g) 25.2
Fibre (g) 0.4
Ca (mg) 2.0
P (mg) 6.0
Fe (mg) 0.3
Vitamin A (IU) 28.0

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Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.04

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.07
Niacin (mg)
OCCUPATIONAL 0.6 HAZARDS OF WORKERS
HEALTH
Vitamin C (mg) 8.0

Fruits are small (about 1.5 to 3.0 cm in diameter), globose toArticle

roundID: AG-VO2-I08-07
shaped sometimes
with distinctive shoulders. Fruit skin is thin, lethery and changes in colour from green yellow to
yellow brown with advancing maturity. The aril (flesh) constitutes 60 to 70 percent of the total
fruit weight is translucent white to off-white in colour, sometimes with a pinkish tinge and
ranges in texture from juicy to very crisp and flavour from blend to sweet and aromatic. Seeds
are glossy red brown, dark brown to black in colour, small, round to ovoid in shape and easily
separated from the flesh.
Fruits are harvested by removing the whole cluster along with one or two leaves.
Removal of too much leaf and wood with the fruit panicles at the time of harvest will reduce
flowering in the next season. Unlike litchi, longan fruits do not separate from the fruit stalk
easily without the loss of some skin. This could hasten breakdown of the fruit after harvest.
Longan fruits consequently do not look as attractive as litchi in punnets. It has been suggested
than longan fruits should be marketed attached to the fruit stalk in bunches of about 15 to 20
fruits.
Longan fruits deteriorate rapidly once harvested and has a quite short shelf life under
normal ambient conditions due to peel browning and fruit decay. As the colour loss and quality
deterioration seriously reduce its commercial value, these have been considered the main post
harvest problems. Proper storage is very important for this crop to extend shelf life for few days.
Longan is subjected to hydro cooling or forced air cooling which leads to longer storage period
when coupled with low temperature during storage. In general, longan fruit can be stored at 1-
5°C for about 30 days depending on cultivars.
Longans can be eaten fresh, dried or quick frozen. The fruits can be peeled, pitted and
canned. Canned longans are more acceptable than canned litchi. Flavour and sweetness are
normally correlated in longan fruits. The juice of most of the cultivars are sufficiently sweet and
can be processed into various beverages without adding sugar. Fresh or processed fruit can be
used alone or with other fruits in tropical fruit salads. Sweet fruits are best used for drying

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

whereas fruits with lower sugar content are preferred for canning. Dried longan is one of the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
main exportable items of Thailand where it is grown commercially. In India, it is still under
utilized.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Apart from the commercial postharvest use, there are several household uses of this fruit.
An alcohol is made from longan by macerating it and is known as Liqueur (Koslanund et al.,
Article
2008). Also the fruit of Dimocarpus longan was used as a traditional ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Chinese medicine for
different treatments, such as promoting blood metabolism, soothing nerves, and relieving
insomnia (Rangkadilok et al., 2005). The seed of longan is also used as shampoo due to the high
content of saponin which serves as a styptic. The dried leaves and flower of longan contain
quercetin which is anti-cancerous in nature. A decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic and
for the treatment for insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis.
Selection of recommended cultivars and proper postharvest management is a must for
high returns from this crop. Postharvest management of this crop not only enhances its
production and export in the Asia pacific region but it will also ensure good returns to the
growers.
References
Koslanund, R., Karunsatitchai, A., Dejnumbun, W. 2008. Acid dip a new alternative method to
replace SO2 fumigation in longan. Agric. Sci. J. 39: 39- 42.
Menzel, C. M., Watson, B. J. and Simpson, D. R. 2002. Longan. In: Bose, T. K. et al., (ed.),
Fruits: Tropical and subtropical, Noyo Udyog, Kolkatta, 259-292.
Rangkadilok, N., Worasuttayangkurn, L., Bennett, R. N. and Satayavivad, J. 2005. Identification
and quantification of polyphenolic compounds in longan (Euphoria longana Lam.)
fruit. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53(5): 1387-1392.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

JOB’S TEAR OR ADLAY MILLET (COIX LACRYMA-JOBI)-

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
THE RARE MILLET
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-33
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Aparna, FS., 2*V. Krishnan, 1S. Lakshmipriya, 1J. Arathi, 1R. Praveen, 1K. Preetha and
2T. Anandhan
1
PG Scholar &2Faculty,Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and ResearchInstitute,
Karaikal 609603, U. T. of Puducherry.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Job's tears a cultigen of great antiquity is grown in South Asia mainly by the natives of
various ethnic groups of Mongolian origin. a crop closed related to maize (Zea mays L.) and
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), The plant is used as a minor cereal and fodder. The northeastern
region of lndia is a centre of variability for the genus Coix. It is considered that this plant was
introduced here either by the pestoral Aryan invaders, who grew it on the slopes of the
Himalayas or during Mongolian conquests when the crop got distributed from the eastern
Himalayas to lower subtropical terrains. During plant explorations conducted since 1970 in the
northeastern region of India, much variability has been recorded for this crop. The various soft-
shelled races now grown in this tract by the tribes are the result of conscious folk domestication
and must have been selected for easy hulling and good kernel type.
Food diversity can be divided into two types: simple food diversity and complex food
diversity. Simple food diversity is the consumption of carbohydrates not only from one source,
while complex food diversity is when food comes not only from carbohydrate sources but also
based on protein, fat, or fiber sources. Many countries has the potential plant to develop healthy
food sources that can be used as an option for diversification; one of the potential cereal crops
that can be created is job’s tears or adlay millet. Job tears have nutrients equivalent to rice and
contain essential amino acids and vitamin E, which are beneficial as antioxidants and increase

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the body's immunity.Job's tears are divided into two types, consisting of the cultivated type (var.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Ma Yuen) and the wild type. Var. Ma Yuen has a thinner epicarp and is easier to break,
therefore making it easier to process as a food source. This type also has a slight variation,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
including rice job's tears and waxy job's tears.Meanwhile, wild species (var. Stenocardia, var.
Moniliform, etc.) are frequently considered weeds because they are straightforward to grow
wildly. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

This type has an epicarp that is very hard, like a stone, difficult to break,but it can still be
consumed.Grouping the morphological characterization of job tears found in 11 provinces in
China, by their seed color (six accessions were grouped in brown-seeded job’s tears, and five
accessions were grouped in whitish-yellow seeded job's tears); based on the hardness of the seed
(two accessions of tough seeds, four accessions with medium seed hardness, and five accessions
with low seed hardness); based on kernel color (four accessions with a brownish-red kernel and
six yellow accessions); based on seed size (two large-sized accessions, six medium-sized
accessions, and three small-sized accessions) showed that they were greatly influenced by
genetic and environmental factors(Figure 1).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:

Fig 1. Coix lacryma-jobi

Common Name: Job’s tear ,Adlay millet
Scientific Name: Coix lacryma-jobi
Family:Poaceae
Chromosome Number:2n = 10,20 & 30
Origin: Tropical/subtropical regions of Asia and Africa.
Producing countries -India, Burma,China and Malaysia

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Distribution:Meghalaya,Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh (Figure 2).

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 2. 1. Meghalaya, 2. Mizoram, 3. Manipur,4. Nagaland & 5. Arunachal Pradesh

Etymology:
The genus "Coix" is the Latin version of a Greek name for the Egyptian palm Hyphaene
thebaica. The species epithet "lacryma-jobi" means Job's tears which is a common name of this
plant. The reference is to the teardrop shape of the dried fruits. Job was a man in the Bible who
lived a righteous life, but suffered much hardship.
Habitat:
Occurs in swamps, forest edges, lowlands, ditches and on stream banks. It is typically
found in hot climates with moist soil.
Habit:
Perennial grass in tropical & sub-tropical regions.
Leaves:
Leaves are linear or lanceolate with an entire leaf margin and a pointed apex (1.5 - 4 cm
wide, 20 - 50 cm long). This species is a monocotyledon, so it lacks petioles, but has leaf sheaths
and parallel venation.
Stem: The stem is round and herbaceous.
Floral biology:
Monoecious; the hollow, bead-like structure is known as an involucre. It houses 3
femaleflowers : one fertile flower and two sterile flowers. The fertile female flower produces 2
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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

purple, feathery stigmas that emerge out of the hole at the apex. The male inflorescence occurs
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
on a thin stalk that also emerges from the hole at the apex of the involucre. The male
inflorescence resembles a head of wheat. It has green, herbaceous bracts that partially cover the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
male flowers(Figure 3).

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 3.Floral biology

Inflorescence type:Raceme
Fruit type:Grain
Cultivation: This species grows best in warm, tropical climates. Plant it in soil with good
drainage. Involucres containing grain should be planted at a depth of 2.5 cm with 60 cm of
spacing on all sides between plants. Immature plants should be well-watered. Fertilize by
regularly adding manure to the soil. As the grain sets, reduce watering to maximize yield.
Soil Type: Waterlogged Soils, Fertile Loamy Soils
Maximum height:0.9m to 1.8m
Mode of nutrition:Autotrophic
Economic part:Seed
Species: Coix included five species of C. aquatica, C. chinensis, C. lacryma-jobi, C. puellarum
(Balansa), and C. stenocarpa.
The following are some morphologically distinct forms of recognisable taxonomic identity:
1. Cultivated types: Fruit-case soft, usually thin-shelled, breakable, coarse, not shining, bold,
occasionally exceeding 2 cm in diameter.
In var. mayuen, Plants tall, annual, all soft- shelled types with above charactristics, fruit case of
variable shape--pear-shaped to spheroidal.

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2. Wild types:Fruit-case strong, hard and stony, unbreakable by hand, polished/ shining,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
usually 1 cm or less in diameter, perennial forms.
In var. stenocarpa,Plants akin to cultivated forms, but with coarser leaves, fruit as above, hard
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
and stony, elongate-cylindrical.
In var. monilifer, A variation of stenocarpa with more variable fruits; roundish types broader
than long prevail. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The characters common to all forms are: "female spikelets completely enclosed in a
metamorphosed leaf-sheath which takes the form of a bead-like structure varying from ovoid to
spheroid and exhibiting various colours."

Variability of grain types in Coix lacryma-jobi A representative soft-shelled form (var.

in cultivated and wild forms mayuen) with striped shell

A representative soft-shelled form (var. The de-hulled kernel

mayuen) with non-striped shell

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 4.Adlay (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) of Southeast Asia. (A) Seedling, (B) inflorescence, (C)
immature shelled seeds, (D) ripe hulled seeds, (E) threshed hulled seeds, (F) threshed seeds,
(G) field, (H) adlay seed flour, (I) coix seed oil.
Nutritional values:
 PROTEIN CONTENT:
Seed kernels: 20% protein
Wild-type coix seed:31.72% protein
Coix shell:2.17-2.80% protein
 Tocopherols in coix seed oil:0.64-1.57 mg/g,
 Phosphorus(seed kernels):1.93mg/g
 Zinc (seed kernels):0.15mg/g
 Copper (root):0.01mg/g
 Iron (root):1.46mg/g
 Chromium (root) :0.04 mg/g
 Potassium(leaf):4.18mg/g
 Calcium(leaf):15.65mg/g
 Sodium(leaf):1.90mg/g
 Magnesium (leaf):5.85 mg/g

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

USES:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 The sun-dried grains are stored in gunny bags and used in various ways by the tribes for
food and fodder.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Coix has been more familiar for its colourful, glossy, shining beads used for making
pendants, necklaces, etc. The local tribes, particularly women, also adorn themselves
Article
with these white/grey /black shining beads--collected locally from theID: AG-VO2-I08-07
wild forms.
 The soft-shelled types are becoming popular now, also as a poultry feed.
 Another very popular use of Job's-tears by the tribes is the brewing of beer from the
pounded grain.
HEALTH BENEFITS:
 It has anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, hypoglycemic, and
immune-regulatory functions.
 Coix seeds are most frequently used to treat diseases of the gastro-intestinal tract such as
dysentery, persistent diarrhea of children, appendicitis and enteritis.
 Different pulmonary conditions such as bronchitis, pulmonary abscess, pleurisy,
pneumonia, lung cancer and hydrothorax have been claimed to be cured by coix seeds
consumption.
 Coix roots are used for treatment of ascariasis.
 Seeds and roots of coix have been used in the diuretic in nature so used in treatment of
genito-urinary diseases.
 Anti-cancer activity. Anti-diabetic and anti-obesity activity.
 Treat ailments of the lungs, large intestines, spleen and stomach
 Promotes arveer flow of urine and also helps in treating swelling due to water
 Relieves arthritis and rheumatism
 Relieve swelling and inflammation caused by mastitis and beipfal in encouraging
lactation in women
 Effective in treating infection beneath the nails
 Reduces sparnis, control blood sugar levels and serve as a mild, natural sedative
 Treat menstrual problems.
 Heln in prevent osteoporosis
 Treat problem areas on the skin such as redness and demisies

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Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
A range of phytoconstituents, such as polysaccharides, proteins, oils, phytosterols,
phenols, flavonoids,lignans, lactum, policosanols, and vitamins, are found in different parts of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
coix such as whole seeds, hulls,bran, endosperm and testa. These phytoconstituents have been
shown to have strong therapeutic functions in various in vitro and in vivo models. Many different
Article ID:should
health benefits are recognized from the seeds of coix, but scientific community AG-VO2-I08-07
also study
the benefits of other parts of the coix plant body and other family members of the coix species.
Consumption of whole grain or extracts of coix are potentially beneficial. Large-scale
development and utilization of genetic resources are necessary conditions for developing
nutritional traits and cultivating nutrient rich commercial coix varieties. These needs include: (i)
reliable and high-throughput screening of genetic resources for nutritional traits and biologically
active compounds, (ii) multilocation testing to quantify the genotype and environmental
interactions of nutritionally important traits,and (iii) strengthening the use of unexplored wild
coix seeds for nutritional development.
References
Weng et al.,Adlay, an ancient functional plant with nutritional quality,improves human
health,Frontiers in Nutrition,Front. Nutr. (9):1019375.
Luithui,Y., & Meera,M.S.(2018).Effect of heat processing on the physicochemical properties
of Job’s tears grain.Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-018-0001-4
Ramadhan,N et al., Evaluation of nutrition content of six local job’s tears (Coix lacryma jobi-L.)
accessions in West Sumatera, Indonesia.IOP Publishing; 2nd Agrifood System
International Conference (ASIC-2022).
Devaraj,R. D et al.,Phytochemistry and health promoting effects of Job's tears (Coix lacryma-
jobi) - A critical review Food Bioscience ,(34):2020.
Arora,R.K.(1977).Job's-tears (Coix lacryma-jobi)-a Minor Food and Fodder Crop of
Northeastern India.ECONOMIC BOTANY,(31): 358-366.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BRINJAL PEST AND

OCCUPATIONAL THEIR
HEALTH MANAGEMENT
HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-34

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. Devi, M
Associate Professor, Agrl. Entomology, MIT College of Agriculture and Technology,
Musiri. 621211, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Brinjal is one of the most commonly grown vegetable crop in the country. India produces
about 10.378 MMT of Brinjal from an area of 0.6 Mha with an average productivity of 17.3
mt/ha.There are various insect pests which are causing damage to crop at different stages and
responsible for huge yield losses.
1. Shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes arbonalis; F: Crambidae; O: Lepidoptera
General symptoms of damage are withered terminal shoots, bore holes on shoots plugged
with excreta, shedding of flower buds, drying of leaves due to boring on petioles by larvae.
Larva is pink in colour. Adult is medium sized moth with forewings having black and brown
patches and dots. Hind wings are opalescent with black dots.
Management
Shoot and fruit borer
 Collection and destruction of infested plant parts like shoots, buds and fruits.
 Avoid ratooning to minimize shoot and fruit borer infestation.
 Spray anyone of the following twice at 30 days after planting at fortnightly interval.
 Quinalphos 25 EC 2 ml/lit + NO 2 ml/lit + Teepol 1 ml/lit.
 Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) 5% (50 g/lit).
 Growing resistant varieties like Pusa Purple cluster, Arka Kusmak, Doli 5.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Brinjal Shoot and fruit borer

2. Stem borer, Euzophera perticella; F: Pyralidae; O: Lepidoptera
Stunted growth, withering and wilting of plants. Bore holes on stem and leaf axils are
covered with excreta. Infestation is caused by larva. Larva is yellowish or light brownwith red
head. Moth is greyish brown, forewings with transverse lines and white hind wings.

Brinjal stem borer

3. Spotted beetle (or) Hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata,
H. demurille, H. implicate; F: Coccinellidae; O: Coleoptera
Both grubs and adults feed by scrapping chlorophyll from epidermal layers of leaves which get
skeletonized and gradually dry up. Grub is yellowish in colour and stout with spines all over the
body. Adult is spherical, pale brown and mottled with black spots (6 or 14)on each elytra.
Management: Collect and destroy severely affected leaves along with grubs, pupae and
beetles. Spray fipronil 2 ml/lit.

Spotted beetle

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4. Ash weevils, Myllocerus sp.; F: Curculionidae; O: Coleoptera

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Adults cause notching of leaf margins. Grubs feed on roots resulting in wilting of plants. Grub is
small, apodous and white in colour. Adult: M. subfasciatus: Brown;
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
M. discolor: Brown with white spots; M. viridanus: Small light green weevil.
Management: Apply carbofuran 3G @ 15 kg/ha, 15 days after planting.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Ash weevils
5. Brown leafhopper, Cestius phycitis (Hishimonas phycitis); F: Cicadellidae;
O: Hemiptera
Small light brown leaf hopper. Both nymphs and adults suck plant sap and serve as vector of
little leaf disease.

Brown leafhopper
6. Aphid, Aphis gossypii; F: Aphididae; O: Hemiptera
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap and cause stunted growth, gradual drying resulting in
death of the plants. Development of black sooty mould due to the excretion of honey dew. The
aphids are greenish brown, soft bodied and small insects. The alate as well as apterous
females multiply parthenogenitically and viviparously. A single female may produce 8-22

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nymphs in a day which become adults in about 7-9 days. They are often attended by ants for
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
the sweet honey dew secretion. Winged forms may be seen under crowded conditions.
Management : Release the first instar grubs of Chrysoperla carnea @ 10,000/ha.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Spray methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit when situation warrants.

Integrated pest management Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Main crop
 Bird perches @ 10/ acre should be erected for facilitating field visits of predatory birds
 Delta and yellow sticky traps @ 2-3/ acre should be installed for hoppers, aphids and
white fly etc.
 Give 2 to 3 sprays of 5 % NSKE against sucking pests. Sprays of NSKE also bring down
the borer incidence significantly. Neem oil (2%) application is also helpful in reducing
borer infestation, though marginally. If incidence of leaf hopper and other sucking insect
pests is still above ETL, then apply imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 150 ml/ha.
 Pheromone traps @ 5/ acre should be installed for monitoring and mass trapping of shoot
& fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis. Replace the lures with fresh lures after every 15-20
day interval.
 Release egg parasitoid T. brasiliensis @ 1 – 1.5 lakh/ ha for shoot & fruit borer, 4-5 times
at weekly interval.
 Apply neem cake @ 250 kg/ ha (in two splits) in soil along the plant rows at 25 and 60
DAT for reducing nematodes and borer damage. Don’t apply neem cake when there is
heavy wind velocity or temperature is above 30 0C.
 Clipping of borer damaged shoots and collection & destruction of damaged fruits i.e.
clean cultivation helps in the management of borer and phomosis disease effectively.
 If the borer incidence crosses ETL (5% infestation), apply cypermethrin 25 EC @ 200 g
a.i/ha (0.005%) or carbaryl 50 WP @ 3 g/litre of water or endosulfan 35 EC @ 0.07%.
 Continuous cropping of brinjal leads to more borer and wilt infestation. Therefore, crop
rotation with non- solanaceous crops should be followed.
 Periodically collect and destroy the egg masses, larvae and adults of hadda beetle.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

ROLE OF MOLECULAR TECHNIQUES AND

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
BIOREMIDIATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-35
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

S. Monesh1 and S. Vennila2*

1
PG Scholar, Department Of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty Of Agriculture,
Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Centre of Excellence in Millets, Athiyanthal.
Thiruvannamalai Dt. Tamil Nadu. India.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Environmental biotechnology is expanding rapidly, driven by the needs of society for a
cleaner environment and emerging developments in biotechnology research. There is an
increasing interest in environmental biotechnology owing to a worldwide need to feed the
world’s growing population and to maintain clean soil, air and water (Wackett, 2000).
Industrialization, economic growth, and increased standards of living have exacted a heavy toll
on our environment over the last century. A major problem that as emerged over the last two
decades is the dangerous accumulation of recalcitrant compounds, such as PAH, PCB, TNT,
PCE, TCE etc., in soil, sediment, and surface or ground waters as a result of chemical spills,
industrial activities or careless disposal strategies. Petroleum fuel spills which are a prime
example, have resulted in accumulation of petroleum products at refineries, fuel storage areas,
airports, military bases, fuel distribution lines, and gasoline service stations. This considerable
effort is being spent on developing cheap and feasible strategies for clean-up of contaminated
sites (Jansson et al., 2000) and a prime candidate for many types of cleanup are bioremediation
technologies.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that employs the use of living organisms,
like microbes and bacteria, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants, and toxins from soil,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

water, and other environments (Cory mytchell, 2022). Bioremediation is defined as the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
environmentally friendly process for the removal of harmful pollutants from soil, water and air
using microbes (Alexander and Loehr, 1992).According to EPA(Environmental Protection
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Agency) bioremediation is a treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down
hazardous substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances. Bioremediation is one of the most
economic remedial technique presently available for treating organic Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
fuel based contaminations
(Eg: benzene, naphthalene).
Bioremediation relies on stimulating the growth of certain microbes that utilize
contaminants like oil, solvents, and pesticides for sources of food and energy. These microbes
convert contaminants into small amounts of water, as well as harmless gases like carbon dioxide
(fig. 1).

Fig. 1.schematics of microorganisms requirement (USEPA, 2012)

Bioremediation can either be done "in situ", which is at the site of the contamination
itself, or "ex situ," which is a location away from the site. Ex situ bioremediation may be
necessary if the climate is too cold to sustain microbe activity, or if the soil is too dense for
nutrients to distribute evenly. Ex situ bioremediation may require excavating and cleaning the
soil above ground, which may add significant costs to the process (Cory mytchell, 2022).
Types of Bioremediation
Bioaugmentation
Bioaugmentation is the method of application of autochthonous or allochthonous wild type or
genetically modified microorganisms to polluted hazardous waste sites in order to accelerate the
removal of undesired compounds.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Fig. 2 outlines the process of bioaugmentation. Bioaugmentation is mainly undertaken in oil

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
contaminated environments as an alternate strategy for bioremediation.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 2 - The pictorial diagram of bioaugmentation.(Madhurankhi Goswami and et al.,2018)

Biostimulation
Biostimulation is a remediation technique that is highly efficient, cost effective and eco-
friendly in nature. Biostimulation refers to the addition of rate limiting nutrients like phosphorus,
nitrogen, oxygen, electron donors to severely polluted sites to stimulate the existing bacteria to
degrade the hazardous and toxic contaminants (Tyagi M et al., 2010) . Fig. 3 outlines the process
of biostimulation.

Fig. 3. The pictorial diagram of biostimulation (Madhurankhi Goswami et al.,2018)

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Intrinsic bioremediation
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The conversion of environmental pollutants into harmless compounds by the naturally
occurring microbial population without specific help by human activity. The process of intrinsic
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
bioremediation is most effective in the soil and water because of these two biomes which always
have a high probability of being full of contaminants and toxins (Van Bemmel, 2010).
Selection of appropriate microorganism Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The selection of a suitable strain or a suitable microbial consortium requires the

consideration of few of the features of microorganisms like fast growth, easily culturable, ability
to withstand high concentrations of contaminants and to survive in a wide range of
environmental conditions. There are several approaches that can be considered for selection of a
suitable bacterial strain.
Microorganism used Pollutants degraded
Pseudomonas putida PaW340/pDH5 4 Chlorobenzoic acid
Chlorobenzoates
Cupriavidus necator RW112
Arochlor 1221 and 1232
Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 (ohb) Arochlor 1242
Pseudomonas fluorescens RE 2,4-dinitrotoluene
Pseudomonas fluorescens MP 2,4-dinitrotoluene
Pseudomonas putida KT2442 Napthalene
Biphenyl, polychlorinated
Pseudomonas fuorescens F113rifpcbrmBP1::gfpmut3
biphenyl
Rhodococcus sp. StrainRHA1 4-chlorobenzoate
Eschirichia coli AtzA Atrazine
Pseudomonas sp.Pseudomonasputida B13ST1(pPOB) 3 phenoxybenzoic acid
Pseudomonas fluorescens F113rifPCB Biphenyl, polychlorinated
Pseudomonas fluorescens CS2 Biphenyl Ethylbenzene
Pseudomonas putida BCRc14349 Phenol, trichloroethane
Rhodococcus sp.F92 Various petroleum products
Arthrobacter, Burkholderia, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus etc. Petroleum hydrocarbons
Table 1. Microbes involved in bioremediation of polluted environment (Madhurankhi
Goswami et al.,2018)

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

One of the approaches involves isolation of bacterial strain from a contaminated soil followed by
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
its culturing under laboratory conditions for its pre adaptation and finally augmented back into
the same contaminated soil. This approach is called as re inoculation of soil with indigenous
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
microorganisms. Table 1 shows the success of bioremediation in polluted environments.
Roles of environmental genomics on bioremediation
Article
Environmental functional genomics is crucial for understanding theID: AG-VO2-I08-07
gene arrangement
and metabolic properties of microorganisms in specific environments. It is particularly important
for studying non-cultured, potentially crucial microorganisms that play a pivotal role in
ecological balance (Quaiser A, Ochsenreiter T, Lanz C, et al.,2003). Environmental genomics is
essential for habitats with a wide array of microorganisms involved in the transformation of
organic nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus (Whitman WB, et al. 1999). This study helps reveal
the gene pool of the microbiota associated with the specific habitat (Nesbo CL et al 2001)..
Despite advancements in microbial techniques, there is limited knowledge about the degradation
pathways in bioremediation and biostimulation (Amann, et al, 1995). Environmental genomics
or metagenomics plays a significant role in analyzing existing microbial communities and
helping to search for new catabolic genes for degradation of various xenobiotic and aromatic
compounds. It also enables screening clones capable of expressing desired traits on specific
media (El Fantroussi Set al, 1998).
Molecular techniques in bioremediation
Bioremediation is a strategy that utilizes the pollutant-degrading or transforming
capabilities of microorganisms to optimize conditions for in situ growth and biodegradation.
However, many commercial bioremediation strategies treat microbial communities as black
boxes without analyzing their constituent populations or understanding their functions or
syntrophic relationships. One challenge faced by scientists in bioremediation is identifying and
characterizing microbial communities living at contaminated sites. Traditional microbiological
studies involve isolation, classification, and physiological characterization. Culture-dependent
techniques, such as Biolog-generated community level physiological profiles (CLPP), estimate
the ex situ metabolic potential of members isolated from various environments. However, these
studies fail to reflect the true microbial diversity and activities occurring(Juck et al.,
2000).Microbial consortia involved in environmental biotechnology, such as activated sludge
and soil/sediment consortia, are complex and able to act on various pollutants. In the early 1990s,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

molecular biological techniques were developed to study microbial ecology, leading researchers
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
to analyze microbial populations relevant to pollutant degradation in the environment
(environmentally relevant microorganisms).
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 4 Characterization of microbial biota in environmental samples by using molecular

techniques (modified from Sayler and Layton, 1990; Amann et al., 1995; Cowan et al.,
2000)
This led to studies using molecular techniques, such as direct DNA isolation from
environmental samples and determining the sequences of specific genes(Watanabe and Baler,
2000). Several combinations of molecular techniques are used to analyze microbial communities,
such as denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), PCR, TRFLP, and nucleic acid
hybridization (DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, RNA-RNA)(Hazen and Jimenez, 1988; Harry et al.,
2000). These techniques have advantages over traditional methods that lack the specificity and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

sensitivity required for bioremediation monitoring. Methods based on isolation and identification
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
of the nucleic acids of target organisms overcome these problems and have significant potential
for detecting and monitoring the frequency maintenance and dispersal of natural microorganisms
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
and microorganisms released into the environment.(Holben and Tjedje, 1998; Holben et al.,
1988; Pickup, 1991; Bej et al., 1991; Bej and Mahbubani, 1992; Amann et al., 1995; Onuki et al.,
Articlesamples.
2000). Fig. 4 shows the characterization of microbial biota in environmental ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The goal of environmental scientists may not only be to prevent further contamination
but also to clean up highly polluted areas to avoid migration of contaminants to ground and/or
surface water. Direct soil DNA extraction techniques are now an important part of microbial
ecology investigations, as they are useful for determining the presence of native bacteria, GMOs,
or GEMS genetically modified organisms (Torsvik, 1980; Steffan et al., 1988; Sommerville et
al., 1989; Tsai and Olson, 1991; Saano and Lindstrom, 1995).
Table 2

Two different techniques for isolation of DNA from soil can be carried out:
 The cell extraction method and subsequent lysis, or
 The direct lysis method

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

DNA extraction techniques involve the extraction of microbial cells from soil or directly from
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
soil. The goal is to obtain the highest yield of extracted DNA that is pure enough for molecular
analysis. The quantity of extracted and purified DNA can be assessed on agarose gels and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
compared with DNA markers. The direct lysis technique has the advantage of recovering DNA
from organisms that are strongly sorbed and poorly removed by cell extraction methods.
However, it has the disadvantage of humic and pH interferences from Article
the soil ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
or water being
extracted (Ogram et al., 1987; Atlas, 1992; Saano and Lindstrom, 1995; Zhou et al., 1996). Table
2 shows different method in isolating DNA from environmental samples
All DNA isolation protocols aim to obtain a high yield of DNA that is pure enough for
molecular analysis. However, humic and clay compounds in many soil samples inhibit analysis,
and the presence of colloids renders the extraction of pure DNA problematic. To address this,
anextensive purification step is necessary in DNA isolation protocols. Typically, DNA isolation
involves the lysis of cells, separation of DNA from cell components, purification of DNA extract
from soil particles and components, and precipitation of DNA(Sambrook et al., 1989; Dijkmans
etal.,1993;Volossionketal.,1995).Approximately 300 ng DNA and 100 ng RNA can be extracted
from 10 g soil. Purification procedures can be any combination of CSCI-EtBr ultracentrifugation,
hydroxylapatite or affinity chromatography, phenol/chloroform extractions, ethanol precipitation,
dialysis, or repeated polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP) treatments(Sambrook et al., 1989;
Pickup, 1991). In many cases, standard purification protocols do not work with every
environmental sample, and the required conditions must be adapted to an individual
analysis(Holben et al., 1988; Sayler and Layton, 1990; Pickup, 1991).
PCR, or polymerase chain reaction, is a significant methodological discovery in
molecular biology that has been used in various laboratories for diagnostics and research. Its
high specificity, sensitivity, and reproducible consistency have significantly contributed to the
advancement of knowledge in environmental microbiology and other areas of research. The most
obvious application of PCR is to enhance gene probe detection of specific gene sequences. By
amplification of a target sequence, PCR enhances the detection of rare sequences in complex
mixtures of DNA isolated from environmental samples(Steffan and Atlas, 1991).
In environmental studies, PCR is used for the detection of microorganisms, such as genetically
engineered microorganisms (GMOs), pathogens, and indicator organisms. For example, Steffan
and Atlas (1988) used PCR to amplify specific regions of a 1.0-kilobase (kb) length, which was

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

an integral portion of a larger 1.3-kb repeated sequence present in the genome of the herbicide-
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
degrading bacteria Pseudomonas cepacia AC11000 to increase the sensitivity of dot-blot
detection of the organism. Chaudhry et al., (1989) also used PCR for detecting the genetically
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
engineered microorganism Pennisetumpurpureum.
Historically, genes have been cloned from targeted organisms by generating a gene
library of the genome investigated in phages like 2, M13mp, pUC, orArticle
cosmideID:vectors,
AG-VO2-I08-07
and then
screening the library (usually in host cells – E. coli) for expression of the desired phenotype by
selecting plating(Glick and Pasternak, 1988; Albert et al. 1999). PCR provides a relatively
simple alternative to these procedures, allowing one to specifically amplify the region of DNA to
be sequenced without developing gene libraries or performing extensive screening. This feature
makes PCR particularly attractive for cloning and analyzing mutants of known genes, cloning
genes from different organisms, subcloning genes or regions of genes where the nucleotide
sequence is known, and even for isolating genes directly from natural, environmental samples.
Another important use of PCR techniques is the analysis of ribosomal RNA sequences for
identification and phylogenetic characterization of microorganisms. The wealth of information
presently available concerning highly conserved and variable regions within 5S and 16S rRNAs
allows for relatively simple selection of primer target sites for amplifying desired rRNA gene
sequences. Manz et al. (1994) showed how specific oligonucleotides probes could be applied for
the rapid in situ characterization of microbial communities in activated sludge of two wastewater
treatment plants. Holben et al. (1988) developed the use of sequence-specific DNA probes to
detect specific genes and microorganisms in soil. Both naturally occurring sequences, the rbcL
gene, and sequence engineered into Bradyrhizobium strains, the npt II gene, were used as probes.
The use of molecular techniques in bioremediation processes can be seen in the
classification of the methanotrophic bacterial community present in a trichloroethylene-
contaminated subsurface groundwater site. Contamination of subsurface environments with
chlorinated hydrocarbons, particularly trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE),
poses a significant threat to drinking-water sources. The complete mineralization of TCE to CO₂
is most efficiently carried out by the combined action of methanotrophic and heterotrophic
microbial communities. Metanotrophic bacteria, being relatively ubiquitous in nature, can serve
as an instrument in in situ bioremediation of contaminated sites. DNA extraction and gene probe
analysis were used to determine the distribution and characteristics of the methanotrophic

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

population involved in TCE degradation(Bowman et al. 1993).

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16S rRNA gene sequencing is a method used to identify unknown microbes among
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
known microorganisms, based on their phylogenetic position. This method is most effective
when PCR is used, which replicates the 16S rRNA strand and sequences it. The sequenced 16S
Article ID:
rRNA is then compared to other microorganisms in a database. Woese AG-VO2-I08-07
et al. (1990) have
structured all three classes of organisms into relationships based on differences in their 16S
rRNA strand, which can help measure evolutionary distance between organisms. Table 3 shows
some examples of bacterial DNA probes used for environmental studies.
Table 3. Examples of bacterial DNA probes used for environmental studies (Hazen and
Jimeneze, 1988)

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Bej A.K. and M.M. Mahbubani. 1992. Application of polymerase chain reaction in
environmental microbiology. PCR Methods and Appl. 1: 151-159.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Bowman J.P., L. Jimenez, I. Rosario, T.C. Hazen and G.S. Sayler. 1993. Characterization of the
methanotrophic bacterial community present in a TCE-contaminated subsurface
groundwater site. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 2380-2387. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Cantor C.R.: Biotechnology in the 21s century. 2000. Trends Biotech. 18: 6-7.
Chaudhry G.R., G.A. Toranzos and A.R. Bhatti. 1989. Novel method for monitoring genetically
engineered microorganisms in the environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 1301-
1304.
Cowan D.A. 2000. Microbial genomes - the untapped resource. Trends Biotech. 18: 14-16.
Dijkmans R.A., S. Jagers, J.M. Krreps, M. Collard and M. Mergeay. 1993. Rapid method for
purification of soil DNA for hybridization and PCR analysis. Microb. Rev. 2: 29-34.
Effective and safe composting of chlorophenol-contaminated soil in pilot scale
Glick B.R. and J.J. Pasternak. 1988. Molecular biotechnology. American Society for
Microbiology, 2nd ed., Washington.
Gustafsson K. and J.K. Jansson. 1993. Ecological risk assessment of the deliberate release of
genetically modified microorganisms. AMBIO 22: 236-242.
Harry M., B. Gambier and E. Garnier-Sillam. 2000. Soil conservation for DNA preservation for
bacterial molecular studies. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 36:51-55.
Hazen T.C. 1997. Bioremediation, p. 247-266. In: P. Amy and D. Haldeman (eds), Microbiology
of Terrestrial Subsurface. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Hazen T.C. and L. Jimenez. 1988. Enumeration and identification of bacteria from
environmental samples using nucleic acid probes. Microbiol. Sciences 5: 340-343.
MM Laine, KS Jørgensen - Environmental science & technology, 1997 - ACS Publications.
Nesbo CL, Boucher Y, Doolittle WF. Defining the core of non transferable prokaryotic genes:
the euryarchaeal core. J Mol Evol. 2001;53(4-5):340–350.
Tyagi M, da Fronseca MM, de Carvalho CC. Bioaugmentation and biostimulation strategies to
improve the effectiveness of bioremediation processes. Biodegradation. 2010;22(2):231–
241.

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Van Ras NJP, Winters RO, Lieten SH, Dijkhuis JE, Henssen MJC, van Hattem WA, Lethbridge
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
G (2007) Sustainability of natural attenuation of aromatics (BTEX).
WHAT IS BIOREMEDIATION AND HOW DOES IT WORK( WITH EXAMPLW)- by Cory
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mitchell and et al., 2022.
Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe, WJ. Prokaryotes: the unseen majority. Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA. 1998;95(12):6578–6583. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

NATURAL PLANT-BASED REMEDIES IN FISH HEALTH

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
MANAGEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-36
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Padala Dharmakar*1, A. Chandrasekhar Rao2, Ch. Balakrishna3

and A. Devivaraprasad Reddy4
*1
Scientist, Fisheries Research Station, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries University, Kakinada,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
2
Principal, SMVKR Polytechnic College, Bhavadevarapalli, Andhra Pradesh Fisheries
University, Krishna, Andhra Pradesh, India.
3
Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Amadalavalsa,
Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh.
4
Scientist, Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dr. YSR Horticulture University,
Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Aquaculture, the fastest growing food-producing sector, the highest ever total of
aquaculture production was 126 million tonnes weight (FAO, 2023a). The major farmed species
include carps, shrimps, and salmonids. The Indian aquaculture has demonstrated a six and half
fold growth over the last two decades. Among the three Indian major carps (IMC) rohu (Labeo
rohita), catla (Catla catla) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) rohu is the most important cultivable
species due to the fast-growing nature and taste, contributing as much as 30-40 percent of the
total Indian major carp production.
Enhancement of production and intensification of culture practices are needed for
insuring profitability and sustained supply of fish protein. The intensification of aquaculture
practices with farming priorities has shifted to supplementary feed-based culture. Ultimately, the
feed-based aquaculture has led to more demand and high price of almost all feed ingredients.

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Plant based ingredients are widely available, renewable and many are already being used for
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
aqua feed. The long-term viability of the industry will be determined by its ability to reduce cost
of formulation and ability to adopt with different alternative ingredient having cost effective and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
flexible formulation. Plant sources have been considered as the important alternative ingredients
for formulating fish feeds. Nowadays, most researchers focused on consumption of less
Articlenutrition,
expensive and readily available resources in fish feed, without sacrificing ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
quality of
feed and fights against the disease as an immune booster (El-Sayed 1999).
Health Management
Fish health management in terms of aquaculture describes management practices which
are designed to prevent fish disease. Successful fish health management begins with prevention
of disease rather than treatment. The fish is constantly bathed in potential pathogens, including
bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Suboptimal water quality, poor nutrition, or immune system
suppression generally associated with stressful conditions allow these potential pathogens to
cause disease.
For many years, fish farmers have applied conventional treatments such as anti‐parasitic
and chemical treatments to control fish parasites. Previous studies have revealed an accumulation
of these chemical residues in fish tissues, and a negative environmental impact from farms to
aquatic organisms. As an alternative to conventional methods, many plant‐derived compounds
such as essential oils and plant extracts have been used as an efficient treatment to control
parasites in aquaculture systems.
Methods used for protecting fishes from disease
1. Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy usage has been widely used to prevent and treat disease outbreaks, although
use of chemical drugs has multiple negative impacts on environment and human health e.g.
resistant bacterial strains and residual accumulation in tissue. If any overdose of
chemotherapeutants (formalin) resultants in severe gill damage to fishes (Punitha et al., 2008).
The use of chemotherapy in treating and enhancing the growth of fish has been widely criticized
due to its negative environmental consequence. The abuse of chemotherapeutics in fish farming
has led to development of drug-resistant bacteria and multiple antibiotic-resistant in the
aquaculture industry. This approach has sometimes resulted in the spread of epizootic diseases
and severe economic losses.

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2. Vaccination
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A vaccine is defined as a biologically based preparation that is developed to improve the
immunity towards a specific disease or a group of diseases. Vaccines are considered as
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
biological agents that elicit an immune response to a particular antigen obtained from a disease-
causing infectious pathogen most effective method. Till now, over twenty-six fish vaccines are
Article ID:available
reported to be licensed for use in a wide variety of fishes and are commercially AG-VO2-I08-07
around
the globe. However, they are relatively expensive and pathogen specific.
Use of expensive chemotherapeutants and antibiotics bring:
 Accumulation in the tissue as residues.
 Development of the drug resistance pathogens.
 Immuno-suppression.
 Reduced consumer preference (Anderson, 1992).
Therefore, instead of antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents, increasing attention is being paid
to the use of immunostimulants for disease control measures in aquaculture. So, what is the
alternative method to protects the fishes from pathogen?
3.Medicinal Herbs
Medicinal plants are rich in various secondary metabolites and phytochemical
compounds, such as tannins, alkaloids, and flavonoids, which affect various diseases in fish.
reported that some mode of action of medicinal plants includes stimulation of the cellular and
humoral immune response, monitored through elevation in immune parameters.
Herbal Importance
Many herbs and plants have been used in many cultures around the world for both human
and animals as well as fish. Some of these remedies have anti-viral properties as well as anti-
bacterial and anti-fungal properties. These natural plant products have been reported to have
various properties such as anti-stress, growth promoters, appetizers, tonic and immunostimulants.
Moreover, these substances also possess other valuable properties; they are nontoxic,
biodegradable and biocompatible. Although the properties of herbs and plants are in use in
herbal medicine around the world.
Scope of Natural Remedies
 Many herbs and plants have been used in many cultures around the world for both human
and animals as well as fish.

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 Some of these remedies have anti-viral properties as well as anti-bacterial and anti-fungal
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
properties.
 These naturalOCCUPATIONAL
plant products have HEALTH
been reported to have various
HAZARDS properties such as anti-
OF WORKERS
stress, growth promoters, appetizers, tonic and immunostimulants.
 Moreover, these substances also possess other valuable properties; they are nontoxic,
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
biodegradable and biocompatible.
 Although the properties of herbs and plants are in use in herbal around the World.
Application of some herbal medicinal plant as immunostimulants:
Medicinal Plant Extraction Method Application to Fish
Allium sativum Powder Piaractus mesopotamicu
Cinnamomum cassia Water and methanol extracts Carassius auratus
Lindera aggregata Methanol extract Carassius auratus
Pseudolarix kaempferi Methanol and ethyl acetate Carassius auratus
extracts
Allium sativum Water extract Carassius auratus
Dryopteris crassihizoma Methanolic extract Carassius auratus
Kochia scoparia Methanolic extract Carassius auratus
Polygala tenuifolia Methanolic extract Carassius auratus
Asparagopsis taxiformis Water extract Lates calcarifer
Eupatorium fortunei Chloroform extract Carassius auratus
Artemisia argyi Ethyl acetate extract Carassius auratus
Lysima chiachristinae Ethyl acetate extract Carassius auratus
Allium sativum Aqueous extract Poecilia reticulata
Allium sativum Garlic oil Oreochromis niloticus
Macleaya cordata Dried ethanol extract Ctenopharyngodon idella
Hericium erinaceum Ethanol extract Paralichthys olivaceus
Cynodon datylon Ethanolic extract Catla catla
Tinospora cordifolia Ethanol and petroleum ether Oreochromis
extracts mossambicus
Withania somnifera Powder Labeo rohita

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Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Herbal drugs are currently used in commercial aquaculture as
 Growth-promoting substances
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Antimicrobial agents
 Stress resistance boosters
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Nutrients and other applications
The presence of active principal components in plant based herbal drugs such as alkaloids,
flavonoids, pigments, phenolics, terpenoids, steroids and essential oils were showing potential to
prevent and control fish diseases.
References
Food and Agriculture Origination, 2023a. El Nino: Anticipatory Action and Response Plan,
August–December 2023.
Anderson, D. P. 1992. Immunostimulants, adjuvants, and vaccine carriers in fish: applications to
aquaculture. Annual review of fish diseases, 2, 281-307.
El-Sayed, A. F. M. 1999. Alternative dietary protein sources for farmed tilapia, Oreochromis
spp. Aquaculture, 179 (1-4), 149-168.
Punitha, S. M. J., Babu, M. M., Sivaram, V., Shankar, V. S., Dhas, S. A., Mahesh, T. C., and
Citarasu, T. 2008. Immunostimulating influence of herbal biomedicines on nonspecific
immunity in Grouper Epinephelus tauvina juvenile against Vibrio harveyi
infection. Aquaculture international, 16, 511-523.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE: CONCEPT,

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
PRINCIPLES AND BENEFITS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-37
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

R. Pavithra*
*
Senior Research Fellow, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of
Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-560 065
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Conservation agriculture is an important practice to be taken up as it aims to increase the
agronomic, economic and environmental benefits in the modern era. Agronomic benefits like
increased productivity, improvement in soil quality and efficient utilization of resources can be
achieved. The increased farm income and reduction in cost of cultivation are the major economic
benefits. The environmental benefits involve reduction of green house gases emission in
agriculture and enhancing climate adaptation and resilience. Therefore there is a need to practice
conservation agriculture keeping in view the benefits it provides. The rate of adoption of
conservation agriculture is slow and it is essential to implement it faster after knowing its overall
impact. Conservation agriculture can be effectively adopted after studying the specific
requirements of the crops and the local conditions of the agricultural regions.
Keywords: Conservation Agriculture, Minimal tillage, Soil cover, Crop rotation
Introduction
The conventional agriculture emphasizes on the adoption of high yielding varieties,
intensive tillage practices, heavy machinery and frequent application of synthetic chemical
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. This involves the practice of monoculture and improper
irrigation practices. The practice of conventional agriculture on the long run has led to the
degradation of soil. The nutrient and water use efficiency has been drastically reduced over the
years due to the soil degradation. The accumulation of pollutants and heavy metals due to the

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heavy application of fertilizers and pesticides is also a major concern. The conventional
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
agricultural practices have hampered the soil physical, chemical and biological properties
affecting the soil health and fertility. The reduction in soil organic matter, soil compaction, soil
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
erosion and desertification are the major problems caused by conventional agriculture. It has
degraded the soil making it less feasible for agricultural practices. Therefore it is necessary to
Article ID: and
shift to better agricultural practices which can reduce the soil degradation AG-VO2-I08-07
restore the
degraded soils.
Conservation agriculture is a farming system which promotes the soil quality and has the
potential to conserve soil and regenerate the degraded soils. Conservation agriculture constitutes
minimum soil disturbance, maintenance of permanent plant cover and diversification of crops[1].
It enhances the nutrient and water use efficiency and increases the beneficial microbial activity
and biological processes in the soil. It is an effective tool for the management of natural
resources and improves the crop productivity. Conservation agriculture reduces the land
degradation and helps increase the food security. It also plays an important role in improving soil
fertility and achieving sustainability in agriculture[2].
Principles of Conservation Agriculture

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1. Minimal soil disturbance

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The minimum soil disturbance can be achieved through minimal or no tillage practices.
Minimal tillage involves either direct sowing or dissemination of seed with least disturbance to
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the soil by opening the slot with the use of a khurpi or other equipment[3]. The maintenance of
good soil structure, organic matter content and beneficial microbial activity is important for good
aeration and water retention in the soil. The heavy tillage disrupts Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
the stable soil aggregates
affecting the soil. So it is essential to protect the soil with minimal soil disturbance.
2. Permanent soil cover
The permanent soil cover with cover crops, crop residues and mulches is necessary to
protect the soil from the detrimental effects of wind, rain and sun[4]. It is very important to keep
the soil covered with permanent soil covers. It prevents the soil from erosion. The soil cover
provides the necessary nutrients and creates favourable conditions in soil required for the growth
of micro organisms which improves the soil structure, aggregation, carbon sequestration,
suppression of weeds and important biological processes.
3. Diversified crop rotation
The adoption of crop rotation with different crops in rotation is beneficial and avoids
monocropping. Rotating crops helps farmers manage soil and fertility while handling a number
of challenges that affect greatly affect crop health and yields. The addition of legumes in crop
rotation will help in biological nitrogen fixation, reduce the incidence of pest and diseases by
disrupting their life cycles and enhances the soil biodiversity. The crop rotation increases the
addition of crop residue to the soil which decreases the bulk density, increases soil aggregate size
and water retention[5].
Benefits of Conservation Agriculture
 Increased crop yield: The practice of conservation agriculture will improve the soil
fertility, physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and prevents soil from
degradation. The improved water holding capacity, nutrient and water use efficiency will
enhance the yields of the crops on the long run.
 Reduction in cost of production: The adoption of minimum and no tillage will reduce
the production charges involved in land preparation. It will save the money spent on
labour, diesel and herbicides.

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 Nutrient use efficiency: The growing of deep rooted cover crops and addition of crop
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
residues to soil will reduce the nutrient losses. It improves the microbial activity and
nutrient cycling thereby improving the nutrient use efficiency.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Soil and water conservation: The minimum tillage reduces the physical disturbance in
soil and protects the soil aggregates. The permanent soil covers will reduce the soil
Article
erosion caused by water and wind. The crop residues in the soil ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
increase the beneficial
microbial activity that secretes aggregate binding chemicals in the soil. It also improves
the water retention capacity in the soil and reduces runoff.
 Improvement in soil quality: The quality of the soil depends on the physical, chemical
and biological properties of the soil. With the adoption of conservation agriculture the
soil quality is improved. The physical properties like soil structure, soil texture, bulk
density, water holding capacity and porosity are improved. The chemical properties like
increase in organic matter of soil and availability of essential plant nutrients is noticed.
The biological properties like beneficial microbial activity and nutrient cycling are
increased.
 Reduction in pest, disease and weed incidence: The crop rotation with different crops
helps break the life cycles of pests, diseases and weeds and reduce the incidence.
 Environmental/Ecological benefits: The conservation agriculture improves the
biodiversity of flora and fauna below and above the ground. It also helps recharge the
ground water bodies and reduces runoff and pollution of water bodies. It reduces the
release of green house gases to the environment as it avoids the burning of crop residues
and biomass.
Conclusion
Conservation agriculture minimizes the disturbance of the soil's structure, conserves soil
water and enhances biodiversity. It effectively utilizes the farm resources and boosts the
agricultural productivity and increases the farm income. It reduces the emission of green house
gases and helps in climate change mitigation. It promotes the conservation of natural resources
and reduces its widespread degradation. It improves the use efficiency of the inputs and helps
achieve sustainable crop production and improves the livelihood. Therefore the practice of
conservation agriculture is need of the hour.

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
[1]Ram, A. J., 2015. Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Intensification - An
Overview. Indian J. Fert., 11(2): 48-55.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
[2]Jat, R.A., Wani, S.P. and Sahrawat, K.L., 2012. Conservation agriculture in the semi-arid
tropics: prospects and problems. In: Sparks D. L. (Ed.) Advances in Agronomy (pp. 191-273).
[3]Sharma, J., Mahajan, A., Menia , M., Kumar, D., Bochalya, R. S., Article
Naveena ID:and
AG-VO2-I08-07
Kumawat, S.
N., 2023. Conservation Agriculture: A Long-term Approach towards Sustainability. Int. J.
Environ. Clim. Change, 13(10): 150-165.
[4]Bhan, S and Behera, U. K., 2014. Conservation agriculture in India – Problems, prospects and
policy issues. Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res., 2(4): 1-12.
[5]Ram, B., Singh, A. P., Singh, V., Pareek, N., and Gautam, P., 2022. Long term effect of
different crop rotations on soil physical properties in a Mollisol. J. Phytopharmacol., 11(1): 7-11.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

INSECTS AS A
OCCUPATIONAL PROTEIN
HEALTH SOURCE
HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-38

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. M. Visnupriya*
Associate Professor (Entomology),
Sethu Bhaskara Agricultural College and Research Foundation, Kalam Kavi Gramam,
Karaikudi, Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Currently global population increasing day by day and this upsurge in population
necessitates roughly double the existing food production. Terrifyingly, global warming is
progressively declining the areas used for food production worldwide. The climate change and
the ecological devastation from industrial expansion also negatively affect the food productivity.
In light of deteriorating reserve shortage, several foods have been projected as substitutes, with
insects getting the most consideration. Insects are institutionally acknowledged as a food in many
areas and traditionally consumed, providing adequate nutritive value for humans. Though, the
quick rise in food production through scientific improvement has mainly excluded insects from
our diets.
Numerous insects have been consumed globally and more than 2300 species of 18 orders
have been reported as edible insects, of which 5 orders are with at least 100 species in accounts.
Orders like Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Isoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are all consumed as
common protein sources in many areas worldwide. These insects inhabit in both aquatic and
terrestrial environments. Mostly adult insects are eaten by so many groups of peoples and the
immature forms of insects (pupae and larvae) are also favoured for their abundant amino acids
and fatty acids, which not only warrant the nutritional importance, but also provide a unique and
wonderful flavour. Most of them are collected from nature however some insect species are
reared in a large scale.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The production of animal protein is under enormous pressure as the global population is
hastily increasing. Subsequently, people are facing the stable protein malnutrition and looking
for alternative protein resources. Insect source is seen as one of the best choices of stable protein.
As it could make available huge amounts of various nutrients swiftly, it might provide a solution
for malnutrition and famine. Great consideration has been paid to the use and production of
edible insects everywhere. Increasing number of people is joining together in edible insect’s food
industry. Though, the industrial chain of edible insects, from essential research to marketing, still
requires to be developed. Presently, Europe and the United States have the fastest increasing
edible-insect industry, where a tendency is accompanying with high meat intake. Now, Insect
foods are in an intermediate stage, and a favourable new technique involves rising new food
products via merging protein-processing technology with insects.
Insects as a food
For hundreds of years, native peoples in South America, Asia, Africa and Europe include
the eating of numerous species of insects. An insect of 164 species was identified being sold for
food in a survey of markets at Bangkok and Thailand. The most frequently eaten insects are
beetles, caterpillars, bees, ants, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts. In Zimbabwe, Zambia, and
Nigeria, edible insects are usually available in school and college cafeterias and open
marketplaces, developing a commercial business. Really, up to 50% of dietary protein is derived
from insects, and they actually have greater market significance than other protein sources. Some
insects are valued for their organoleptic features and consumed in high-class restaurants. For
example, (escamoles) ant eggs are considered a delicate gourmet dish in Europe, Mexico, Laos
and Cambodia. An attention in edible insects has improved quickly because the Food and

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Agriculture Organization (FAO) has initiated encouraging insects as viable dietary options for
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
humans. Internationally, the edible-insect market is predictable to exceed USD 571 million by
2030.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Awareness about edible insects

Governments and NGOs can afford the information about benefits associated to
nourishment and environmental sustainability. Educational workshops and tasting programmes
can also provide openings to learn about edible insects. Another method for educating consumer
insight is the creation of recipe book with insect recipes. Generally, the recurrent positive
acquaintance to edible insects promotes attentiveness and could boost consumption of insects.
Furthermore, a growth in approachability to edible insects is to develop insect-based ingredients
instead of final food products showing their original appearance. Combining edible insects in
already-familiar foods may be more acceptable for an insect-phobic culture than providing
insects directly as a food option, and using insects as food ingredients is helpful for the
development of supportable business prototypes.

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Nutritional value of palatable insects

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Edible Insect dietary value differs with intake, growing stage, sex, species, growing
atmosphere and measurement methods. However, scientists usually agree that insects are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
enormously rich in protein, fat and vitamins. Nitrogen is a critical nutrient and proteins directly
involved in N supply comprise 16.5% of an adult human body. On average, the protein content
Article
of edible insects’ ranges 35%–60% dry weight or 10%–25% fresh weight, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
which are higher than
plant protein sources, including cereals, pulses like soybeans, blackgram, green gram and lentils.

Even insects provide more protein than meat, chicken and eggs. Edible insects in
Orthoptera particularly in crickets, grasshoppers and locusts are rich in protein. Nevertheless,
insect protein digestibility is greatly variable due to the presence of a hard body wall or
integument. Exoskeletons with high quantity of chitin and protein component are especially
problematic to digest. Certainly, we presently do not know whether human beings are capable of
digesting chitin which is present in exoskeleton. Obviously, the removal of exoskeleton through
a part of processing is a viable option to overcome the digestibility problem in human beings.
Some researchers made studies and have found that insect protein digestibility is 77%–98%
without after the exoskeleton.

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Certain insects like grasshoppers, crickets, termites, and mealworms are rich in iron, zinc,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
calcium, copper, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese. Most invertebrates without a
mineralized skeleton have very little calcium content. Maximum edible insects have similar iron
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
content to beef, but we presently know minute about mineral bioavailability of insects. One of
the research study found that consuming insects can afford the high quantities of daily mineral
Article
recommendations for humans, particularly in terms of iron and calcium. TheID: AG-VO2-I08-07
studies of vitamin
content are also inadequate, but existing data specify that edible insects contain carotene, vitamin
B1, B2, B6, C, D, E, and K and particularly, Orthopteran insects and Coleopteran beetles are rich
in folic acid content. Carbohydrates in insects largely exist in two forms of chitin and glycogen.
The previous is a polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine that is the main component of
exoskeleton, though the latter is an energy source deposited in cells and muscle tissues. The
averaged carbohydrate content of edible insects ranges from 6.71% in stink bug to 15.98% in
cicada.
Nutrient composition of eatable insects (for dry matter):
Type of Scientific name Protein Fat Carbohydrates Reference
insects content content content (%)
(%) (%)
Larvae Allomyrina 54.18 20.24 - Ghosh et al.
dichotoma (2017)
Anaphe infracta 20.00 15.20 - Banjo et al.
(2006)
Gonimbrasia 56.95 10.00 7.80 Siulapwa et al.
belina (2012)
Gynanisa maja 55.92 12.10 10.70 Siulapwa et al.
(2012)
Protaetia 44.23 15.36 - Ghosh et al.
brevitarsis (2017)
Rhynchophorus 22.06 66.61 5.53 Ekpo and
phoenicis Onigbinde
(2005)
Tenebrio molitor 46.44 32.70 - Ravzanaadii et
al. (2012)
Beetle Heteroligus meles 38.10 32.01 20.10 Jonathan (2012)
Rhynchophorus 50.01 21.12 20.23 Jonathan (2012)
phoenicis

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Type of Scientific name Protein Fat Carbohydrates Reference

Volume: 02
insects Issue No: 08 content content content (%)
(%) (%)
Grasshopper OCCUPATIONAL
Ruspolia differens HEALTH49.00
44.59 HAZARDS OF8.40
WORKERS
Siulapwa et al.
(2012)
Zonocerus 26.80 3.80 - Banjo et al.
variegatus Article ID: (2006)
AG-VO2-I08-07
Cricket Brachytrypes spp. 6.25 2.34 - Banjo et al.
(2006)
Gryllus 58.32 11.88 - Ghosh et al.
bimaculatus (2017)
Teleogryllus emma 55.65 25.14 - Ghosh et al.
(2017)
Macrotermes 20.10 28.20 - Banjo et al.
bellicosus (2006)
Termites Macrotermes 43.26 43.00 32.80 Siulapwa et al.
falciger (2012)
Macrotermes 22.10 22.50 - Banjo et al.
notalensis (2006)
Bee Apis mellifera 21.00 12.30 - Banjo et al.
(2006)
Dragonfly Aeschna multicolor 54.24 16.72 - Ramos-Elorduy
et al. (1998)
Anax sp. 26.22 22.93 - Ramos-Elorduy
et al. (1998)

Intake of insects in ancient days

The absence of refined tools and well-developed pursuing capacity mean that ancient
cultures likely consumed insects regularly. Upon the growth of agriculture and taming of
livestock, though, eating insects’ habits have been vanishing in the many parts of the world. The
subsequent abundance of food naturally occurring could also cause a decline in the necessity for
insect consumption. With changing cultural mores, insects have changed from a primary food
source to refreshments, luxury components and bait. Nevertheless, some countries have still
continued to use insects as regular food resources to this day. Overall, about 255 species are used
as food, although the intensity varies depending on seasonal or regional differences in culture.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Food processing technologies used for insects

Insects, normally prepared using traditional approaches such as sun-drying, roasting,
boiling, steaming, baking, frying, and stewing, among others. Today, they are naturally
consumed as complete insects (raw or cooked), processed (non-recognizable form), and in the
form of extracts. The food industry is viewing attention in this novel protein source, as supported
by several start-up firms and number of scientific publications. Other methods to preparing
insects must depend on in processing means that render insects into non-recognizable forms, like
flours or powders, protein hydrolysates, fermentable substrates, etc.

The use of different drying technologies seems to be the most commonly used approach for
preserving and processing edible insects. However, each drying method used will have different
effects on the insects’ nutritional composition and stability. For example, (Kröncke et al., 2018)
reported that drying techniques caused minor changes in protein, fat, and fiber content of yellow
mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). However, oven drying, microwave drying, fluidized bed drying,
and drying with a vacuum decreased (P < 0.05) the protein solubility, while freeze dried

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mealworms exhibited the highest lipid oxidation compared to the other drying methods. Overall,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
vacuum oven and microwave drying technologies were reported to be an alternative to
conventional oven drying and freeze drying.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Conclusion
Eating edible insects could be the solution to progressively crucial food-security problem
challenging the world. As we have detailed, many countries already use insects as a substitute
food protein and feed sources. Prevailing investigates authorise the significant nutritional and
medicinal values of edible insects. Innumerable approaches have been arranged to increase the
edible-insect marketplace and to neutralize existing attitude among the western societies toward
eating insects as a protein source. Edible insects are having attention as possible protein sources
that could help improve the forecast protein demand. The lower eco-friendly impact of insect
farming places them as leaders in the future growth of more sustainable foods worldwide. The
combination of these novel protein sources as viable components will largely depend on
consumers’ awareness and recognition of products containing edible insects. Like with
traditional protein sources, the incorporation of insect protein into food items will present its
tasks and boundaries that will require wide-ranging investigation to ensure that processing skills
and preparation policies work in the same form as they have done for traditional proteins.
Findings show that insects can be treated using similar technologies to those applied for
traditional proteins; therefore, the possibilities of developing convenient, safe, palatable, or even
shelf-stable, insect-based food products is vast and consumers, scientists and the food industry
need to consider the value of farming insects as promising protein sources.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
ORGANIZED AWARENESS PROGRAMME ON NEW
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
KISAN BILL AMONG THE BUNDELKHAND FARMERS
DURING 2020 : CASE STUDY
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-39
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Amit Tomar*
Teaching/Research Associate
Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Directorate of Extension
Education, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
A new kisan bill farmers awareness programme have been done by Rani Lakshmi Bai
Central Agricultural University, Jhansi at different village of Datia, Jhansi & Tikamgarh Districts
under the Chairmanship of Honb’le Vice-Chancellor. In this programme scientist were go to
village and aware the farmers about new kisan bill without any violence during 18-12-2020 and
19-12-2020.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Table-1: List of villages and number of farmers under new kisan bill awareness
programme.
S.No. Village District No. of S.No. Village District No. of
farmers farmer
s
1. Noner Datia 50 31. Jwaharpura Niwari 35
2. Biloni Datia 100 32. Jeron Niwari 30
3. Khadroni Datia 30 33. Achrra Niwari 35
4. Dinara Datia 50 34. Majra Sewda Niwari 40
5. Tarai Datia 60 35. Boresar Niwari 30
6. Dhakra Datia 70 36. Koyali Niwari 40
7. Samwa Datia 90 37. Rotera Niwari 50
8. Berkheri Datia 80 38. Babri Niwari 60
9. Jhanha Datia 50 39. Mamora Tikamgarh 80
10. Karai Datia 40 40. Keshavgarh Tikamgarh 70
11. Fatehpur Datia 80 41. Hatheri Tikamgarh 50
12. Sanora Datia 100 42. Manjra Tikamgarh 35
13. Ramnagar Jhansi 100 43. Gadaryana Tikamgarh 40
14. Chirgaon Jhansi 100 44. Barahampura Tikamgarh 90
15. Garotha Jhansi 80 45. Tapriyana Tikamgarh 100
16. Shiya Jhansi 100 46. Talbehat Tikamgarh 45
17. Sultanpura Jhansi 100 47. Mohangarh Tikamgarh 35
18. Badagaon Jhansi 80 48. Kunwarpura Tikamgarh 70
19. Paharhi Jhansi 100 49. Tiladath Tikamgarh 75
Bujurge

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20. Maheba Jhansi 90 50. Daryan Kala Tikamgarh 80

Volume:
21. 02 Issue No: 08
Paricha Jhansi 100 51. Panchampura Tikamgarh 90
22. Bachawali Jhansi 80 52. Mustapur Tikamgarh 100
23. Jhansi DehatOCCUPATIONAL
Jhansi 100 53.HAZARDS
HEALTH Panihar Tikamgarh
OF WORKERS 25
24. Kargua Niwari 50 54. Jatara Tikamgarh 60
25. Bhopalpura Niwari 60 55. Bajranggarh Tikamgarh 75
26. Nayakhera Niwari 70 56. Derna Tikamgarh 82
27. Keripura Niwari 80 57. Khurakh Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Tikamgarh 90
28. Majal Niwari 60
29. Tatarpura Niwari 50
30. Bamroli Niwari 60

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
PROMISING ROLE OF BIOGAS IN WASTE
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-40
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Dr. Arati Chakra and Dr. Kandiraju Lavanya

1
Asst.Professor in Home Science, KVR GDC(W),Cluster University, Kurnool
,2 Asst.Professor in Home Science, ASD GDC(W), Kakinada
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
The prosperity of agricultural based country like India depends upon its capability of energy
production which does not have any adverse impact on environment. Biogas production is a key
environmental technology for integrated solid and liquid waste treatment and for climatic
protection. Anaerobic treatment and gas use contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gases. In
this article, we delve into the promising role of biogas in environmental protection. We explore
its environmental benefits, its potential to address waste management challenges, its contribution
to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and its role in fostering energy independence and
sustainability. Additionally, we examine the barriers associated with widespread biogas
adoption. As we navigate the complexities of our environmental predicament, biogas emerges as
a beacon of hope, offering a tangible pathway towards a greener, more sustainable future.
Key words: Biogas, Anaerobic, Technology
Introduction
Biogas – a renewable energy source derived from the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. In the face of escalating environmental challenges, humanity is increasingly
turning to sustainable alternatives to mitigate the adverse impacts of modern living. With the
increasing global population, there is a rising demand for food production, which often leads to
environmental degradation and resource depletion. Biogas, produced through anaerobic digestion
of organic materials such as agricultural residues, animal manure, municipal solid waste, and
sewage sludge, is a convincing solution to environmental pollution. Unlike fossil fuels, which

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release carbon dioxide, biogas production is part of the natural carbon cycle, making it carbon-
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
neutral. The utilization of biogas offers a dual benefit of producing renewable energy but also
addressing waste management challenges. Organic waste, a significant contributor to greenhouse
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
gas emissions in landfills, becomes a valuable resource through biogas production. By diverting
organic waste from landfills and using it for biogas generation, we can reduce methane
emissions, which is a potent greenhouse gas. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The usefulness of biogas extends beyond electricity generation. It can be utilized as

transportation fuel, cooking, heating, and in multiple ways while reducing reliance on fossil
fuels. This versatility makes biogas particularly appealing for both developed and developing
regions seeking sustainable energy solutions tailored to their specific needs and infrastructural
capacities.
Biogas plays a promising role in urban waste management due to its potential to address
several environmental, economic, and social challenges associated with waste disposal. Here are
some key aspects highlighting its significance:
1. Boon to Farmer: Biogas technology promotes fertility of the soil and reduces desertification.
The major advantage for farmers is the improved quality of anaerobically treated manure.
Anaerobic digestion not only produces biogas but also generates digestate, a nutrient-rich
byproduct that can be used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Digestate contains valuable
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which help improve soil fertility and promote
crop growth. By recovering these nutrients from organic waste, biogas facilities contribute to
closing nutrient cycles and reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers, which can have negative
environmental impacts This manure is easy to use as these are less clogging, with increased
ammonia content and crop yield.
2. Reduced Environmental Impact: Anaerobic digestion of organic waste in biogas facilities
helps mitigate environmental pollution by preventing the release of methane, a potent
greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. The nutrient-rich digestate, which can be used as organic
fertilizer, promote soil health and reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers.
3. Climate Resilience: In the face of climate change, biogas offers resilience to farmers.
Extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, pose significant challenges to traditional
agricultural practices. Biogas production provides a decentralized energy solution that is less
susceptible to disruptions caused by climate-related disasters.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

4. Organic Waste Utilization and Cost Saving: Biogas production involves the anaerobic
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
digestion of organic waste materials such as food scraps, agricultural residues, animal manure,
and sewage sludge. By converting these waste materials into biogas through microbial
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
fermentation in anaerobic digesters, biogas facilities provide an environmentally friendly
alternative to landfill disposal or incineration. This is cost savings by reducing landfill disposal
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
fees and generating revenue through the sale of biogas and digestate products.
5. Reduction of Landfill Burden: By diverting organic waste from landfills, biogas facilities
help alleviate the pressure on landfill capacity and reduce the environmental impact associated
with landfilling, such as groundwater contamination, soil degradation, and methane emissions.
This contributes to more sustainable waste management practices and helps extend the lifespan
of existing landfill sites.
6. Green Energy Generation: Biogas primarily consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2), with methane being the main component. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and
capturing it for energy production mitigates its release into the atmosphere, thereby reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change. It is a renewable energy source for
electricity generation, heating, and cooking, providing a sustainable energy option for
communities.
7. Promotion of Circular Economy: Biogas production aligns with the principles of the circular
economy by converting organic waste into valuable resources. By integrating biogas technology
into waste management systems, communities can create a closed-loop system where waste
materials are recycled, reused, or repurposed, minimizing waste generation and maximizing
resource efficiency. Moreover, biogas facilities can create job opportunities in construction,
operation, in waste collection, and maintenance, contributing to local employment and economic
development. Additionally, biogas projects may generate revenue through the sale of electricity,
renewable energy credits, and digestate products, further supporting economic growth.
8. Community Engagement: Biogas projects offer opportunities for community engagement
and participation in sustainable waste management practices. Educating residents about the
benefits of separating organic waste for biogas production can foster a sense of environmental
protection and encourage active involvement in waste reduction efforts.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

BARRIER IN LARGE SCALE ADOPTION OF BIOGAS

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Though there are numerous benefits of Biogas, there are several challenges in its
widespread adaptation. Here are some of the prominent barriers:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
1. Initial Investment Costs: Setting up biogas infrastructure requires a significant initial
investment. The cost of constructing biogas plants, purchasing equipment, and installing
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
digesters can be expensive for many farmers, with limited financial resources.
2. Technical Expertise and Knowledge: Building and operating biogas systems require
technical expertise and specialized knowledge. Many farmers may lack the necessary skills and
training to effectively manage biogas plants, leading to inefficiencies, malfunctions, and
underutilization of the technology.
3. Feedstock Availability and Quality: The availability and quality of feedstock, such as
animal manure, crop residues, and organic waste, can vary depending on factors like seasonality,
agricultural practices, and livestock density. In some cases, farmers may struggle to procure
sufficient feedstock to sustain biogas production, while in others; the feedstock may be of
inadequate quality, affecting the efficiency and performance of biogas systems.
4. Infrastructure and Access to Resources: Access to infrastructure, such as transportation
networks and distribution channels, is crucial for the successful implementation of biogas
projects. Remote and rural areas may lack the necessary infrastructure, making it challenging to
transport feedstock or distribute biogas to end-users. Additionally, limited access to water,
electricity, and other resources can hinder the operation and maintenance of biogas plants.
5. Regulatory and Policy Barriers: Inadequate or inconsistent regulatory frameworks and
policies can impede the widespread adoption of biogas technology. Issues such as complex
permitting processes, ambiguous regulations, and a lack of incentives or subsidies may deter
farmers and investors from investing in biogas projects.
6. Social and Cultural Factors: Socio-cultural attitudes and perceptions towards biogas may
also pose barriers to its adoption. Farmers may be resistant to change or skeptical about the
benefits of biogas technology, particularly if they have limited awareness or understanding of its
potential advantages. Cultural norms and practices related to waste management and energy use
may also influence the acceptance and uptake of biogas systems.
7. Market Demand and Economic Viability: The lack of market demand for biogas products
and services can hinder investment in biogas projects. Without a reliable market for biogas,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

digestate, or other byproducts, farmers may struggle to recoup their investment and achieve
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
economic viability.
Conclusion
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Biogas holds great promise in urban waste management by offering a sustainable solution
to organic waste disposal while simultaneously providing renewable energy and contributing to
Article ID:
environmental conservation and community well-being. There are multiple AG-VO2-I08-07
benefits of biogas
production like effective waste management, low sludge production, quality improvement of
organic manure, reduction of the use of inorganic fertilizer and pesticides which directly helps
the stabilization, improvement of soil quality and prevent environment pollution. Environment-
friendly utilization of organic pollution materials and energy production can be realized together
by biogas production and utilization. Hence, Biogas has proved to be a futuristic renewable
energy with huge current and future potential. For farmers, it represents more than just a source
of energy; it is a catalyst for rural development, environmental stewardship, and resilience in the
face of climate change. There are several challenges in widespread adoption of Biogas. However,
successful implementation requires supportive policies, investments in infrastructure, and public
awareness campaigns to maximize its benefits.
References
Aichinger, P. et al. (2015). Synergistic co-digestion of solid-organic-waste and municipal-
sewage -sludge: 1 plus 1 equals more than 2 in terms of biogas production and solids r
eduction. Water Research. 87,416–423.
Aransıola, E. F., Momodu, A.S., Okunade, I. D. and Adepoju,T. D.(2021). Biogas production as
energy source and strategy for managing waste and climate change, SN Applied Sciences,
3:34 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03973-8.
Azam, A., Rafiq, M., Shafique, M., and Yuan, J. (2021) .Renewable electricity generation and
economic growth nexus in developing countries: An ARDL approach, Economic Research
vol. 34, no. 1, 2423–2446.
Gürsan, C., and Gooyert, V. (2021). The systemic impact of a transition fuel: Does natural gas
help or hinder the energy transition? Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 38,
110552.
Moses, J., Barasa, K., and Oludolapo, A. O. (2022). Biogas Production and Applications in the
Sustainable Energy Transition, Journal of Energy Article ID 8750221, 43.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Marañón, E. et al. (2012). Co-digestion of cattle manure with food waste and sludge to Increase
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
biogas production. Waste Management 32, 1821–1825.
Reza, A. and et. al. (2016). The role of biogas to sustainable development. Journal of Chemical
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
and Pharmaceutical Research, 8(4), 112- 118 ISSN : 0975-738.
Sahota, S., et al., (2018). Review of trends in biogas upgradation technologies and future
perspectives, Bioresource Technology Reports, 1, 79–88. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Yentekakis IV and Goula G (2017), Biogas Management: Advanced Utilization for Production
of Renewable Energy and Added-value Chemicals. Front. Environ. Sci. 5:7.doi:
10.3389/fenvs.2017.00007.
Biogas, a Climate and Clean Air Solution with Many Benefits. | Climate & Clean Air Coalition
(ccacoalition.org)

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

MUSHROOMS: A BOWL OF NUTRITION AND MEDICINE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-41

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Dr. Dayamani, K.J.1 and Dr. Mamathalakshmi, N.2

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Natural Resource Management, College of Horticulture,
Mysuru, Karnataka, India
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Social Studies, College of Horticulture, Mysuru, Karnataka
Corresponding Author E mail ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Human tendency is to taste the different foods all around available whole through the
year and he is continuously in search of new dishes. As the mushrooms is gaining popularity in
the present days, in context to the medicinal and also pharmaceutical industries, utilization of
mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are macro-fungi that can be seen with the naked eye, i.e., fleshy
fruit bodies of many species of mushrooms, and they have already been widely used in food and
medicine due to their delicious taste and diverse physiological activities Global food production
faces many challenges, including climate change, a water crisis, land degradation, and
desertification. These challenges require research into non-traditional sources of human foods.
Edible mushrooms are considered an important next-generation healthy food source. Edible
mushrooms are rich in proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive components
(alkaloids, lactones, polysaccharides, polyphenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, sterols, and
terpenoids). Several bioactive ingredients can be extracted from edible mushrooms and
incorporated into health-promoting supplements. It has been suggested that several human
diseases can be treated with extracts from edible mushrooms, as these extracts have biological
effects including anticancer, antidiabetic, antiviral, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, immune-
potentiating, and hypocholesterolemic influences.
Key words: Mushrooms, Nutrient value, Medicinal value,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Health and Nutritional Benefits of Eating Mushrooms

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Mushrooms have very less calories and contain approximately 80 to 90 percent water. At
the same time, they have low sodium, carbohydrate and fat content and high fiber
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
content. This is the reason why mushrooms are considered good for those aiming for
weight loss.
 Mushrooms are an excellent source of potassium. Infact, it Article
is said ID:
thatAG-VO2-I08-07
there is more
potassium in a mushroom than a banana. Since potassium helps lower blood pressure and
diminished the risk of stroke, mushrooms are recommended to people suffering from
hypertension.
 Mushrooms are rich in copper, a mineral that has cardio-protective properties. A single
serving of mushrooms is said to provide about 20 to 40 percent of the daily needs of
copper. Mushrooms are believed to help fight against cancer. They are an excellent
source of selenium, an antioxidant that works with vitamin E to protect cells from the
damaging effects of free radicals.
 White button mushroom have been found to restrain
the activity of aromatase, an enzyme involved in
estrogen production, and 5-alpha-reductase, an
enzyme that converts testosterone to DHT.
 Researchers have suggested that white button
mushrooms can reduce the risk of breast cancer and
prostate cancer. In fact, extract of white button
mushrooms has been found to help in diminishing
cell proliferation as well as tumor size.
 Shiitake mushrooms comprise of Lentinan, a beta-
glucan that has been associated with stimulation of
the immune system and thus, is believed to be
helpful in fighting against AIDS. It also helps fight infection and exhibits anti - tumor
activity.
 It has been found that mushroom extract helps stop migraine headaches and is beneficial
for people suffering from mental illnesses, like obsessive-compulsive disorder

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 Oyster mushrooms are said to be useful in strengthening of veins and relaxation of the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
tendons
Types of Edible mushroom
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
There are more than 10,000 varieties of mushrooms. The following are some of the
mushroom used in day-to-day life. Agaricus bisporus is probably the most widely recognized,
Article
easily found and most cultivated mushroom. Commonly known as white ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
mushroom or crimini
mushroom. They can be either white or brown in appearance.
1. White button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)
White button mushrooms are the most common and mildest-tasting mushrooms available in
the Indian market.. It can be eaten raw or cooked and are best
used in soups, salads and on pizzas. Despite the common belief
that these mushrooms are not as healthy as others, these have
some interesting health benefits. White button mushrooms are
low in calories and sugar. They are rich in protein and due to
their exposure to sunlight, mushrooms are a natural non-animal
source of vitamin D2; it helps in the absorption of calcium in
your body and helps keep your bones strong. It is also rich in vitamin B12 which is an animal-
obtained vitamin and so mushrooms are a good option for vegetarians. Also, it is prebiotic and helps
improve gut bacteria.

2. Portobello Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)

Portobello Mushrooms are a native to Europe and North America grasslands, these are
one of the most commonly consumed mushrooms in the world.
When young, portobello mushrooms are known as white button
mushrooms. These mushrooms are impressive because of their size
and meaty texture and earthy flavour. Similar to its other varieties,
portobello is one of the natural sources of vitamin D. They are rich
in copper and selenium which your bod y needs to form
connective tissue, metabolize iron and to produce energy and antioxidants. It also has niacin or
vitamin B6 which helps metabolize food into energy and synthesizes fatty acids. Vitamin B6 is
essential for our body as it is present in more than 100 chemical actions in our body.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

3. Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes)

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Shiitake mushrooms are one of the popular mushrooms in the world and for a good
reason. They are known for their rich, savoury taste and various
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
health benefits. This mushroom is a native of Japan. In Japanese,
shiitake means "oak fungus." These have a meaty texture and are
chewy, and go well with almost everything. They are popular for Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

their medicinal properties and are found in powdered supplement

form in many herbal pharmacies. Shiitake has a rich flavour than
most mushrooms. It is usually used in soups, steamed and simmered recipes and even stir-fried in
vegetarian dishes. Low in calories, rich in fibre as well as vitamin B, Shiitake mushrooms are good
for boosting the immune system, lowering blood cholesterol levels, hardening of the arteries,
diabetes and as an anti-ageing agent also it has promising antibacterial and antiviral effects.
4. Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus)
Oyster mushrooms are one of the biggest types of edible mushrooms which are most
common and versatile. Oysters are easy to cultivate and grow mainly on decaying wood. This edible
wild mushroom is now grown commercially across the world and has
a slightly sweet, anise-like smell while it has tender flesh, velvety
texture and mild flavour. The mushroom gets its name due to its similar
appearance to the oyster. Oyster mushrooms are mostly fat-free and a
good source of essential minerals and vitamins including niacin,
riboflavin, vitamin B6 and thiamin. It also has numerous health
benefits such as it lowers cholesterol, boosts heart health, better immune function, and improved
metabolic health.
5. Enoki mushrooms (Flammulina filiformis) Enoki, also known as Enokitake, winter
mushrooms, winter fungus, the edible variety of these
mushrooms is small, shiny white caps attached to thin stems, and
is crunchy. These mushrooms are usually used in East Asian
food and cooking. Enokitake mushrooms are also called golden
needle mushrooms. It is known to have a mild and delicate fruity
flavour. These mushrooms can be eaten raw and cooked as well
as used in salads, soups, sandwiches, and pasta sauces. It has two distinct varieties, wild and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

cultivated. the wild form differs in texture, colour, dampness and has dark brown colour, shorter and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
thicker stem while the cultivated mushrooms have long, slender stems with tiny, firm caps. This
variety of mushroom is rich in several minerals and vitamins such as vitamin B3, vitamin B5,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
vitamin B1, vitamin B2, phosphorus, iron, selenium, thiamin, calcium and copper. The mushrooms
also contain healthy amino acids and dietary fibre and are low in cholesterol which helps to improve
Article
the immunity system, reduces body fat and increases metabolism. It also ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
improves digestion and
reduces the chance of developing allergies.
6. Shimeji mushrooms (Hypsizygus tessellatus)
These mushrooms are also known as buna shimeji, beech brown mushroom, clamshell
mushroom and they grow on dead beech trees. Native to East Asia, this variety is also found in
Northern Europe. They have cracked, speckled brown caps
and a white base. When eaten raw Shimeji mushrooms taste
bitter and when cooked, these brown-capped clusters are
crunchy and have a sweet nutty flavour. It is usually used in
stir-fried foods and soups, stews and sauces. It can also be
sauteed whole, including its stem. Shimeji mushrooms are a
great accompaniment to noodles. It is rich in umami tasting
compounds such as guanylic acid, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid. It is cholesterol and sodium-free,
low in fat and high in dietary fibre. Also, it is a good source of protein, zinc, B vitamins and copper.
It lowers cholesterol, aids weight loss, manages diabetes and is natural anti-cancer food. It is also
anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-parasitic.
7. Porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis)
Porcini mushrooms are one of the most popular mushrooms in Italian Cuisine. These
are large mushrooms with a cap that can grow up to 12 inches in
diameter. Porcini mushrooms have a few different varieties, are
slightly reddish-brown, have a thick stem and are a little sticky to
touch. It has an aromatic, woodsy and nutty flavour which makes
it a gourmet mushroom and it is loved for its smooth texture.
Porcini mushrooms can be used to make meat dishes, sauces,
broth, eggs, pasta and vegetarian dishes. Similar to other varieties of mushrooms, Porcini has its
own set of health benefits.

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8. Paddy straw mushrooms

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It is one of the easiest mushrooms to cultivate. Paddy straw mushrooms were first
cultivated in India in the year 1940. It is equally popular as white button mushroom for its flavour,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
aroma, delicacy and nutrients. These straw mushrooms are
cold and good for the summer season. They are rich with
protein, fibre, iron, vitamin B and vitamin C, also has mineral Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

extra folic acid, potassium and copper. Paddy straw

mushroom's health benefits include reduced cholesterol in the
digestive system. It has natural insulin which is good for
diabetics, the beta-glucan prevents the growth of cancer cells and vitamin D strengthens bones. It
also prevents anaemia and is good for heart health.

9. Milky Mushrooms (Calocybe indica)

Calocybe indica, commonly known as the milky white mushroom, is a species of edible
mushroom native to India. The sturdy all-white mushrooms appear in summer after rainfall in
fields and on road verges. Traditionally eaten in West Bengal, it is being grown commercially in
several Indian states and other tropical countries. This is the
first indigenous mushroom to be commercialized in the
country. Mushrooms white in color, gills and stalks white.
Mushrooms large with long, thick fibrous stalk. It can be
grown on pasteurized or sterilized wheat or paddy straw.
Spawn running period 24-28 days. Cropping requires an
optimum temperature of 35-38°C, humidity of 85-90%, diffused light and ventilation.
Mushrooms can be harvested in 2 flushes after which the entire cycle is repeated. It can be
marketed as fresh, dry or as mushroom powder.
Conclusion
In conclusion, edible mushrooms contain essential food supplements and versatile food
sources that provide numerous health benefits. Effective management of edible mushroom
production is crucial to ensure their continued availability, quality, and sustainability. The study
of edible mushrooms and their health benefits continues to be an area of active research, and
additional benefits will likely be further discovered. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) can also

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

be used as an excellent organic manure or for vermicomposting. It is an excellent edible

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
mushroom with high fiber.
References
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Edible Mushrooms for Sustainable and Healthy Human Food: Nutritional and Medicinal
Attributes Hassan El-Ramady , , Neama Abdalla , Khandsuren Badgar, Xhensila Llanaj ,
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Gréta Tör ˝os Peter Hajdú , Yahya Eid and József Prokisch. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4941.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14094941
Rani M, Mondal SM, Kundu P, Thakur A, Chaudhary A, et al. 2023. Edible mushroom:
occurrence, management and health benefits. Food Materials Research 3:21
https://doi.org/10.48130/FMR-2023-002
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF MANGROVE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEM
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-42
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1*S. S. Kawade, 1H. B. Dhamagaye, 2Sedyaaw Panchakarla and 3Shashi Vishwakarma

1*Department of Aquatic environment Management, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri,
Maharashtra, India
2
Department of Fish Processing Technology, College of Fisheries, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.
3
Senior Technical Officer (Soil Science), ICAR Krishi Vigyan Kendra, North Goa.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Mangroves serve as nutrient sources, sinks and sediment traps, all of which are essential for
coastal ecosystems. They preserve marine systems, nourish fish and other species and sustain
food webs. Because they support forestry, fishing and ecotourism, mangroves are economically
significant. They may be used for bioprospecting to find beneficial products, compounds and
genes resistant to salt. Monitoring mangroves and other coastal ecosystems is crucial for tracking
the development of coastal disaster management plans as well as increasing issues of climate
change and sea level rise. This abstract emphasizes the need for creative thinking and sustainable
management in order to protect mangroves and their ecosystems.
Keywords: Coastal, conservation, mangrove
Introduction
Mangroves are a diversified group of arboreal, blooming plants that can withstand salt
and are mainly found in tropical and subtropical areas along coasts in the intertidal zones. The
term "mangrove" refers to any tree, shrub, palm or ground fern that is typically taller than half a
meter and typically grows in the intertidal zones of marine coastal habitats or estuary borders
above mean sea level. They belong to the most productive ecological niches. Mangroves are an
important living resource that are rich in diversity and beneficial to the economy and the

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

preservation of coastal areas. Mangroves are sometimes referred to as "inter-tidal forest" or

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
"coastal woodland." Mangrove forests serve multiple ecological functions, including producing
woody trees, providing habitat for fin-fish and shellfish, providing habitat for birds and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
protecting coastlines. They have high biological productivity and resilience, restoring after heavy
damage. Mangrove resources offer economic benefits like firewood, fishery resources, honey
collection and tourism. They are classified into true mangroves and Article
mangroveID: AG-VO2-I08-07
associates, with
associated flora and fauna including invertebrates, molluscs, crustaceans and vertebrates.
Temperature and moisture have an extremely big impact on the density and diversity of
mangroves. Both heat stress and a rise in ocean salinity are brought on by rising temperatures.
Sea level rise is not the only element contributing to the problem of salinity in water; additional
reasons include variations in river flow of fresh water and the rise in human activities like shrimp
farming and the development of salt pans along the coast. In addition to maintaining biodiversity
and ecological integrity, protecting mangroves is crucial for ensuring the livelihoods and general
well-being of coastal people, reducing the effects of climate change and building resilience in the
face of environmental change. Therefore, supporting mangrove protection is not just a moral
duty but also an economically responsible choice for the long-term viability and health of coastal
ecosystems and the millions of people who depend on them for their livelihood.

Due to rich biodiversity,

ecology and environmental
significance of mangrove
ecosystem, the conservation
of mangrove is a focus area
in India.

Mangrove Cover in India

About 0.1% of the Earth's surface is comprised of mangrove forests, with 15 nations
holding approximately 75% of the world's total mangrove forest area. India contains around 3
percent of South Asia's total mangrove cover; the most diverse areas are the Sundarbans in West
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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Bengal and the Bhitarkanika mangroves in Odisha. The Sundarbans are among the world's most
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
biodiverse mangrove ecosystems. The Bengal tiger, fisher cat, mangrove snakes, goliath heron,
saltwater crocodile, and water monitor lizard are among the many species of wildlife that call it
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
home. The mangrove forest cover of the nation has grown by 930 square kilometers since 1987,
according to the India State of Forest report. The nation's overall mangrove cover is 4,992 sq km,
according to the Forest Survey Report 2021. Coastal states tend to beArticle ID:industrialized;
the most AG-VO2-I08-07 in
these states, the destruction and degradation of mangrove health and cover is primarily caused by
aquaculture, industrial effluent discharge, reclamation of mangrove areas for human
settlements and other major factors. The majority of coastal states that continue to lose mangrove
cover are those that are most susceptible to the negative effects of climate change, including
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Biodiversity Conservation
Hundreds of plant and animal species, such as fish, crabs, birds, and mammals, depend
on mangroves as their home. For many economically and ecologically significant species, they
serve as breeding grounds, feeding places and nurseries, adding to the overall diversity and
resilience of coastal ecosystems.
Nursery grounds
A significant number of the world's fish, shrimp, crabs, and other shellfish find perfect
nesting habitats in mangroves. Numerous fish species, including snook, tarpon, and barracuda,
take refuge in the mangrove roots as young, mature into adults, and then go out into the open
ocean to feed on the seagrass beds. 75 percent of fish that are harvested for commercial purposes
are thought to have spent some time in mangroves or to have depended on food webs that
originate in these coastal forests.
Home to many species
Thousands of species at various levels of the marine and forest food webs, including
bacteria, barnacles, and Bengal tigers, find home in mangrove forests. Insect species find refuge
in the trees, drawing in birds that hide in the thick twigs. For hundreds of shorebirds and
migratory bird species, such as kingfishers, herons, and egrets, these coastal woodlands are ideal
places to nest and rest. Among the mangroves hunt crab-eating macaque monkeys, fishing cats,
and enormous monitor lizards, as well as endangered species like olive Ridley turtles, white-
breasted sea eagles, tree-climbing fish, proboscis monkeys and dugongs. Furthermore, animals

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that burrow, such clams and snails, can lay in wait due to the soft soil found beneath mangrove
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
roots. In the rich mud, other species like shrimp and crabs feed.
Coastal Protection
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The safeguarding of coastlines is one of mangroves' most important roles. Mangrove
trees' extensive root systems maintain shorelines and lessen the effects of erosion brought on by
storms, waves, and currents. Mangroves serve as organic barriers that Article ID: chance
lessen the AG-VO2-I08-07
of storm
surges and coastal floods by absorbing wave energy. Additionally, they shield inland regions
from the eroding effects of currents and tides.
A stable coastline
The silt and sediment carried by rivers and tides that go out to sea are gathered by
mangrove roots. The trees prevent shorelines from eroding by stabilizing the earth. Eventually,
tiny islands may be formed by seedlings that take root on sandbars and stabilize them over time.
Carbon Sequestration
The storage of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the biomass and sediments of
mangroves is crucial for mitigating climate change since it contributes to a slower rate of global
warming. Because of their remarkable capacity to absorb and retain carbon, mangrove
ecosystems are important resources in the fight against climate change on a worldwide scale.
Global carbon sequestration and climatic resilience are other benefits of mangrove forest
protection and restoration, in addition to protecting biodiversity and providing assistance to
coastal communities. To optimize the sequestration of carbon dioxide and maintain the long-term
biological integrity of mangroves, it is necessary to safeguard their habitats and adopt sustainable
management approaches.
Resources for humans
Many of the materials needed by coastal communities for basic needs are found in
mangrove forests. People can pick clams, shellfish and shrimp by walking over the tidal flats
during low tide. Fish enter the marshy area at high tide to feed in the sheltering mangrove roots,
transforming it into productive fishing territory. The mangrove trees themselves yield timber for
constructing homes and boats, as well as fuel, medications and tannins.
Conservation of Mangroves
In India, mangrove forests have been somewhat restored, but considering the rate at
which mangroves have been disappearing over the past several decades, this is by no means

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

sufficient. The relationship between climate change, human activity, and coastal ecosystems has
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
to be understood, predicted, and managed using a far more inclusive approach. At the most
fundamental level, community training programs must be established in order to provide the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
necessary knowledge and skills for the preservation and restoration of mangrove ecosystems, as
well as public awareness campaigns stressing the importance of mangroves. Mangrove forests
have been managed and restored in part in recent years becauseArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
to various conservation
initiatives and policies from the Indian government, non-governmental organizations, and local
people. Creating balanced coastal land-use plans that uphold sustainable restrictions on logging
and other harvesting operations can improve mangrove conservation. Mangroves should be
protected and preserved for the sentimental, religious, and cultural significance they have for the
surrounding community. It is essential that the local population takes part in the preservation of
mangrove regions and works to stop illegal removal and encroachment. Resource-dependent
communities have taken up arms against illegal activity in a few incidents.
Protection of mangroves against climate change receives far less attention than
conservation of mangroves in the context of pollution and anthropogenic activity, which is
mentioned at least often, if not frequently enough. The health, development, survival, and
production of mangroves are significantly impacted by the increase in soil salinity, as already
mentioned. The whole mangrove ecosystem is under imminent risk due to extreme climate
change. Because a variety of factors contribute to the degradation of the mangrove ecosystem
and cannot be addressed separately, it is imperative to use an integrated management approach
that involves all stakeholders and takes into account factors like sea level rise, extreme weather,
and human exploitation in order to protect and conserve mangroves.
Conclusion
For coastal ecosystems to provide biodiversity, protection and livelihoods, mangroves are
essential. However, pollution, habitat loss, deforestation and climate change are hazards to them.
Mangroves may be managed sustainably with the use of creative conservation techniques,
frameworks for legislation and methods for involving the community. Conservation initiatives
can be encouraged by strong laws, strict enforcement procedures and rewards. Including
indigenous peoples and local communities in decision-making promotes stewardship and
ownership. By acknowledging the interdependence of mangroves with nearby ecosystems,
ecosystem-based management strategies might improve resilience. The preservation and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems are essential for the health of coastal communities and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
ecosystems. In order to ensure that mangroves stay healthy, sustainable management techniques
and social responsibilities support environmental sustainability and resilience.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

SPACE BREEDING: SPACE INDUCED MUTATION

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
BREEDING FOR CROP IMPROVEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-43
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1*Indu Rani C, 2Swetha B and 3Neelavathi R

1
Professor and Head, Department of Vegetable Science, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore, India
2
Research Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore, India
3
Associate Professor (Hort.), ICAR-KVK, Tindivanam, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding author Email Id: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Space research has gained widespread attention and there have been considerable advances in in-
depth space exploration. Spaceflight-induced mutation technique or “space breeding,” is a
technique that uses the genetic variations produced in plant seeds by the space environment that
can be reached by recoverable spacecraft (such as recoverable satellites and space shuttles) and
high-altitude balloons to identify novel germplasm on the ground from which to develop new
crop varieties. The main factors in the aerospace environment are strong Strong cosmic radiation,
weak geomagnetic fields, microgravity, hyper clean and super vacuum environment. The seeds
are mutated due to high charge and high energy radiations and are evaluated for mutation. This
article discusses the detailed mechanism of mutagenesis, effect of cosmic rays on the phenotypic,
genotypic and molecular changes observed in the cosmic crop.
Key words: Space mutation, spacecraft, cosmic crops, microgravity
Introduction
Space research has gained widespread attention and there have been considerable
advances in in-depth space exploration. Spaceflight-induced mutation technique or “space
breeding,” is a technique that uses the genetic variations produced in plant seeds by the space
environment that can be reached by recoverable spacecraft (such as recoverable satellites and
space shuttles) and high-altitude balloons to identify novel germplasm on the ground from which

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

to develop new crop varieties. In other words, it refers to sending seeds to space 200-400 km
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above the earth's surface using recoverable satellites or recoverable spacecrafts and upon return
screening the seeds for induced mutations with highly desirable traits. The crops which are raised
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
from those seeds called as “cosmic crops”.
Main factors of aerospace environment
 Strong cosmic radiation Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Weak geomagnetic fields

 Microgravity
 Hyper clean and super vacuum environment
Mechanism of space mutagenesis
Space environments induce random mutation in plants. The high-charge and high-energy
(HEZ) particles of cosmic radiation in space causing multiple chromosomal aberrations. The
aberrations were different if HZE particles hit different parts of seeds. The frequency of
aberration was the highest when the root meristem or hypocotyl was hit. However, many
experimental results show that an increased frequency of aberrations can also be observed in
seeds not hit by cosmic particles during space flight.

Figure showing a schematic presentation of the space breeding platform

Source credit: Mohanta et al.,2021.

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The longer the seeds were kept in space, the higher the frequency of aberration,
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suggesting that microgravity might also have a mutagenic effect on seeds. It is evident that the
combined effects of both cosmic radiation and microgravity are the main causes of the genetic
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
changes in plants induced by space conditions. Once the seeds of plants that have evolved under
the effects of earth gravity were put in the microgravity environment of space and were affected
Article
by various physical radiation factors at the same time, their genomes were ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
inevitably strongly
affected. In addition, the strong vibration and blast force associated with spacecraft launch and
landing cannot be neglected as causal agents contributing to the increased frequency of
chromosomal aberrations during space flight. Space environments does not induce mutations in
every seed. Therefore, screening for mutated seed is crucial. Thes seeds were assessed for
phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. Numerous molecular markers can be used to confirm
the mutations. Luo et al., 2007 identified 30.2% polymorphism in rice using RAPD analysis
Understanding the effect of plants on exposure to space environments:
Cell size and differentiation
The structure of a cell can undergo significant changes when exposed to the external
environment of space. Under microgravity conditions the structure of the cells may be changed
along with changes in starch granules and chloroplast structures due to increased surface tension
and reduced mechanical pressure. Space mutation resulted in increased cell elongation. Merkys
et al.,1975 observed elongated cells in the roots of peas. The changes were observed in the cell
differentiation also. A large cell differentiation was observed by Il’ne and Parfenov, 1979 in
carrot somatic embryos resulting in longer roots.
Cell division
Space environment induces mutations in the seeds due to high energy high charge cosmic
radiation that hits the seeds. The space environment affects the seed germination and plant
growth with a decrease in mitotic cell division and an increase in chromosomal aberrations.
Mitotic disturbances, such as abnormal migration of the nucleus and unseparated chromatids,
have been observed in microspores and root cells of various plant species. Additionally,
anomalies in spindle organization and chromosome segregation have been noted, potentially
leading to aneuploidy and other genetic abnormalities. Multiple nuclei and fused embryo sac
were also reported. (Saunders, 1971). The reduced cell division were seen in anaphase and
telophase stage in mung bean (Halster and Dutcher, 1987), telophase stage in lettuce (Merkys

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

and Laurinavichius 1983) and it was reported in the pea seedlings also (Merkys et al., 1976).
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Even the use of radioprotectants such as 5-methoxytryptamine, aminoethylisothiourea, and
cysteine, have not been able to reduce space-induced chromosomal aberrations.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Arabidopsis and Sorghum seeds send to International Space Station as a part of CRS2
NG-18 mission for a period of three months.
Source credit: Sivasankar, 2023
Subcellular changes
Weightlessness and microgravity have profound effects on subcellular organelles within
plant cells. Studies have significant reduction in cellulose and lignin content in the cell walls.
Halstead and Dutcher, 1987 observed 54% and 18% reduction in the cellulose and lignin content
respectively in mung bean plants when grown in space. Furthermore, space-grown seedlings
display lower levels of protein and enzymes compared to their Earth-grown counterparts.
Changes in other organelles such as reduction in the density of cisternae in endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) and swollen mitochondria were reported. The reduction of starch and mucilage
content in pea seedings were also reported.
Phenological changes
The seeds which were induced mutation in space and grown in Earth undergo several
phenological changes.
Seed germination
Space induced mutation imparts changes in seed germination. However, the sensitivity of
the plant to seed germination differs between species and between the varieties of the same

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

species. The seed germination was increased in case of wheat, triticale, barley, maize, cotton,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
sunflower, soybean, cucumber and tomato. There was no significant difference in germination
rate in seeds of rice, millet, pea, sweet pepper, lettuce and tobacco, while seed germination rate
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
decreased in seeds of sorghum, watermelon, eggplant, radish and towel gourd.
Reproductive organs
Article flowering;
The plants were treated in space and bought back to Earth completed ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
however
their fertility was reduced, the frequency of recessive mutants increased, and germination success
was reduced. The androecium and gynoecium of the space treated plants were degenerated and
sterile. The sterility was caused due to unsuitable illumination.
Plant stature
The plant produced fewer leaves, smaller hypocotyl and cotyledonary leaves, smaller and
fewer siliques. The plants appeared to be shorter than normal plants. The changes were observed
between the F1 and F2 plants also. When the F1 seeds obtained from the flight were planted in
the ground, 42% of the seeds biologically completed their life cycle and produced fertile plants.
No significant changes in developmental morphology was observed in the F2 plants.
Physiological changes
The micro and macro elemental composition of the cell may change when exposed to
space environments. For example, pea plants grown on the Salyut space station showed problems
with mineral balance, resulting in an increase in phosphorus and potassium levels in the shoots,
but a sharp decrease in calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and zinc levels. The mineral
imbalance may be due to the inhibition of ATPase activity due to microgravity. From this report,
it is clear that the free cellular calcium is more likely to be membrane-bound under hypogravity.
Changes in Ca2+ levels also trigger the activation of membrane phospholipases leading to
changes in the plant metabolism (Palladina et al., 1984)
Genetics and polymorphism
The space environment induces mutations in crop genomes. Molecular markers like
random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used to confirm the polymorphic
variations in these plants. A study conducted by Luo et al., 2007 identified 30.2% genetic
polymorphism in the rice germplasm containing 201 rice individuals. Studying 24 random
primers led to the detection of 189 loci being detected with 4–15 loci per primer. Fragments of
the amplicon were between 400 and 2,000 base pairs. Studies using molecular markers can lead

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

to the detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Luo et al.,2007 identified 12 SNP
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using OPS-19 as a primer in the rice seeds of I-B11.
Mutant varieties developed by space breeding
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
China is the leader of space-induced mutagenesis experiments. Since 1987, China has
conducted experiments of space-induced mutagenesis using recoverable satellites, spacecrafts
Article
and high-altitude balloons to carry plant seeds into space. Shijian-8, theID:breeding
AG-VO2-I08-07
satellite
specially designed for the space-breeding programme, was launched on September 9, 2006. It
carried over 2,000 accessions of plant seeds belonging to 133 species. So far, China has officially
approved 66 new varieties of crops including rice, wheat, cotton, rapeseed, sesame, pepper,
tomato and alfalfa developed by the space-breeding programme. These new varieties have
characters of high yield, good quality and multiple resistances. Some useful rare mutations (high
biomass, increased fruit size, less irrigation, disease resistant and temperature resistant) that
might make a great breakthrough in crop yield were also obtained. Chinese scientists have
discovered “Space rice” or “rice from heaven” variants that are having resistant to pest and
climate change.
Conclusion
So far, only three countries China, Russia and United Stated only have achieved the
technological mastery. This program requires major investment and technological support. To
encourage space borne mutations on Earth breeding with “space stimulation” is now on trend.
Liu et al.,2009 identified three new techniques of mutation breeding by simulating the space
environment. They are Magnetic field-free space (magnetic strength is 20 nT, which is
4 x 10-4 of the magnetic strength of the earth’s magnetic field), single high-energy ion beam
implantation (7Li ion beam generated by a tandem accelerator at an energy level of 42.3 Mev),
and mixed high-energy particles (E2 beam lines from Beijing Electron Positron Collider). Thus,
this technology is highly useful in decreasing cost, improving efficiency, boosting productivity
and supporting traditional industry transformation.
Reference
Halstead, T. W., and Dutcher, F. R. 1987. Plants in space. Annual Review on Plant Physiology,
38: 317–345. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pp.38.060187.001533
Il’ne, Y., and Parfenov, G. 1979. Biologicheskiye Issledovaniya na Biosputnikakh “Kosmos.”
Moscow: Nauka, 239.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Liu, L.X., Guo, H.J., Zhao, L.S., Wang, J., Gu, J.Y., & Zhao, S.R., 2009. Achievements and
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Perspectives of Crop Space Breeding in China. Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics
Era Q.Y. Shu (ed.), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, p.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
213-215
Luo, Y., Wang, X., Mei, M., Zhuang, C., Feng, Z., Zengquan, W., Hongmei, X., Juan, Y., &
Article ID:rice
Junliang, Z., 2007. Genomic polymorphism in consecutive generation AG-VO2-I08-07
plants from
seeds on board a spaceship and their relationship with space HZE particles. Frontiers in
Biology in China, 2: 297–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11515-007-0043-1
Merkys, A. J., Mashinsky, A. L., Laurinavichius, R. S., Nechitailo, G. S., Yaroshius, A. V., and
Izupak, E. A. 1975. The development of seedling shoots under space flight conditions. Life
Science Space Research, 13: 53–57.
Merkys, A., and Laurinavichius, R. 1983. Complete cycle of individual development of
Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Plants on board the “Salyut-T” orbital station. Doklady
Akademii nauk SSSR, 271: 509–512.
Merkys, A., Laurinavichius, R., Mashinskiy, A., Yaroshius, A., and Savichene, E. 1976. Effect
of weightlessness and its simulation on the growth and morphology of cells and tissues of
pea and lettuce seedlings. In Organizmy i Sila Tyazhesti. Materialy 1 Vsesoyuznoy
Konferentsii “Gravitatsiya i Organism.” ed. A. J. Merkys, 238–246
Mohanta, T.K., Mishra, A.K., Mohanta, Y.K., & Al-Harrasi, A., 2021. Space Breeding: The
Next-Generation Crops. Frontiers in Plant Sciences. 12: e779185
Palladina, T., Kordyum, E., and Bilyavs’ka, N. 1984. Activity and localization of transport
adenosine triphosphatases in cells of pea seedling root cells in hypogravity conditions.
Ukraine Botanical Journal, 41: 54–57
Saunders, J. 1971. The Experiments of Biosatellite II. NASA SP204. Washington, DC: NASA,
352
Sivasankar, S., 2023. Seeds Undergo Radiation in Space to Explore Biology and Genetics for
Enhanced Food Security. IAEA, Dept of Nuclear Sciences and
Applications.https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/Seeds Undergo Radiation in Space to
Explore Biology and Genetics for Enhanced Food Security

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CHALLENGES, OPPORTUNITIES AND POTENTIALS OF

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ECOTOURISM IN LAKSHADWEEP
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-44
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Akshay F Madiwalar1, Girish B. Shahapurmath 2 and Ankita Bhardwaj

12
Department of Forest Resource Management, College of Forestry, Sirsi, Karnataka, India
3
Department of Silviculture & Agroforestry, College of Forestry, Thrissur, Kerala, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Ecotourism is a burgeoning travel trend, lauded for its educational, resource-conserving, and
cultural showcasing attributes. It serves as a vital tool for rejuvenating environmentally degraded
regions through agricultural endeavours. Developing nations actively seek to expand ecotourism
destinations, proven to enhance biodiversity conservation and foster sustainable development,
particularly in areas strained by human activities. Lakshadweep, an Indian archipelago, emerges
as an ecotourism hotspot, drawing attention for its untapped potential. Despite challenges,
including population pressure, inadequate infrastructure, and livelihood concerns, Lakshadweep's
ecotourism promises global allure. A comprehensive analysis highlights these hurdles,
emphasizing the need for government intervention and strategic initiatives to unlock the region's
potential. In the current landscape, with proper policies, Lakshadweep can transform into a
sought-after global tourist destination, showcasing the harmonious coexistence of nature, culture,
and responsible travel practices
Keywords: Ecotourism, Challenges, Opportunities, Lakshadweep
Introduction
Globally, ecotourism has been proclaimed as the solution to all challenges: a means of
financing scientific research, conservation, safeguarding fragile ecosystems, assisting rural
communities, fostering development in developing nations, enhancing ecological and cultural
sensibilities, establishing environmental consciousness and social responsibility in the travel

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industry, and fostering world peace. It is often pitched as a substitute for mass tourism, although
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
there has been much ambiguity around the concept's interpretation and use. It is seen as
counterintuitive to strike the perfect balance between development and conservation at the same
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
time, not only for ecotourism but also for associated concepts like sustainability and enhancing
natural conservation (Bhavani, 2016). In recent times it was found that ecotourism has not
Article
achieved the objective of integrating the conservation of biodiversity and ID:
theAG-VO2-I08-07
socioeconomic
development of adjacent communities; one reason for the existing implementation problems has
been the concept itself and how it has been operationalized. Moreover, problems with ecotourism
in developing countries include inadequate or non-existent development frameworks, ineffective
administration and management, and failure to realise the advantages that have been promised.
In recent times after the visit of the Indian Prime minister, the tourism potential of Lakshadweep
has been discussed across the country. Hence the present article comprises the potential
opportunities and challenges of Ecotourism in Lakshadweep
About Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep, a 36-island group, renowned for its sun-kissed beaches, translates to "a
hundred thousand islands" in Malayalam and Sanskrit. As the smallest Union Territory in India,
it spans 32 sq km, comprising 10 inhabited islands, three reefs, five submerged banks, and
twelve atolls. Kavaratti is both the capital and main town. Situated in the Arabian Sea, 220-440
km from Kochi, these islands offer natural beauty, sandy beaches, rich flora and fauna, and a
relaxed lifestyle. With a tropical climate, temperatures range from 27 to 32°C. The warmest
months are April and May. Monsoon season halts ship-based tourism, making October to March
the ideal visiting period. The South West Monsoon, active from June to October, brings 10–40
mm rainfall, with 70–75% humidity. Light to moderate winds prevail from October to March.
Challenges of Ecotourism in Lakshadweep
A. Environmental Impact
1. Fragile Ecosystems
The islands, which are experiencing the effects of climate change, may bear the burden of
increased tourism, with significant financial costs to the local population associated with such
plans. The group of islands is already dealing with swift erosion, a rough sea, and warming
waters. However, the extensive human meddling may put the islands, which are made up of
beaches, sand dunes, lagoons, and reefs in even greater jeopardy.

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2. Coral Reefs and Marine Life

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Lakshadweep, known as the coral paradise of Arabian sea, constitutes a group of islands
lying scattered, at a distance of 220 to 460 kms. away from the Kerala coast. The alarming loss
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
of coral reefs has already turned fatal for all the atolls in the island cluster. A research found that
coral mining, pollution, dredging of navigational channels, and damaging activities like blast
fishing pose a threat to Lakshadweep's coral reefs. The beachesArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
and sand dunes of the
archipelago are being severely impacted by the sea level rise brought on by global warming.
B. Cultural and Social Impacts
The cultural disparity between the tourists and the islanders is yet another factor of
discontentment. The type and magnitude of tourism development should be compatible with the
environment and socio cultural characteristics of the local residents. The inhabited islands have
limited carrying capacities and further expansion possibilities in terms of creation of land based
facilities are limited. Availability of vacant land is scarce and most of the inhabited islands have
very high population density. The traditions and cultural habits of the islanders vary widely with
that of the visitors. Guard against negative impact of tourism on the society at large (Social
disharmony, cultural tensions, undesirable exploitation) is much needed.
C. Infrastructural and Logistical Challenges
Transportation challenges between the island and mainland, along with port issues, deter
positive experiences for tourists. The absence of an international or sizable airport nearby
discourages foreign visitors despite the attractiveness of destinations. Notably, Male Island in the
Maldives, despite its small size, boasts a significant international airport, facilitating progress in
tourism on deserted islands. However, insufficient inter-island ferry services impede transport
infrastructure. While the islands offer beaches and water sports, the absence of land-based
attractions like theme parks hinders visitor satisfaction. The lack of such features leads to short
average visitor stays, highlighting the need for diverse attractions and improved transportation.
D. Institutional constraints are too many operating in the way of tourism growth.
 The existing CRZ Act when strictly enforced does not provide adequate space for
development in certain narrow strips of islands.
 Restriction on entry of foreign visitors (International tourists are allowed only in selected
islands) automatically brings down the number of high-spending tourists.

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 Need for entry permits to all visitors and special permits for foreign tourists. Enforcement
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of prohibition in all inhabited islands.
 Lack of policy initiatives for private sector participation in critical sectors like
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
transportation, accommodation, etc.
Opportunities for Ecotourism in Lakshadweep
Article
The most outstanding strength of the islands is their immensely ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
attractive seascape and
the marine wealth. (The blue water lagoon, corals, coral reefs).
A. Sustainable Tourism Practices
Sustainable tourism practices are essential for minimizing the negative impacts of
tourism on the environment, local communities, and cultures. Here are some key points on
sustainable tourism practices:
1. Eco-friendly Accommodations
 Utilize renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power, to reduce the carbon
footprint of accommodations.
 Implement water conservation measures, like water-saving devices and reuse/recycling of
water.
 Design and construct buildings with minimal impact on the local ecosystem.
2. Responsible Tourist Behavior
 Encourage tourists to follow ethical guidelines, such as respecting local customs and
traditions.
 Promote the "Leave No Trace" principle, emphasizing the importance of minimizing
impact on natural areas.
 Educate visitors about the fragility of ecosystems and the importance of preserving local
biodiversity.
B. Biodiversity Conservation
1. Rich Marine Biodiversity
 Lakshadweep is renowned for its diverse marine ecosystems, including coral reefs,
lagoons, and extensive underwater flora and fauna.
 The region hosts a variety of species, including various types of fish, crustaceans,
molluscs, and coral species.

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2. Coral Reef Protection

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Coral reefs in Lakshadweep are vital for marine biodiversity and act as breeding
grounds for numerous marine species.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Conservation efforts focus on protecting coral reefs from threats such as coral

bleaching, overfishing, and physical damage.

3. Marine Conservation Programs Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Implementation of marine conservation initiatives and programs to monitor and

safeguard marine life.
 Research projects to understand the ecology of the marine environment and identify key
conservation areas.
4. Protected Marine Areas
 Designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) to restrict human activities and provide
safe havens for marine life.
 Balancing tourism activities with the need for protected zones to ensure sustainable
biodiversity.
5. Endangered Species Protection
 Conservation efforts targeted at endangered marine species, such as sea turtles and
certain species of fish.
 Rehabilitation and protection of nesting sites for endangered species.
C. Community Involvement
1. Community Engagement
 Foster partnerships with local communities to ensure they benefit economically from
tourism.
 Involve local residents in decision-making processes related to tourism development.
Support community-based tourism initiatives that empower local businesses and
individuals.
2. Cultural Sensitivity
 Develop cultural awareness programs for tourists, promoting respect for local customs
and traditions.
 Encourage tour operators to offer culturally immersive experiences that contribute
positively to local heritage.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 Ensure that tourism activities do not disrupt or exploit indigenous cultures.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Potentials of Ecotourism in Lakshadweep
A. Economic Benefits
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
1. Revenue Generation: Ecotourism attracts visitors who are willing to pay for unique and
sustainable experiences in natural environments. This generates revenue for local
businesses, including accommodations, tour operators, guides, Article ID:artisans.
and local AG-VO2-I08-07

2. Job Creation: The growth of ecotourism often leads to the creation of new jobs, ranging
from tour guides and park rangers to hospitality and transportation services.
3. Diversification of Income: Many communities that engage in ecotourism find that it
provides an alternative and sustainable source of income. This diversification is crucial,
especially in areas where traditional industries may be vulnerable to economic
downturns.
4. Infrastructure Development: Investments in infrastructure like roads, airports, and
communication networks for ecotourism not only benefit tourists but also improve the
overall quality of life for local residents and communities
B. Conservation and Preservation
1. Conservation Funding: Ecotourism can serve as a source of funding for conservation
initiatives. Entrance fees to natural reserves and parks, for example, can be reinvested
into habitat protection, wildlife conservation, and environmental education programs.
2. Cultural Preservation: Ecotourism often emphasizes the preservation of local cultures
and traditions. This can lead to the development of cultural tourism, providing economic
incentives for communities to maintain and showcase their unique heritage.
C. Global Recognition
1. Unique Natural Attractions: Travelers seeking unique and untouched natural
environments are drawn to destinations that prioritize conservation and sustainable
practices.
2. Cultural Heritage: Ecotourism often integrates cultural elements, highlighting the
significance of indigenous communities and their traditional practices..
3. International Media Coverage: Successful ecotourism initiatives often attract attention
from international media outlets.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

4. Social Media Impact: In the age of social media, travellers share their experiences
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
instantly with a global audience.
5. Collaboration with Global Conservation Organizations: Partnerships with renowned
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
global conservation organizations can enhance a destination's credibility and recognition.
Government Initiatives and Policies
A. Policy initiatives Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1. Spread awareness among locals as well as visiting tourists on the ecological sustainability
of the tourism promotion (Formation of ‘Green Army’– voluntary group).
2. Selective approach on CRZ laws.
3. Explore possibilities of relaxation on entry permits rules. (Initially for domestic tourists).
This needs to be done strictly within the carrying capacity of the islands.
4. Selective relaxation on prohibition rules.
5. Tourism policy declaration with importance of ‘high priority’ industry status.
6. Policy on privatisation for support services as well as tourism projects.
7. Close co-ordination among all key departments (Tourism, Port, PWD, Electricity,
Environment and others)
B. Government initiatives
1. A full-fledged Government Tourism Department under a Government Secretary with
independent charge.
2. Full time Director for Department of Tourism, Information and Publicity.
3. Reorganization of SPORTS into Lakshadweep Tourism Development Corporation with
heavy dose of professionalism at all managerial levels.
4. Segregation of entire group of islands into 4 separate groups
5. The SPORTS office at these centres will look after the entire gamut of developmental
programmes in the respective islands.
6. Upgrading the aqua sports centre into a ‘centre of excellence’ in Kadmat island
7. Constant vigil on upgrading the standards and its propagation in aqua sports markets of
Europe is an extreme necessity.
Conclusion
At present, in order to sustain these ecotourism places as key hubs for expanding traveller
numbers, the heart of varied nature's landscapes and biodiversity serves as key draws. Therefore,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

the main goal of the stakeholders is to minimize such threats and problems. Finally, with careful
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
planning and management, the negative effects can be minimized and the ecotourism site can be
strengthened for future growth.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
References
Bhavani, A. (2016). Improving Sustainable Development of Ecotourism in India - A View.
Paripex - Indian Journal of Research, 5 (2), February Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Karpagavalli. G., & Srinivas Rao, P. (2015). A Study on Green Tourism - A Way for a
Sustainable Development in Tourism Industry. International Journal of Research in
Management & Technology, 5 (4), August.
https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-04/Lakshadweep.pdf

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CITRUS BY PRODUCT UTILIZATION: “FROM TRASH TO

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
TREASURE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY”
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-45
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Rhythm Kalsi and Komal Chauhan*

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM-K),
Sonipat-131028 (Haryana), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Citrus fruits are globally renowned as one of the most cultivated fruit crops, often utilized in the
production of various value-added products such as juices, jams, and jellies. However, this leads
to the generation of significant agro-waste, including peels, pomace, and seeds. The
accumulation of such by-products presents substantial challenges concerning environmental
impact, health concerns, and economic losses. Recognizing these challenges, there has been a
noticeable shift towards unlocking the untapped potential within citrus by-products. Innovative
approaches are emerging, aiming to transform what was once considered waste into valuable
resources. This transformation is gaining attraction as industries increasingly acknowledge the
versatility and value of citrus by-products, prompting the development of novel methods and
applications for their utilization. These initiatives are aimed towards harnessing citrus waste to
create valuable resources with diverse applications, particularly within the food industry. This
article explores the significance of utilizing citrus waste and its potential impact on various
sectors.
Global Production
Citrus fruits are among the most extensively cultivated fruits globally, found in both the
Southern and Northern Hemispheres. Originating in the Himalayan region of southwestern
China, northeastern India, and northern Burma, citrus cultivation has spread to over 140
countries (Sharma et al., 2019). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

global citrus production reached approximately 144 million tons in 2019, covering 9.89 million
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
hectares. By 2021, citrus fruits became the second largest fruits produced globally, with over
161.8 million tons, grown across more than 10.2 million hectares. China, Brazil, and India are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
among the largest citrus-producing countries. China's high productivity is attributed to
production of tangerines and other citrus fruits. Brazil on the other hand leads in orange
production and is the top exporter of orange juice. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

India holds the title of the world's largest producer of lemons and limes. The substantial
production and consumption of citrus fruits stems from their exceptional sensory qualities,
including flavor, taste, and aroma, coupled with their nutritional richness (Suri et al., 2022).
Oranges, lemons, grapefruits, mandarins, kumquat, lemons and limes are the most prevalent
citrus varieties cultivated worldwide (Liu et al., 2022). Currently, citrus fruit production exceeds
demand, leading to the generation of approximately 10 million metric tons per year of processing
waste thus raising a global environmental concern (FAO, 2021). While the handling and
management of fruit waste pose substantial challenges in waste management practices, there lies
a significant opportunity for sustainability and resource optimization through its utilization.
Reutilization of fruit waste, holds vast untapped potential for a multitude of purposes. This will
mitigate environmental impact and simultaneously enhance the value of the agricultural sector
(Borges and Pimentel, 2020). This underscores the importance of exploring innovative strategies
to harness the latent value within fruit waste, thereby contributing to both environmental
conservation and economic development.
Components
Citrus fruit waste encompasses various residual components, including peels, pulp, and
seeds, which are often discarded. Peels consist of two main parts: the flavedo, rich in essential
oils, carotenoids, phenols, and flavonoids, and the albedo, which is abundant in pectin, cellulose,
hemicellulose, lignin, and dietary fibers (Suri et al., 2022). Pulp waste, known for its fiber
content such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, also contains citrate sugar, pectin, essential
oils, limonene, and polyphenols like flavonoids and natural antioxidants (Suri et al., 2022).
Conversely, citrus seed waste serves as a reservoir of essential oils and limonoids (Dubey et al.,
2023).

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Valorization
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The valorization of citrus fruit waste is vital for mitigating adverse environmental impact
caused by the substantial quantities of waste generated. Sustainable valorization techniques are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
essential for leveraging citrus processing waste-derived products to contribute to the bio-
economy. For instance, fruit pomace, the solid residue remaining after juice extraction, is rich in
Article
dietary fiber, antioxidants, and bioactive compounds. The pomace is used ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
as animal feed, dietary
supplements, or functional food ingredient. It not only reduces waste but also enhances nutrition
and health outcomes (Dubey et al., 2023).
Citrus peels are rich source of essential oils. These oils, derived from the peel's outer
layer (flavedo), contain aromatic compounds such as limonene, which impart the characteristic
citrus flavor and fragrance to various culinary delights. Widely used as natural flavoring agents
in bakery items, citrus essential oils offer a spectrum of flavors, colors, and functional properties
that enhance the taste, appearance, and flavour profile of food products. Moreover, citrus peels
are rich sources of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, known for
their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, which inhibit oxidation and microbial growth,
thereby extending shelf life. Additionally, citrus peel extracts can be incorporated into functional
foods and dietary supplements to promote health and well-being (Liu et al., 2022).
Often overlooked as waste, citrus seeds harbor untapped potential for utilization in the
food industry. These seeds, abundant in essential oils and limonoids, can enhance various
sensory attributes of food products. The oil extracted from citrus seeds adds a distinct citrus
aroma and flavor profile to a wide range of products. Citrus seed flour, containing protein,
dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds, serves as a valuable addition. Moreover, citrus seeds
contain antioxidants such as flavonoids and vitamin C, contributing to their potential health
benefits when incorporated into food products (Suri et al., 2022). Furthermore, fruit pomace
serves as a rich source of bioactive ingredients, including dietary fibers, carbohydrates,
phenolics, and natural antioxidants, with potential applications in both food and pharmaceuticals.
Thus, the utilization of citrus by-products underscores their invaluable role in enhancing the
functionality and nutritional value of various food products. Thus the valorization of citrus fruit
waste not only reduces waste but also contributes to improving nutrition and health outcomes
through the utilization of its bioactive compounds and antioxidants, ultimately promoting overall
well-being.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Valorization of Citrus Waste

Application Citrus waste Usage Function Outcome
Flavoring Citrus peels Baked goods, Enhance Enhancing sensory appeal
Agent and essential confectionery, flavor and
oils beverages, and aroma
savory dishes
Functional Citrus peel Functional foods Bioactive Antioxidant, antimicrobial
Food extracts and dietary
compounds properties, contributing to
Ingredients supplements like the health-promoting
flavonoids benefits
and phenolic
acids
Dietary Fiber Citrus Enriched food Dietary fiber Improve nutritional profile
Enrichment pomace products with and promote digestive
high fiber content, health
Food Citrus peel Extended shelf Bioactive Inhibit oxidation and
Preservatives extracts life of perishable compounds, microbial growth
products antioxidants Maintains shelf stability

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Nutrient- Citrus seed Nutrient-rich Rich in Improving nutritional

Volume: 02
Rich Issue
flour No: 08 formulations protein, index
Ingredients dietary fiber,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH and essentialOF WORKERS
HAZARDS
nutrients
Natural Food Citrus peel Imparting vibrant Antioxidants, Natural colorants are
Colorants extracts hues to food pigments protective
Article ID:and healthy
AG-VO2-I08-07
products-fruit
flavored
beverages,
desserts, and
candies.
Infused Citrus peel To enhance flavor Volatile Add a refreshing citrus
Beverages extracts and and the nutritional components, twist and provide
essential oils value - Fruit bioactives additional health benefits
juices, flavored
water, teas, and
cocktails
Snack Foods Citrus peel Enhance flavor Flavoring To create unique flavor
powders or profile- snack compounds profiles and improve
extracts foods, such as appeal
chips, crackers,
and popcorn
Dairy Citrus peel Introduce citrus Yogurt, ice Contribute to the overall
Products extracts flavor variations cream and nutritional value and
cheese antioxidant content of
these products
Concentrated Citrus peel Incorporate into Bakery, For food manufacturers
Ingredients powders, various recipes conectionary ensuring consistent flavor
oils, and and formulations and quality
extracts
Conclusion
The utilization of citrus waste emerges as a crucial strategy in mitigating the challenges
posed by the substantial volumes of waste generated during processing. Despite the exceptional
sensory properties and nutritional richness of citrus fruits, their by-products have traditionally
been discarded. However, through innovative valorization techniques, a wealth of valuable
resources hidden within citrus waste has been unearthed, contributing significantly to
sustainability and resource optimization in the agricultural sector. The global significance of

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

citrus production underscores the urgency of harnessing the potential of citrus waste. With citrus
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
fruits ranking among the most produced and economically important crops worldwide, effective
management and utilization of their by-products are imperative. By using citrus waste into
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
essential oils, pectin, animal feed, biodiesel, and antioxidants, we not only reduce environmental
pollution and waste disposal costs but also foster economic growth and innovation. Through
Article
collaborative endeavors across industries and sectors, we can fully unlock theID: AG-VO2-I08-07
potential of citrus
waste and usher in a brighter, more sustainable future for generations to come.
References
Borges, G. D. S. C., & Pimentel, T. C. (2020). Valorization of fruit pomace in the food industry:
a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57(6), 1931–1939.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-04183-x
Dubey, P., Tripathi, G., Mir, S. S., & Yousuf, O. (2023). Current scenario and global
perspectives of citrus fruit waste as a valuable resource for the development of food
packaging film. In Trends in Food Science &amp; Technology (Vol. 141, p. 104190).
Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.104190
Liu S, Lou Y, Li Y, Zhang J, Li P, Yang B and Gu Q (2022) Review of phytochemical and
nutritional characteristics and food applications of Citrus L. fruits. Front. Nutr. 9:968604.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.968604
Sharma K, Mahato N, Lee YR. Extraction, characterization and biological activity of citrus
flavonoids. Rev Chem Eng. (2019) 35:265–84. doi: 10.1515/revce-2017-0027
Suri, S., Singh, A., & Nema, P. K. (2022). Current applications of citrus fruit processing waste:
A scientific outlook. Applied Food Research, 2(1), 100050.
Websites referred
10.5772/intechopen.110519
FAO. Food And Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations [Internet]. 2023. Available
from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data
FAO. (2021). Citrus Fruit Statistical Compendium 2020. Citrus Fruit Fresh and Processed
Statistical Bulletin 2020.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

DESMODIUM- A VALUABLE
OCCUPATIONAL LEGUME
HEALTH FODDER
HAZARDS OF CROP
WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-46

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Anuratha A., 2*V. Krishnan, 2D. Umamaheswari, 2T. Anandhan, 2M. Tamilzharasi, 3A.
Harivignesh and 3Maddu Geethanjali
1
Faculty, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Keezhvelur, Nagapattinam
District, Tamil Nadu
2
Faculty & 3PG Scholar, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal, U. T. of Puducherry 609603.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Desmodium, botanically called Desmodium intortum (2n: 22) belonging to plant family
Fabaceae and subfamily Papilionoideae is a summer growing perennial forage legume, highly
palatable protein supplementary feed during summer and autumn. It is grown throughout the
tropics and well established in high rainfall areas of subtropics and elevated hilly areas. It is also
called Beggar lice, Beggar’s Lice, Hitch Hikers, Linear-leaf Tick clover, Tick's Clover, Tick-
trefoil. It is a nitrogen-fixing fodder crop, it has been introduced to the rest of the world's tropics,
including Africa, India, Australia, New Guinea and Taiwan
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF DESMODIUM
Habitat
Desmodium grows well in subtropical areas receiving atleast 1200 mm rainfall with warm
season and late season rainfall for seed setting. It can tolerate light frost and come up well even
in acid soil with a pH range of 4.5 to 5, but not in salaine soil.
Habit
A large trailing and scrambling perennial (pluri-annual) legume.
Root: A strong taproot with root nodules.

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Stems:
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Grooved, hairy and reddish-brown in colour, branching freely, climbing pubescent stem
that is rooting at the nodes.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The stems are green or sometimes red, 1.5 to 7.5 m long and about 7 mm in diameter.
Leaves:
Article
Trifoliately compound. Upper leaf surface is lighter in colour and ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
covered with fine hairs.
leaflets, each commonly about 4cm long and 3cm wide. reddish brown to purple in colour.
Pulvinus present only on the middle leaflet. Lateral veins curving inside the blade margins but
not forming loops. Underside of the leaflet blades clothed in pale straight hairs held at an angle
of 30-45.
Inflorescence:
The flowers are borne on terminal compact racemes.
Flowers:
Small (less than 1cm long), deep lilac to deep pink in colour., borne in groups at the ends of
the stems.
Calyx:
About 5 mm long, sparsely hairy on the outer surface. Two calyx lobes fused almost to the
tip.
Corolla:
About 8 mm long, glabrous. deep lilac to deep pink in colour.
Androecium:
Stamens 10, the filaments of nine stamens fused to form a tube. Free part of the
filaments alternately long and short. One stamen free. Anthers less than 1 mm long.
Gynoecium:
Ovary clothed in pale prostrate hairs. Ovules about ten. Style and stigma glabrous. Style
about 10 mm long.
Fruit:
Narrow segmented pods to 5 cm long, each holding 8 - 12 seeds. The segments break up
when mature and, being covered with short hooked hairs, will stick to hair or clothing.
Seeds: Flattish, yellow-brown, oval-kidney shaped seeds about 1.5 mm long; about 595,000
seeds per kg.

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Pollination:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It is an often cross pollinated forage legume with out-crossing ranging from 8 to 30 per
cent. Flowers may require tripping by bees or other insects for pollination and for good seed.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Center of Origin:
Native of central America or Mexico.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 1. Desmodium intortum- Botanical illustration

Related species:
1. Desmodium uncinatum
2. Desmodium adscendens
3. Desmodium wynaadense
4. Desmodium sessilifolium
5. Desmodium rotundifolium
6. Desmodium grans-hi-res

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

7. Desmodium gangeticum
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8. Desmodium incanum
9. Desmodium perplexum
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
10. Desmodium acanthoclada
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Desmodium has very small seeds and requires a wellArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
prepared seedbed for
establishment. It can be sown from spring to mid-summer or later in frost-free areas. It is
possible to propagate desmodium by rooted cuttings. Once established, Desmodium grows
vigorously and spreads rapidly into ungrazed areas because of its stolons. Desmodium is
usually sown in association with a grass or another legume. It grows well with a wide range of
forage grasses. Desmodium is a N-fixing legume that has been reported to fix 213-300 kg
N/ha/year in the soil, but it transfers only 5% of this nitrogen to its companion grasses.
Desmodium is generally introduced into natural pastures to increase the DM yield. In Brazil, 3
years after its introduction, Desmodium still represented 38 to 53% of the pasture (Silva et al.,
1993). Desmodium may be grown in association with Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) in
order to increase the protein content of the stand (from 11% in a pure Napier stand to 15% in
mixed sward). The in vitro OM digestibility of Napier/greenleaf forage decreased with
maturity, from 70 to 56%. Yield was favoured by late cuttings (120 days), with quality (protein
up to 18% DM) favoured by early cuttings (60 days). It has moderate needs for added
fertilizers, only P, S, K and Mo being required. It is susceptible to pests such as the Pyralidae
caterpillars Hedylepta dnopheralis Mab. and Hedylepta indicata F., that can cause heavy losses
at the end of the hot season.
USES OF DESMODIUM
1. It is cultivated as a long term irrigated pasture legume
2. It is also grown for cut-and-carry forage legume.
3. Produces good quality silage when mixed with 8 per cent molasess on fresh
matter basis.
4. It is used as a good stanover feed during autumn and winter in frost free areas.
5. It fixes admospheric nitrogen to the tune of 12 to 19 tonnes of N per hectare per
annum and therby improve the soil fertility.
6. Grown as a cover crop in coffee plantations.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

7. Increases the organic carbon content of the soil where it is cultivated.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
8. It is grown as a cover crop in Agroforestry system to prevent soil errosion.
FODDER VALUE OF DESMODIUM
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Green fodder:
Desmodium get well established after 3 to 12 weeks based on growing conditions. Once
established, for cut and carry system, longer cutting intervals of 30 toArticle
85 daysID:shall
AG-VO2-I08-07
be given to
get higher yield. Desmodium yields 12 to 19 t/ha/year.
Pasture:
It is also suitable for pasture legumes. Initial grazing should be very light and after a
period of establishment (3 to 12 weeks) moderate to heavy grazing can be allowed on rotational
basis.
Hay and Silage:
Desmodium act as a good standover hay feed during autunm and winter in frost free
areas. Good quality silage can be made with mixing green matter with 8 per cent molasses on
fresh weight basis.
Nutritive value:
Nutrients present based on dry weight basis includes Crude protein 15%, crude fiber
30%, Neutral digestible fiber 51%, Acid digestibile fiber 37%, Lignin 9% and ash 7.5 %. This
forage is rich in Calcium, poatassium, manganese and Copper.
Palatability:
Palatable and eaten well by cattle and sheep, but not as that of Siratro.
Toxicity:
Desmodium contains high levels of condensed tannins that may limit the digestibility of the
feed to 55 to 60 per cent. But no undesiarable reports have been observed in animals.
ADVANTAGES OF DESMODIUM
1. Fixes admospheric nitrogen to the tune of 213 to 300 kg/ha/year.
2. Has good early and late season vigour and hence act as a standover feed during
autumn and winter.
3. It is shade tolerant and can be grown as a cover crop in coffee plantations.
4. As a companion crop it can be grown with tussock grasses such as Guinea grass
and Napier grass.

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5. It is tolerant to waterlogging and flooded conditions.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
6. It spreads vegetatively along the trailing stems.
LIMITATIONS OF DESMODIUM
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
1. Desmodium has low seedling vigour.
2. It cannot tolerate heavy grazing and has poor persistence
3. It is susceptible to Pyralidae caterpillars. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

4. Poor tolerance to drought and salinity.

5. Considered as an invasive weed due to its shade tolerance and ability to climb
over other plants and tree species.
6. Because of its high condensed tannin content, its digestibility is reduced to 60
per cent in cattles.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

EDGE LUCERN- MULTIPURPOSE FORAGE LEGUME

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
CROP
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-47
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1A. Harivignesh, A 2*V. Krishnan, 3A. Anuratha, 2D. Umamaheswari, 2T. Anandhan, 2M.
Tamilzharasi, and1Maddu Geethanjali
1
PG Scholar & 2Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal, U. T. of Puducherry 609603., India
2
Faculty, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Keezhvelur, Nagapattinam
District, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Hedge lucern, botanically called Desmanthus virgatus (2n: 28), belonging to plant
family Fabaceae and Sub family Mimosoideae is an highly variable perennial forage legume
adapted to tropical and subtropical regions with a wide range of temperature including frost
condition and rainfall ranging from 250 to 2000 mm. It is mostly found in the coastal thickets,
roadsides and heavily disturbed areas from sea level to altitude of 2000 m, but most commonly
found below 500 m. Hedge lucern as its name indicate can be grown as an hedge or fence as a
forage crop as well as ornamental crop in gardens and recreation centers. Hedge Lucern is also
called as dwarf koa, desmanthus, bundle flower, ground tamarind, and virgate mimosa.
Botanical Description of Hedge Lucern
Habitat:
It can grow in a wide range of temperatures including frost condition and rainfall
regimes ranging between 250 and 2000 mm rainfall. It can grow in neutral to alkaline soils, but
not in acid soils.
Habit: It is a highly variable erect or decumbent perennial woody sub-shrub that grows up to
2.5 to 3 m.

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Root:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
It has a deep tap root with a strong branching that produces root nodules.
Stem:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The stem is sparsely branched, rather angular, often hollow, glabrous or slightly
pubescent at the top. The stems are slender, pithy in the center, angular, green turning brown.
Leaf: Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The leaves are alternate, compound bipinnate. They are held by a small petiole of 3 to 7
mm long. The stipules are linear, slightly membranous at the base and consist mainly of the
central rib, 3 to 6 mm long. There is a discoid gland, of red colour, 1 to 2.5 mm, present at the
top of the petiole. The leaves are bipinnate, with 1 to 4 pairs of opposite pinnae, on which 6 to 15
pairs of opposite leaflets are inserted. The latter are oblong to narrowly obovate, slightly
asymmetrical at the base and with rounded top. They are 4 to 12 mm long and 1.5 to 3 mm wide.
The margin is entire, cilliated and venation is not clear.
Inflorescence:
The inflorescence is a spherical to ovoid powder buff like head or capitulum, consisting
of 6 to 10 flowers. It is held by a peduncle, The inflorescence bears perfect, male, and sterile
flowers.Sterile flowers zero to eight numbers at the base of the head; one or few male flowers
towards the base of the head above the sterile flowers, and below the perfect flowers; perfect
flowers 3–14 in apical position.
Flower:
Flowers are perfect or staminate or staminodal, incomplete or complete and
actinomorphic. Sterile flowers are smaller than the perfect and male flowers and have white or
pink staminode.
Calyx:
Five sepals fused to form a tube.
Corolla:
Five greenish fused petals forming a tube, twice the length of the calyx (long of 3 to 4 mm).
Androecium:
There can be 10 white stamens or 10 staminodes that are 7 to 10 times the length of the
corolla. Ten stamens in two whorls of five each, maturing in different times. Anthers caducous,
dorsifixed, oblong; connective broader and darker than the thecae.

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Gynoecium:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Ovary superior with a single locule.; ovary 1.5 to 2.4 mm long, linear and glabrous. Style
1.9 to 4.4 mm long, not exserted beyond the stamens.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 1. Desmanthus virgatus- Botanical illustration

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Fruit:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The fruit is a shortly pedicellate or sessile pod. The pods are in bundles of 2 to 6 at the
top of the peduncle. The pod is linear, dorsi-ventrally flattened; have a woody, coriaceous
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
pericarp. Fruit dehiscence along both the sutures, rarely along one suture or indehiscent.
Seed:
Article
The seed is oblique or elliptical or roughly rhombic; it measures 2.5 ID:
to 3AG-VO2-I08-07
mm long. The
tegument is smooth, dark brown, dotted with small white scales.
Pollination:
It is basically a self-pollinated species and sefl-compatible in nature. But cross-
pollination by insect vectors increases the seed set.
Origin: Mexico
Related species:
1. Desmathus leptophyllus
2. Desmathus pubescens
3. Desmathus reticulatus
4. Desmathus pumilus
5. Desmathus obtusus
6. Desmathus oligospermus
7. Desmathus acuminatus
8. Desmathus hexappetalus
9. Desmathus glandulosus
CULTIVATED FORMS OF DESMANTHUS
1. Desmanthus virgatus var. virgatus: Erect plant type suitable for pasture and grow well in
fertile clay soils.
2. Desmanthus virgatus var. glandulosus: Erect plant type suitable for rocky hillsides,
plains and roadsides associated with limestones.
3. Desmanthus virgatus var. depressus: Prostrate plant type, widespread as weed of lawns and
dry pastures, disturbed ground and roadsides. Great soil tolerance.
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Hedge lucerne is very adaptive and can grow under a wide range of temperatures
(including frost conditions) and rainfall conditions (from 250 to 2000 mm). Hedge

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lucerne prefers neutral to alkaline clay or clay-loam soils but is also known to do better
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
than Leucaena on acid infertile soils. It is also tolerant of sodic soils. Hedge lucerne is a very
drought-tolerant legume. It withstands frost and fire (which may suppress buried seed dormancy)
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
since it can regrow from the crown. Hedge lucerne tolerates severe competition from grasses and
herbs but disappears when overtopped by trees since it does not withstand shaded conditions.
Articletropics
Yields of hedge lucerne range from 7.6 t DM/ha in the humid ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
(2000 mm
rainfall) to 2-2.4 t DM/ha in low rainfall (600-750 mm) areas. It can withstands regular cutting,
and plantations can be cut for feed 4or 6 times a year. In drought-prone areas, hedge lucerne is
one of the most resistant legumes and was able to persist under grazing over a 14 year period. It
was found less suitable than Leucaena leucocephala (lower protein and in vitro OMD) for
grass-legume forage production. The contribution of Desmanthus virgatus to pasture yield is
higher in harsh environments than in more favourable ones, so that it is relatively more
valuable on soils of moderate fertility in environments with a marked dry season.
USES OF DESMANTHUS
1. Grazed by herbivores in the native range.
2. Component of improved permanent pastures in the dry tropics.
3. Can be used for hay, but requires rapid drying to avoid significant leaf drop.
4. Desmanthus helps to put weight on cows
5. It helps to control soil erosion, especially on slopes.
6. It is grown as an hedge species of garden as a protective fencing vegetation.
7. Hedge lucerne, provided it is inoculated with adequate rhizobium strains, is a
good N-fixing legume.
8. Hedge lucerne is an efficient nursery-stage host for highly priced sandalwood
FODDER VALUE OF DESMANTHUS
Green fodder:
This is a fodder crop suitable for harsh dry environment than favourable environment.
Desmanthus virgatus withstands regular cutting, and plantations can be cut for feed 4 or 6 times
a year. In drought-prone areas, hedge lucerne is one of the most resistant legumes and was able
to persist under grazing over a 14 year period. Hedge Lucern is very tolerant to regular cutting.
The yield of green fodder is about 7.6 t Dry matter/ha/year.It is one of the low yielding forage
legume.

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Nutritive value:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Crude protein 21%, Neutral digestibile fiber 42%, Acid digestibile fiber 35%, tannin 2-
3%.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Palatability:
Hedge lucern is palatable to grazing animals and grazed by beef cattle throughout the
Article
growing season. It is less palatable than Leucana, and more readily eatenID:
byAG-VO2-I08-07
livestock than
Stylosanthus.
oxicity:
No toxicity has been reported for Hedge Lucern and it contains less amount of codensed
tannins only.
Pasture:
Hedge Lucern is very tolerant to grazing by ruminants. It combines well with grass
pasture in sub-humid moderately fertile environment. In more testing environments, its relative
contribution to pasture yield can be significant, whereas in highly favourable environments, other
legume species may make a greater contribution to yield.
Hey and Silage:
Hedge lucerne hay can be successfully included in compound feeds.It has very low
protein digestibility, in relation with a non-enzymatic browning during drying. When used with a
concentrate, the nutritive value of fresh hedge lucerne leaves can be estimated as 9.0 mg/kg DM
and protein digestibility as 57.7%.
ADVANTAGES OF HEDGE LUCERN
1. Combines well with grass pasture in sub-humid moderately fertile environment.
2. It is tolerant to alkaline, sodic, saline and heavy clay soils.
3. It is a very drought tolarant legume fodder.
4. Can tolerate severe competitions from grasses and herbs.
5. It can persist in dry cracking clay soils.
6. It can perform well in harsh environment, while other forage legumes do not.
7. It has high rate of seed production.
8. Very tolerant to regular cuttings as well as heavy grazing.
9. It regrows from left out crown after a moderate fire event.
10. It is a very persistent forage legume in low rainfall environment.

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LIMITATIONS OF HEDGE LUCERN

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Establishment in first year is very slow
2. Relatively low dry matter production along with vigorous grass pasture
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
3. Limited scope of hay and silage due to low dry matter production.
4. Seed may need inoculation with effective Rhizobium strain for inducing growth.
5. ArticleifID:
It cannot tolerate shade condition and hence it gives low productivity AG-VO2-I08-07
shaded by
tree crops.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BEREEM- A WINTER SEASON

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTHLEGUME FODDER
HAZARDS OF WORKERSCROP

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-48

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1Maddu Geethanjali 2*V. Krishnan, 3A. Anuratha, 2D. Umamaheswari, 2T. Anandhan, 2M.
Tamilzharasi and A. Harivignesh
1
PG Scholar & 2Faculty, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute,
Karaikal, U. T. of Puducherry 609603. India
3
Faculty, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Keezhvelur, Nagapattinam
District, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Berseem or Egyptian Clover, botanically called Trifolium alexandrinum (2n: 16),
belonging to plant family Fabaceae and Sub famil Papilionoideae is an important long duration
rabi legume fodder in India. It is one of the most important fodder crops and has been rightly
described as the king of fodders. It is highly esteemed fodder which has a special place in animal
husbandry programmes throughout the country. It is cultivated from 35°N to the Tropics, from
sea level up to 750 m and up to 1500 m in North West Himalaya. It is cultivated in Egypt,
Pakistan, Turkey and the Mediterranean region, where it is the principle green fodder for
animals.
Botanical Description of Berseem
Habitat:
Berseem grows well in mild winter and recovers strongly after cutting. It does not grow
well under hot summer conditions. Berseem has some frost tolerance, with annual rainfall
ranging between 550 mm and 750 mm. It can withstand some drought and short periods of
waterlogging. It does better than alfalfa in high moisture soils and is very productive under
irrigation. It is moderately tolerant of salinity with a pH range of 6.5-8.

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Habit:
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Small, erect shallow rooted, sparsely hairy, shruby annual growing up to a height of 80 cm.
Root:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Shallow tap root that grows up to 50 cm depth with root nodules.
Stem:
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Stem is hollow and succulent, but becomes fibrous after flowering.
Leaves:
Leaves trifoliate, alternate arrangement; tender, slightly hairy on upper surface and
lamina is membranous with green veins; leaflets 4-5 cm long and 2-3 cm width; oblong-elliptical
to oblong-lanceolate, tapering at both ends, mucronate at apex, denticulate in upper part
Inflorescence:
The inflorescence is a compact umbel like raceme with sessile and pedicillate flowers
attached to the main stem in involcured manner.
Flower: Flowers are round yellowish white in colour.
Calyx:
Gamosepalous (with five united sepals), calyx tube obconical to campanulate with ten
prominent nerves.
Corolla:
Modified papilionaceous corolla with two standard petals fused together, two free wing
petals and single keel petal; standard considerably longer than wing petals; colour varying from
yellow, cream to white.
Androecium:
Stamens in diadelphous (9+1) condition
Gynoecium:
Monocarpellary, unilocular ovary with globular stigma.
Fruit:
The fruit is a pod containing one single seed.
Seed: White to purplish-red seed
Pollination:
Berseem is a cross-pollinated crop. The extent of cross-pollination is up to 82 per cent
and tripping by bee is essential for cross-pollination. Berseem has a simple valver mechanism in

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which the stamens and stigma are forced out of keel due to the pressure exerted by the insect and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
return to the original position as soon as the pressure is released. The bee species involved in
tripping of Berseem include Apis dorsata, A. mellifera and A. florea.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig. 1. Trifolium alexandrinum-Berseem- Botanical illustration

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Center of Origin: Asia Minor

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Related species:
1. Trifolium repens- tetraploid
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
2. Trifolium nigrescens - self-incompatible
3. Trifolium occidentale - self-compatible perennial
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
4. Trifolium uniflorum - Self-incompatible autotetraploid perennial
5. Trifolium echinatum - gene source for late flowering
6. Trifolium pratense - drought and winter hardiness
CULTIVATED TYPES OF BERSEEM
1. Single-cut cultivars- Trifolium alexandrinum var. alexandrinum: Unbranched or slightly
branched with slender, solid stem; Fahl group of cultivars which are late maturing and grown for
single cut forrage crop. These are culltivars with high growing points and easily get damaged by
close grazing. It is suitable for hay making.
2. Multi-cut cultivars- Trifolium alexandrinum var. serotinum: Branched from the base; stems
thick,but fistulose; early maturing Mescawi cultivars cultivated for multi-cut forage crop. These
are cultivars with low growing points and suitable for multicut and carry as well as for grazing
and hay making.
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Berseem is only propagated by seeds and is usually sown in early autumn. It can be
sown on a conventional seedbed or be direct drilled. Berseem can be sown alone or in
combination with other species. It is mixed with grass (ryegrass) or with a winter cereal crop
such as oats to make high quality silage. Berseem can be integrated into a rice-wheat cropping
system, as a winter and spring feed: it is then sown before or just after rice harvest. In
Australia, berseem is sown with other legumes such as arrowleaf clover (Trifolium
vesiculosum), Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum) or balansa clover (Trifolium
michelianum). In some areas, berseem is sown with vegetables such as sarson (Brassica
juncea) or turnips. Under irrigation, berseem must be sown earlier and irrigated on a weekly
basis at the beginning. Ten to 15 irrigations are generally necessary for fodder production.
Berseem should be cut when basal buds are short (about 2-4 cm high) so that they escape
cutting, which would hamper regrowth and forage yield.

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USES OF BERSEEM
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Berseem is a high quality, protein rich green forage suitable for cut and carry
especially for the winter season.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
2. It is also grown as a green manure crop that increases the soil nitrogen and organic
carbon content.
3. When grown in crop rotation with rice or wheat, it benefits theArticle
yield ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
performance of the principle crop.
4. It establishes quickly and protect the soil against soil erosion.
5. It suppresses weeds when grown as a companion crop with other cereals and
forage grasses.
6. Berseem is also cultivated for foraging honey bees.
7. Berseem act as feed for wild life animals such as Deer and rabbits.
8. Leaf meal can be used as feed for aqua fish culture.
9. Berseem is highly suitable as green fodder feed for horses.
10. Fresh green berseem, at 15% of the diet DM, improved the growth and feed
intake of broilers.
FODDER VALUE OF BERSEEM
Green fodder:
Berseem is a high quality green fodder, mainly cultivated for cut and carry fodder for
cattles, especially for milch animals. It is often comparable to Lucern for its feed value but unlike
Lucern, it does not cause bloating in ruminants. It can be integrated with rice or wheat cropping
system as winter and spring season feed. Berseem should be cut when the basal nodes are at
lower levels. Green fodder yield ranges from 80 to 90 tonnes per ha per year.
Nutritive value:
On dry weight basis crude protein 19%, crude fiber 22%, Neutral digestable fiber 44%,
Acid digestable fiber 27%, lignin 5% and ash 15.4%. Berseem is rich in Calcium, potassium and
Zinc. The digestibility per cent of Berseem feed is about 70 per cent.
Palatability:
Berseem clover is a non-bloating highly palatable forage legume that is highly liked by
cattles, horses, sheep and donkey.

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Toxicity:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Berseem contains Saponins which when fed to animals in high quantity would impare
digestion and cause bloat.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Pasture:
Berseem is not much suitable for grazing. The livestock may damage its upper growing
points. Grazing should be started before the sward becomes erect. Article
Quick ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
grazing rotation is
required with resting period of 30-40 days for regrowth rather than set stocking or prolonged
grazing.
Hay and Silage:
Due to the presence of secculent stem, berseem is not fairly suitable for hay making.
When berseem is intended for hay, only the last spring cut must be used as it is drier. For good
quality hay making the crop should be cut before flowering. For hay making cut crop is allowed
to wilt in the field and then let to dry on the roof tops and made into hay. For silage preparation
berseem is mixed with 20 per cent ground maize. For quality silage 5 per cent molasses can be
mixed with fodder on wet weight basis.
ADVANTAGES OF BERSEEM
1. Berseem is moderately tolerant to salinity.
2. It can tolerate poor drainage and brief period of water logging.
3. It can tolerate moderate level of cold or frost
4. It produces abundant quantity of seeds and hence easy to establish through
seeding.
5. It is non-bloating unlike Lucern.
6. It increases the yield of principle crops, when grown as acompanion crop like
rice or wheat.
7. It quickly establishes and cover the soil and prevent soil errosion and suppress
the weed growth.
8. Berseem is a good for honey bee forage.
9. It enriches the soil nitrogen as well as organic carbon of the soil where it is
cultivated.
10. It can be grown as a green manure crop.

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LIMITATIONS OF BERSEEM
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Berseem does not tolerate shade.
2. Forage quality declines with maturity
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
3. It contains saponins that may cause bloat when excessively fed.
4. Not much suited for pasture as well as for hay making.
5. Regenerations problem arise if close grazing occur. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

WEED MANAGEMENT
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IN SUGARCANE
HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-49

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1*K.Kalaichelvi and 2C.Harisudan

1
Assistant Professor (Agronomy), Sugarcane Research Station, Cuddalore – 607 001,
Tamil Nadu, India
2
Associate Professor (Agronomy), Regional Research Station, Viridhachalam – 606 001,
Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Most common weeds of sugarcane are Cyperus rotundus (sedge), Cyanodon dactylon, Digitaria
sanguinalis, Dinebra retroflexa, Eleusine indica, Panicum spp., Dactyloctenium aegyptium
(among grasses), Trianthema portulacastrum, convolvulus arvensis, Amaranthus viridis, (among
broad leaved weeds) etc. If these weeds are not controlled from very beginning the reduction in
sugarcane yield may be severe. The most critical period for the week competition in sugarcane is
up to 4-5 months after planting beyond which the crop smoothers the weed flora by itself. Weed
removes 4 times of N and P and 2.5times of K in sugarcane. pre emergence application of
atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 on 3 DAP followed by post emergence directed application of
glyphosate @ 1.0 lit ha-1on 45 DAP with hood+ one hand weeding on 90 DAP registered the
maximum cane yield.
Introduction
In Agriculture sector, sugarcane share is about 7% of total agriculture production and
occupied 2.6% of India’s gross cropped area with functioning of 527 sugar factories. India
occupies an important place among the sugarcane producing country and has a neck to neck race
with Brazil. Sugarcane is cultivated in an area of 4.44 mha in India with the annual production of
306.07 lakh tonnes and cane productivity of around 69.0 t/ha with an average sugar recovery of

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approximately 10% (ISMA, 2019). Weed loss is to the tune of 12%- 72% in sugarcane. Unlike
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
other crops, wider spacing, slow growth and one year for harvest favours the weed infestation.
During the initial 100-120 days period much of the soil, space, sunlight etc. are left unutilized by
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the sugarcane crop. Taking advantage , weeds grow luxuriantly and cause serious damage. Most
common weeds of sugarcane are Cyperus rotundus (sedge), Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
sanguinalis, Dinebra retroflexa, Eleusine indica, Panicum spp., Dactyloctenium aegyptium
(among grasses), Trianthema portulacastrum, convolvulus arvensis, Amaranthus viridis, A
blitum, Digera arvensis, Portulaca oleracea, Lactuca runcinata, Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia
geniculata, Eclipta alba, Commelina benghalensis, Digera arvensis, Phyllanthus niruri and
Ipomoea spp. (among broad leaved weeds) etc.
If these weeds are not controlled from very beginning the reduction in sugarcane yield may
be severe. The most critical period for the week competition in sugarcane is up to 4-5 months
after planting beyond which the crop smoothers the weed flora by itself. Weed removes 4 times
of N and P and 2.5times of K in sugarcane. Physical methods work out to be costly. Because of
this, farmers face lot of problems in attending to the important operation of timely weeding.
Herbicides can be very usefully employed to supplement physical control of weeds in sugarcane
to achieve higher yield targets and to lower the labour requirement and cost involved. Effective
weed control in sugarcane can be achieved by adopting various known approaches of weed
management.
The weed management module for the main crop includes the following recommendation for
Main crop
1. The pre emergence application of atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 on 3 DAP followed by post
emergence directed application of glyphosate @ 1.0 lit ha-1on 45 DAP with hood+ one
hand weeding on 90 DAP registered the maximum cane yield.
2. If pre-emergence spray is not carried out, apply post-emergence spray of Grammaxone
1.0 litre + 2,4-D sodium salt 2.5 kg/ha in 600 liter of water on 21st day of planting.
3. Hand weeding and partial and full earthing up for ratoon weed management.
Finally the crop earthed up, just before it enters its grand growth period. By this time a
healthy crop of cane should close in sufficiently to smother any new weed seedling, Ipomoea
spp., Convolvulus arvensis and the like trailing weed species, may however still survive by
climbing the cane plants. These trailing weeds are severe in ratoon and disturb the harvesting.

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Hericide
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Atrazine is applied as a premergence herbicide effectively manages the weeds up to 20
DAHS (Days after Herbicide spraying). After which early post emergence (EPOE) application of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
either metribuzin (for having a broad spectrum of weed control at early stage) or halosufuron
methyl (for controlling sedges) should be done. Now the ready formulation of
Article
halosulfuronmethyl +metribuzin is available. Besides that power operated ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
weeder or minitractor
weeding (120cm width) can also be done. After Atrazine application power operated weeders or
minitractor weeding can be done. Normally for sugarcane thrice we have to operate the
mechanical weeder to manage the weeds effectively up to 120 DAP (the critical crop weed
competition period)
Table 1. List of herbicides used in sugarcane with reason for selection
SI.N Herbicide Mode of action Time of Classific Reason for Trade
o application ation selection name
1 Atrazine by binding to Pre – Pre - emergence Atrataf
the plastoquinone- mergence is necessary to
binding protein in p 3DAP Systemic manage the early
hotosystem II. weed growth and
Plant death results the initial
from starvation and depletion of weed
oxidative damage seed bank
caused by
breakdown in
the electron
transport process.
2. Halosulfuro ALS inhibiting 25 DAP Systemic To manage Sempra
the
n methyl EPOE escaped and
germinated weed
after application
of Pre emergence
Selective for
sugarcane
3. Metribuzin inhibiting 25 DAP Systemic Selective for Tata
photosystem II of EPOE sugarcane metri
photosynthesis by Sencor
disrupting electron
transfer

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4. Glufosinate Glufosinate 150 DAP Non – Selective Sweep

Systemic
Volume: 02 Issuecontrols
ammonium No: 08 weeds POE Systemic using power
by inhibiting hood the initial
glutamine
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF 120 DAP should
WORKERS
synthetase be weed free.
5.. 2,4-D Synthetic Auxin - 150 DAP Systemic To kill broad Weeda
Uncontrolled and POE leaved ID:
Article weeds in r 64
AG-VO2-I08-07
Unsustainable sugarcane
growth
6. Carfentrazo controls weeds 150 DAP Contact Reported that Affinit
ne ethyl through the process POE Ipomoea was y
of membrane effectively
disruption which is controlled
initiated by the
inhibition of the
enzyme
protoporphyrinoge
n oxidase

Conclusion
Weeeds are the major constraint in sugarcane Production. Weed removes 4 times of N
and P and 2.5times of K in sugarcane. For Integrated Weed Management, Atrazine is applied as
a premergence herbicide effectively manages the weeds up to 20 DAHS (Days after Herbicide
spraying). After which early post emergence (EPOE) application of either metribuzin (for having
a broad spectrum of weed control at early stage) or halosufuron methyl (for controlling sedges)
should be done. Now the ready formulation of halosulfuronmethyl +metribuzin is available.
Besides that weeding power operated weeder or minitractor weeding (120cm width) can also be
done. After Atrazine application power operated weeders or minitractor weeding can be done.
Normally for sugarcane thrice (three times) we have to operate the mechanical weeder to manage
the weeds effectively up to 120 DAP (the critical crop weed competition period). Later
Sugarcane Suppresses the weed flora.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CITRUS UNDER PROTECTED CULTIVATION: AN

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
APPROACH OF PRODUCTION ADVANCEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-50
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

A. Thirugnanavel1*, A.K. Srivastava2, D.T. Meshram1, G.T. Behere1

1
ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
2
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Assam, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Citrus is the third most important fruit crops in India. Several biotic and abiotic factors affect the
Indian citriculture which leads to low productivity and poor quality fruits. Export is hampered
due to low quality fruits. Use of improved production technologies could enhance the yield and
quality; however, preventing the insect vectors which could transmit viral and bacterial diseases
is often difficult in open field conditions. Further, the control of Phytophthora disease is
challenging. In this scenario, an alternative technology is required to produce the higher yield
with better quality fruits. Advanced citrus production technology or citrus under protective cover
could provide ideal solution to achieve more productivity and high quality produce.
Introduction
Citrus (Citrus spp.) is one of the important fruits crops in India and occupies the third
position next only to mango and banana. Mandarin (C. reticulata), sweet orange (C. sinensis)
and acid limes (C. aurantifolia) are the commercial citrus species in India which are widely
grown in tropical and sub-tropical parts of the country. Besides these three species, lemons (C.
limon), pummelos (C. maxima) and grapefruits (C. paradisi) are cultivated in limited scale.
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Telangana are the leading citrus
producing states in India. Currently in India, citrus fruits are cultivated in an area of about 1.09
million hectares with the production of 14.26 mt with the productivity of 12.66 t/ha during 2020-
21 (3rd advance estimate published by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt. of

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

India). Globally, India ranks third in citrus production, however, the productivity is low when
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
compared to Brazil, China, USA, Turkey, Spain, etc.
Low planting density, lack of disease free planting materials, poor nutrient and water
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
management, and lack of knowledge on canopy management lead to the lower productivity.
Besides these, pest and diseases particularly, psyllids, fruit fly, fruit sucking moth, Phytophthora,
Article
viruses, and citrus greening disease are also affects the productivity and ID: of
quality AG-VO2-I08-07
the fruits. On
an average, in Indian citrus orchards, only 10-15 % fruits are “A” grade. Because of which, India
could not compete in International market. Disease free quality planting materials, improved
production packages and better pest and disease management, we can improve the production
and quality of citrus fruits. However, Indian citrus orchards are fragmented, and often face
difficulties in managing the pests and diseases, particularly, psyllids, fruit flies, fruit sucking
moth, Phytophthora, and greening. Under these circumstances, a novel alternative system is
required to improve the productivity and quality.
Advanced citrus production system is an alternative to achieve higher productivity and
quality produce in shorter time. In this system, citrus is cultivated under protective structures.
The planting design (plant density), canopy management for altering the crop physiology, and
root growth manipulation for increased water and nutrient efficiency are the fundamental
concepts in the protective cultivation of citrus. The protected structures also prevents the entry of
insect vectors, thereby, provides the disease free environment.
1. Citrus Under Protective Structures (CUPS)
Citrus under protected cultivation makes Indian citrus industry more efficient and
economically competitive. Higher production and high quality blemishless fruits can be achieved
in a shorter period of time. This system needs intensive water and nutrient management, training
and pruning to optimize the production.
a.Planting density:
High density planting system revolutionized the temperate fruits. Steadily, this system is
adopted and become highly successful in most of the fruit trees. In India, high density planting
system is mostly followed in apple, mango, banana, and guava. Recently, ICAR-Central Citrus
Research Institute, Nagpur standardized high density planting system for Nagpur mandarin for
Vidarbha region under conventional open field conditions and six times higher yield was
achieved. Studies from Spain and Florida proved that highest yield can be achieved in mandarins

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

and grapefruit by adopting high density planting coupled with advanced citrus production system
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
or open field hydroponics system (Table 1). The open field hydroponic system for citrus was
developed in Spain and it was commercialized in South Africa and Australia.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Table 1. Yield of mandarin under high density planting system (open field vs open field
hydroponics)
S.No Country Crop System Plant Article
Yield ID:Reference
AG-VO2-I08-07

density/ha (t/ha)
1 India Nagpur Conventional open 2500 36.2 Ladaniya et al.,
mandarin field 2021
2 Spain Nova, Open field 1000 60-75 Martinez-
Marisol and hydroponics Valero and
Dalite Fernandez,
mandarin 2004
3 USA Grapefruit Citrus under 2177 44.6 Schumann et
protected structures al., 2020

Recently, ICAR-CCRI has initiated trail on the advanced citrus production system for Nagpur
mandarin suitable for Vidarbha conditions. The Nagpur mandarin has been grown under pots
using soilless media using cocopeat and perlite under insect proof protective structure with the
density of 1600 plants/ha.

Fig. Nagpur mandarin cultivation under protected cultivation

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b. Canopy management:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Under protected cultivation, the citrus trees are forced to grow into restricted growth.
Therefore, canopy management is highly essential and training of the young trees is important.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The trees tend to grow vertically under high density planting, particularly in protected structures.
The young trees should be trained in open centre system in order to develop more horizontal
branches. Once the canopy meets the desired shape, annual pruningArticle ID:help
of trees AG-VO2-I08-07
the canopy
growth at manageable volume and it allows more uniform light penetration. It enables higher
fruit set, fruit development and better peel color. Further, it is desirable to keep the fruits close to
the main trunk so that the fruits receive more nutrients and water effectively, thus enhances the
fruit size and quality.
c. Water and nutrient management
Intensive water and nutrient management for citrus is required to get early production. The
drip irrigation and fertigation should be scheduled during maximum transpiration time of the
day; thereby the water and nutrient use efficiency can be enhanced. Further, the scheduling
should consider the soil characteristics and evapo-transpiration of the locality. In advanced citrus
production system, the soil moisture level should be kept near field capacity. Limited quantities
of nutrients through daily pulse-fertigation technique directly at the active root zone during the
active photoperiodic time according to the crop phenology facilitate the rapid uptake of nutrients
by the roots.
d. Insect management under ACPS
Use of physical barriers to prevent the insect-pests is one of the key strategies in the
protected cultivation. Selection of appropriate mesh size and adequate air flow are crucial for
excluding insects and successful cultivation of crops in the protected structures. Citrus under
protected structures approach relies mainly upon physically preventing young trees from coming
into contact with the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), the insect that transmits the bacterial pathogen
(Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, CLas) associated with citrus greening and other insects like
leaf miner, thrips, aphids, white flies, fruit flies and fruit sucking moth. The size of the mesh in
the screen house is crucial for preventing the entry of citrus insects. In citrus, use of 50 mesh
screen house could successfully prevent the entry of insect pests, especially like Asian citrus
psyllids thus preventing the citrus greening disease under protected citrus cultivation. However,
high temperature and high humidity inside the protected structures favour the multiplication of

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

pests. Mites and thrips can penetrate the 50 mesh screen, hence, continuous monitoring and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
chemical control is must for the control of mites and thrips.
2. Individual Protective Covers
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Cultivation of citrus like Nagpur mandarin, Mosambi, etc. under protective structures is
effective for providing pest and disease free environment and achieving the healthy growth and
Article ID:production,
production of early and quality fruits. However, for large scale commercial AG-VO2-I08-07
it is
economically not feasible because of high initial establishment cost and annual maintenance
cost. Recently, an alternative method of advanced production system is identified in Florida. In
this system, after planting, the young plants will be covered with individual protective covers
(IPCs). This system is cost effective and east to adapt because it uses only the insect proof covers
which is very less cost compared to the protective structures.
Conclusion
Protected cultivation in perennial fruit crops is slowly but steadily increasing in India and
day by day it becomes cost effective and profitable for the farmers. Papaya, pomegranate, banana
and strawberry are being commercially cultivated in India for the production of high quality
fruits for export. In citrus, it offers great scope to minimize the pest and disease incidences,
particularly citrus greening, thereby it ensures the higher production and high quality fruits.
Standardizing the protected cultivation technology for different citrus species is important.
ICAR-CCCRI has already initiated the research on developing advanced citrus production
technology for Nagpur mandarin suitable for central India conditions. Further, the studies should
concentrate on physiology of the citrus under protected conditions. Also, there is urgent need to
develop cost effective protected structures so that this technique can be well adopted by the
farmers.
References
Ladaniya, M.S., Marathe, R.A., Murkute, A.A., Huchche, A.D., Das, A.K., George, A. and
Kolwadkar, J., 2021. Response of Nagpur mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) to high
density planting systems. Scientific Reports, 11(1), p.10845.
Martinez-Valero, R. and C. Fernandez. 2004. Preliminary results in citrus groves grown under
the MOHT system. Xth Intl. Citrus Congr. p. 103. (Abstr.).
Schumann, A., Laura Waldo, Napoleon Mariner and Timothy Ebert. 2020. Five years of fresh
fruit production in CUPS. Citrus Industry (November 2020), pp. 14-17.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

AFLATOXINS IN CHILLI: DETECTION AND

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
MANAGEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-51
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1*Indu Rani C, 2Swetha B and 3Neelavathi R

1
Professor and Head, Department of Vegetable Science, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore
2
Research Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore
3
Associate Professor (Hort.), ICAR-KVK, Tindivanam, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding author Email Id: [email protected]

Abstract
Mycotoxins are low molecular weight toxic metabolites primarily produced by fungal species
like Aspergillus, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Penicillium, pose significant threats to food safety.
Aflatoxins, difuranocoumarin derivatives synthesized by toxigenic strains of Aspergillus, are
among the most hazardous mycotoxins. Aspergillus produces four types of aflatoxins (B1, B2,
G1, G2) and among them aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) stands out as the most toxic. Aflatoxin
contamination is a major concern in the global trade of chillies, especially in regions like India
where high moisture content and temperature provide ideal conditions for fungal growth.
Regulatory standards set by entities like the European Union and the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India restrict aflatoxin levels in chillies to ensure consumer safety. This article
discuss about the aflatoxin effect in chilli, their detection methods, analytical procedures and
their management to ensure food safety.
Key words: Aflatoxin, mycotoxin, chilli, management
Introduction
Mycotoxins are low molecular weight (300–700 Da) toxic metabolites produced by
various fungal species, primarily Aspergillus, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Penicillium (Iqbal,
2021). The word “mycotoxin” is derived from the Greek words “mycos” and “toxin,” which
mean “fungus” and “poison”. Aflatoxins are a class of mycotoxins, difuranocoumarin derivatives

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

synthesized by toxigenic strains of Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus via the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
polyketide pathway (Singh & Mehta, 2020). The four significant aflatoxins (AFs) identified are
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2).
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Both A. flavus and A. parasiticus produce AFB1 and AFB2, whereas AFG1 and AFG2 are
produced solely by A. parasiticus (Muaz et al., 2022). Among the four AFB1 is the most toxic
mycotoxin (AFB1> AFG1> AFB2> AFG2). Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Figure showing the chemical structure of the four aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) (Source credit:
Nejad et al., 2014)
Aflatoxins in chilli
Aflatoxin contamination and pesticide residues are the twin problems faced by Indian
chillies in the global market trade. Aspergillus flavus, A.niger and A. parasiticus are the most
common pathogens producing aflatoxins in chilli. High moisture content (24– 35 °C) and
relative humidity (60–85%) are the most favourable conditions for the development of the
fungus. They are most common under tropics and sub-tropic conditions.
Causes
 High temperature (25–42 °C)
 Contact of red chilli fruit with soil
 Improper drying
 Poor transport
 Poor storage condition
 High soil moisture

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Aspergillus infected fruit

Rules and regulations
Aflatoxins are the major limitations in the export of dry chillies. Regulations by European
Union (EU) permit the presence of 5 μg/ kg of aflatoxin B1 and 10 μg kg of total aflatoxins
(European Commission, 2006). The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, permit the
presence of 30 µg/ kg (FSSAI, 2011)
Detection
 High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),
 thin layer chromatography (TLC),
 high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC),
 liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC– MS),
 gas chromatography (GC)
 Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) test
Procedure for the detection of mycotoxins in chillies under analytical methods
Mycotoxin testing in chilli and paprika peppers generally consists of five steps: sampling,
sample preparation, extraction, clean-up and determination.
Sampling
When sampling, it is necessary to take a representative sample of the lot because
mycotoxins are not homogeneously distributed. The purpose of sample preparation of Capsicum
fruits is to reduce the particle size using mills or blenders, and to homogenize the sample
Extraction
Extraction in paprika and chilli is usually done by organic solvents, such as methanol
(MeOH), chichlor-omethane (CH2Cl2), chloroform (CHCl3), acetone-n-hexane or organic

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solvents mixed with water, such as MeOH-water, acetonitrile-water. The MeOH-water extractant
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
is less toxic than acetonitrile-water or CHCl3
Purification
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
The major problem associated with most analytical methods used for the determination of
mycotoxins is the presence of co-extracted interfering substances in samples. For example, the
co-existence of mycotoxins with large amount of pigments and lipidsArticle ID:These
in chilli. AG-VO2-I08-07
substance
must be removed by multiple extraction and subsequent clean up procedure. Purification steps
include solvent extraction followed by liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction (SPE),
strong anion exchange (SAX) cartridges, immune-affinity columns (IAC) or multifunctional
columns.
Clean up
Samples can be cleaned manually but the main drawback is that they are time consuming
and labour intensive. There are few clean-up equipment and techniques are available such as
Solid phase extraction (SPE)
In Solid phase extraction (SPE) the column is made up of silica gel, florisil or charcoal.
The introduction of commercially available ‘mini-column’ based SPE cartridges, significantly
reduced the time and labor investment
Immune-affinity column (IAC)
An immune-affinity column (IAC) is a type of SPE filled with antibodies that target
mycotoxins, making it better at removing impurities. Immunological methods enable faster and
more dependable mycotoxin analysis, particularly for paprika. They speed up the purification
process and reduce the use of harmful solvents, simplifying clean-up. Chromatograms from
purified extracts used in IAC are cleaner, enhancing assay sensitivity. Compared to traditional
solid-phase clean-up methods, IACs are considered more versatile across different sample types
and require fewer adjustments. IACs can concentrate large sample volumes for higher sensitivity
and are less demanding on the analyst's expertise.
Multifunctional columns methods
Multifunctional column methods like MultiSep #226 (Romer Laboratories) are rapid
(within 2 h), simple steps that have proven to produce reproducible results for the analyses of
AFs in red pepper. In some analyses, the sample purification is carried out as a part of the assay,

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and a separate sample clean-up step is not required. The absence of sample extraction and clean-
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
up reduces the cost and labor involved in analysis.
Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is a simple, rapid and reliable clean-up method
and can be considered an alternative to IAC and multifunctional column clean-up.
Clean-up tandem immunoassay column Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

A clean-up tandem immunoassay column set-up can be used for OTA detection in
Capsicum spp. samples applying a column with bottom detection immune-layer. This method is
a rapid cost-effective on-site field assay, universal for all target spices, which minimizes matrix
interference and reduces the assay steps. Additional advantages for the preparation or the
execution of the immunoassay procedure are that no special equipment, expensive components
or components that are not commercially available are needed.
Matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSP)
The matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSP) method combines the extraction and clean-up in
a single step, thus reducing solvent consumption and sample treatment time.
Quantification
Quantification can be done using thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high performance
thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas
chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Reversed-phase HPLC coupled with
fluorescence detection and combined with an IAC clean-up is increasingly used as the method of
choice in the determination of Afs. Aflatoxins are intensely fluorescent in ultraviolet light.
Aflatoxins Fluorescence under ultraviolet light
Aflatoxins B1 and B1 Blue fluorescence
Aflatoxins G1 and G1 Yellow-green fluorescence
Aflatoxin M Blue-violet fluorescence
ELISA test
Although several methods have been described for determination of aflatoxin, enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is well suited for the rapid, routine diagnostic application
of aflatoxin detection. ELISA uses and enzyme to detect the binding of antigen (Ag) and
antibody (Ab). The enzyme converts the colourless (Chromogen) substrate into coloured product
indicating the presence of Ag:Ab binding.

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Management
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Good Agriculture Practices (GAP)
 Aspergillus fungus grow in soil. Implementing proper irrigation practices to avoid
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
excess moisture, which can promote mold growth.
 Use certified seeds that are less susceptible to aflatoxin-producing molds.
 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Monitor fields for signs of mold growth and pest infestations.
 Implement crop rotation practices to reduce the buildup of mold spores in the soil.
 Environmental stresses like drought reduces the natural defense mechanism making
the plants more prone to Aspergillus attack.
2. Harvesting Practices:
 Harvesting at the right stage of maturity when they are fully mature but before they
become overripe or damaged.
 Good handling practices (GHP) to minimize bruising and damage, which can provide
entry points for mold growth.
3. Drying Techniques:
 Drying chilli pods to a proper moisture content of 9-12% so as to prevent mold growth
 Use proper drying methods such as sun drying, mechanical drying, or artificial drying
with appropriate temperature control.
 Ensure that chilli peppers are dried thoroughly and evenly to prevent the development
of mold hotspots.
 Drying chilli pods over a protective layer such as Plastic covers, tarpaulins etc., to
avoid mold infestation.
4. Storage Conditions:
 Store dried chilli peppers in clean, dry, and well-ventilated facilities.
 Avoid gunny bags for storage as they may retain high moisture content favoring mold
growth.
 Regularly inspect stored chilli peppers for signs of mold growth or moisture
accumulation.
5. Physical treatment
 Drying of seeds to optimum moisture content (9-12%) to prevent mold growth
 Maintenance of temperature and humidity.

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 Irradiation with gamma (62.5, 125.0 and 500.0 krad) or beta beams is effective to
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
control the microbial contamination and preserves organoleptic characteristics of the
product.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Cooking soda at 5% and salt at 10% were equally effective in reducing the fungal
growth on fruits of chilli.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Hot water treatment at 52°C for 15 min also showed 100% inhibition of growth of
Aspergillus spp. on Capsicum fruits.
6. Chemical treatment
 Apply non-systemic fungicides like 0.3% mancozeb, 0.2% captan, 0.15% carbendazim
to inhibit radial mycelial growth.
 Apply 0.5% of Neem Seed Kernal Extract (NSKE), nimbicidin and pongamia oil for
inhibition of the fungus
 Apply bioagents like Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescence against
A.flavus
 A combined pre-harvest spray of NSKE (5%) or mancozeb (0.3%) or P. fluorescens
(1×108 cfu/ml) 10 days before harvest of chilli is recommended for field level
management of aflatoxin producing fungus

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

FARMER SCIENTIST TAKES BANANA WASTE INTO

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
VALUE ADDITION: A SUCCESS STORY
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-52
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

C. Ravindran* and P.M. Murugesan

*Associate Professor and Head, Horticultural Research Station,
TNAU, Kodaikanal, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
Director, M/s Banana Rope Production Centre, Melakkal, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Banana is one of the most important fruit crops grown in India. In India, the area under
banana has increased from 1.49 lakh ha during 1956-57 to 8.83 lakh ha during 2017-18 with the
production 113.28 million tonnes of which Tamil Nadu accounts 5007.81 MT in production.
After the harvest of fruits, huge quantity of waste biomass from Pseudo stem, leaves and suckers
were generated which are dumped on roadside or burnt or left in situ causing detrimental impact
on environment. Though, the technologies for extraction of fibers and paper making from Pseudo
stem are available, not being adopted by the industries mainly due to lack of awareness.
However, a vast potential of extracting fibers from pseudo stem which is need to exploited
besides other uses.
The quantity and quality of fibers show wide variability with cultivars which is also
needs to be standardized and improvement on its physio-chemical properties of the fiber to be
worked out by adopting various by cultural methods. The fiber extracted from banana
pseudostem appears to be good scope of profitable use in textile and paper industries on
commercial scale. Besides, value added products like fabrics, bags, various types of mats,
interior decoration items, window blinds, cushion covers, bolster covers, table lamps and folders
can also be developed from banana pseudostem. Due to high cost of synthetic fibers, this banana
fibers are eco -friendly and chemical free Banana fiber which is grease proof, water and fire
resistant and totally bio-degradable.

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P.M. Murgessan from Melakkal Village, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu a basically a
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
banana farmer and cultivating different varieties of banana at his village named Melakkal around
8 acres. After the harvesting the bunch of banana, the Pseudo stem wasted and dumped into soil
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
without any usage. The Murugesan decided to utilize these waste into value added one for which
he contacted Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madurai and received training to waste utilization of
horticultural produces. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig: 1.Different value added products from Banana Pseudo stem

Flower Vase Fruit Basket

Floor Mat Decorative Ball

Pooja Bakket Women’s employed in value addition

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Evaluation of products by TNAU Scientists Customer receiving value added products

S.No. Name of the Award Award From Year

1. Grass Root Innovation and National Innovation 2023
Inclusive Development Award Foundation-India
2 Certificate of Appreciation 3rd ASEAN-India Grass root 2022
Innovation Forum Penh
Cambodia
3 Letter of Appreciation From Honorable Prime Minister 2022
of India
4 Letter of Appreciation From Honorable Governor of 2021
Tamil Nadu
5 District Award Tamil Nadu Handicraft 2018
Development
6 Maditssia AIMO Industrial Award MSME 2015
7 Best Farmer Award Madurai District Colelctor 2014
8. National Award Best PMEGP MSME KVIC, New Delhi 2013
Award
He has been collected the entire waste of banana Pseudo stem after the harvest in his field and
around Madurai District, processed and made rope with his invented Banana fibre processing
machine (Patent No.326662). This fibre and rope will be utilized for different product making.
At present he has been developed nearly 200 value added products and distributed both domestic
and international markets.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BIOFORTIFICATION: A STRATEGY FOR NUTRIENT

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ENRICHMENT IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-53
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Subaran Singh*
Assistant Professor (Biotechnology), College of Horticulture,
Maharana Pratap Horticultural University, Karnal- 132001 (Haryana), India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Fruits and vegetables, being rich sources of fibre, beneficial phytochemicals, and minerals, have
long been considered the basis of a healthy diet. The biofortification is a promising strategy to
increase the concentration of these compounds. The term "biofortification" describes the
development and cultivation of food crops that are more bioavailable to human population and
have higher levels of nutritional value. These crops are produced by agronomic approaches,
conventional plant breeding, current biotechnology techniques and genome editing.
Biofortification works have been practiced in most of the horticultural crops like banana,
cassava, tomato, beans, potato, sweet potato, cowpea, pomegranate, pumpkin, yam etc. Several
conventional and transgenic varieties have been released, while additional varieties are in the
consideration. The biofortified food crops, especially cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits, are
providing sufficient levels of micronutrients to targeted populations. Biofortified crops have a
promising future in tackling the issue of malnutrition.
Key words: Biofortification, Malnutrition, Conventional breeding, Genetic Engineering,
Genome editing.
Introduction
By 2030 and 2050, the world's population is predicted to rise from 8.10 billion in 2024 to
8.50 and 9.70 billion, respectively. Consequently, agriculture is susceptible to current global
crises like climate change (De Pascale and Rouphael, 2021; Zandalinas et al., 2020] and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

pandemics (Inglese and Sabatino, 2022). Pandemics intimidate comprehensive human lifecycles
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
and fitness, which will be supplementary deteriorated by increasing hunger and
undernourishment caused by a disorder in the food supply chain, mostly in emerging countries.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
This situation is intensifying the challenges for international food security (Vinoth and
Ravindhran, 2017). Human malnutrition has a serious negative socioeconomic impact, especially
Articlediet.
in emerging and poor nations where individuals are unable to eat a balanced ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Despite the fact
that many studies have been done, a sizable portion of the population still lacks access to or the
means to purchase a high-quality diet that is necessary to diagnose malnourishment and/or
undernutrition. The term "bio-fortification" describes the process of genetically boosting food
crops' bioavailable mineral content. Creating biofortified crops also increases the crops' growth
efficiency in soils with scarce or depleted mineral content. The ultimate goal of biofortification is
to sufficiently and sustainably produce safe, nutrient-dense food.
Currently, agronomic, conventional, and transgenic biofortification are three common
approaches. Agronomic biofortification can provide temporary micronutrient increases through
fertilizers. In view of the disadvantages of transgenic/GM crops, genome editing (GE)
technology offers distinct advantages. Thus, with few off-target effects and no external gene
sequence integration, the genome editing results in predictable and inheritable mutations in
targeted regions of the genome (Kumar et al., 2022). Numerous horticulture crops have been
subjected to biofortification methods. Biofortification method is a potential tool for providing
naturally fortified food to those who have limited access to commercially promoted fortified
foods, which are more easily accessible in cities. In the future, mineral and vitamin shortages are
projected to be more dangerous. Biofortified crops hold a very bright future as these have the
potential to remove micronutrient malnutrition among billions of poor people across the globe.
Strategies for Biofortification
1. Agronomic Biofortification:
The success of agronomic biofortification mainly depends upon the mobility of mineral
elements in the soil and in plants. Zinc, (foliar applications of ZnSO4), Iodine (Soil application of
iodide or iodate), Selenium (as selenate) are the most suitable micronutrients for agronomic
biofortification. Foliar application is the quick and easy method of nutrient application to
fortification of micro nutrients (Fe, Zn, Cu etc.) in plants. Several studies have found that the
mycorrhizal associations increase Fe, Se, Zn and Cu concentrations in crop plants. AM-fungi

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

increase the uptake and efficiency of micronutrients like Zn, Cu, and Fe etc. Sulphur oxidising
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
bacteria increases the sulphur content in onion (Prasad et al., 2015).
2. Conventional plant breeding:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Over the past forty years, traditional breeding has prioritised resistance and yield traits
over nutritional factors, which has resulted in a decline in the amount of nutrients available in the
Articleplant
varieties that are currently in use. Recent developments in conventional ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
breeding have
increased interest in fortification with critical vitamins, antioxidants, and micronutrients.
Important vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals have been fortified in traditional plant breeding as
a result of recent advancements. Enough genetic variation in the concentrations of β-carotene,
other functional carotenoids, iron, zinc, and other minerals exists among cultivars to enable the
selection of nutritionally appropriate breeding materials, which is necessary for the potential to
increase the micronutrient density of staple foods through conventional breeding. (Yadav et al.,
2022).
3. Genetic engineering:
In situations where there is insufficient variation among genotypes for the desired
character/trait within the species, or when the crop itself is not suitable for conventional plant
breeding (due to lack of sexuality; for example, bananas), genetic engineering offers a viable
alternative for improving the concentration and bioavailability of micronutrients in the edible
crop tissues. Golden rice was one of the first crops to be biofortified; it was created to produce
provitamin A or beta-carotene in the edible portion of the grain. Genetically modified (GM)
crops, also known as transgenic crops, allow plant breeders to introduce advantageous genes into
elite cultivars that were previously unavailable, greatly increasing their value and providing
special opportunities for managing viruses, insects, and other pathogens in addition to providing
high-quality nutrition and health benefits. (Garg et al., 2018)
4. CRISPR-based Genome Editing:
Current biotechnology advancements have introduced biofortification into a number of
food crops in an effort to combat hunger. But these approaches have a number of drawbacks and
are not sustainable; these issues are being addressed by the genome editing system based on
CRISPR-Cas. Crop development programmes have made considerable use of the CRISPR-Cas
genome-editing technique because of its simpler design, low methodological cost, high
efficiency, strong reproducibility, and short cycle time. Using the genome editing approach,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

biofortified crops such as Golden Banana and Golden Tomato have been developed (Kumar et
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
al., 2022) and regenerated by plant tissue culture technique (Singh and Singh, 2023) .
Table 1: Biofortification in horicultural crops
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Crops Biofortified mineral/vitamin
Carrot Calcium
Radish Selenium Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Lettuce Iron
Potato Amin acid, protein, anthocyanin, starch,
Broccoli Selenium
Spinach Iodine
Beans Iron
Pumpkin Carotenoids
Onion Selenium
Sweet potato Protein, Carotene, Provitamin-A & Anthocyanin
Tomato Flavonoids, anthocyanin ,Folate, phytoen, lycopene β-carotene, provitamin A
Cauliflower Provitamin-A
Banana Β-carotene
Pomegranate Iron, Zinc & Vitamin-C
Greater yam Anthocyanin, Protein, Iron, Zinc & Calcium

Conclusion
Biofortification is a viable and economical agricultural technique for enhancing the
nutritional condition of undernourished communities worldwide. Human mineral deficiency may
be greatly reduced by using biofortification techniques based on crop breeding, targeted genetic
modification, and/or the use of mineral fertilizers. An advanced biotechnology technique
CRISPR-Cas has been used to modify a number of vital crops to improve output, quality, and
nutrition. However, more research is required to explore a wider range of crops in terms of
productivity enrichment, quality, and nutrition in order to pinpoint useful biofortification targets
and enhance CRISPR delivery strategies. Traditional farming methods can improve the
nutritional content of plant meals to some extent, but biofortification is the process of adding

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

nutrients to food crops by traditional, agronomic, and transgenic breeding techniques in order to
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
give a long-term, sustainable solution.
References:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
De Pascale, S. and Rouphael, Y. (2021). Chemical eustress and biofortification: Targeted
nutrient solution management for enhancing quality in hydroponically grown vegetables.
Article
In Proceedings of the III International Symposium on ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Soilless Culture and
Hydroponics:Innovation and Advanced Technology for Circular Horticulture 1321,
Lemesos, Cyprus, 19-22 March; pp. 179–184.
Garg, M., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Kapoor, P., Kumar, A., Chunduri, V. and Arora, P. (2018).
Biofortified Crops Generated by Breeding, Agronomy, and Transgenic Approaches are
Improving Lives of Millions of People around the World. Frontiers in Nutrition. (5)12.
Inglese, P. and Sabatino, L. (2022). The Fresh Produce Supply Chain and Its Changes after the
COVID-19. In COVID-19 and Communities; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany; pp.
193–197.
Kumar, D., Yadav, A., Ahmad, R., Dwivedi, U.N. and Yadav, K. (2022). CRISPR-Based
Genome Editing for Nutrient Enrichment in Crops: A Promising Approach toward Global
Food Security. Frontiers in Genetics 13:932859.
Prasad, B.V.G., Smaranika, Mohanta, S., Rahaman, and Bareily, P. (2015). Bio-fortification in
horticulture crops. Journal of Agricultural Engineering and Food Tech, 2350-0263: 95-99.
Singh, S. and Singh, B. (2023). Plant tissue culture technique for production of strawberry
(Fragaria ananassa). Just Agriculture: e-Newsletter. 3(10):403-408.
Vinoth, A. and Ravindhran, R. (2017). Biofortification in millets: A sustainable approach for
nutritional security. Frontiers Plant Science. 2017(8): 29.
Yadava, D. K., Choudhury, P. R., Hossain, F., Kumar, D., Sharma, T. R. and Mohapatra, T.
(2022). Biofortified Varieties: Sustainable Way to Alleviate Malnutrition (4th edition).
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. 106 p.
Zandalinas, S.I., Fritschi, F.B., and Mittler, R. (2020). Signal transduction networks during stress
combination. Journal of Experimental Botany. (71): 1734–1741.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BEE FENCING- A NEW TECHNOLOGY TO PREVENT

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ELEPHANTS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-54
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Manasij Das1*, Dr. Sharmila Biswas2 and Dr. Swati Chakraborty3
1& 2
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Entomology, School of Agriculture, Seacom
Skills University, Bolpur, District- Birbhum, West Bengal, Pin- 731236, India
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agriculture, Seacom Skills
University, Bolpur, District- Birbhum, West Bengal, Pin- 731236, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The social insects known as honeybees (species belonging to the subgenus Apis) reside in
colonies. A single queen, a few hundred drones, and thousands of worker bees make up the hive
population. They are flying insects that are closely related to ants and wasps. With the exception
of Antarctica, they are present on every continent. In addition to its ecological benefits, beehives
have various economic advantages. However, it's now known that it can be utilized in
agricultural fields as a fence tool. These days, enclosing farms with "beehive fences" is one of
the best methods for stopping elephant crop raiding behavior. One way for farmers living beside
elephants to reduce violence is by installing a beehive fence. Dr. Lucy E. King created this
technique after seeing that elephants instinctively shy away from bees—just think of the
potential danger if bees were to fly inside an elephant's trunk!
History
Small-scale subsistence farmers always worry that elephants would raid their crops if
they venture outside the farm's boundaries. Elephant crop raids can cause significant losses for
nearby farmers, and because these creatures are seen as a danger to their livelihoods, people
become extremely hostile against them. Therefore, developing or locating a method or
instrument that can lessen hostilities and elephant raids was imperative. Then, a study in Kenya,
Africa, was carried out by the research team of Dr. Lucy. The use of passive (immovable)

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barriers like flashing solar lights, fences strung with rags soaked in chili oil, ditches, watch
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
towers, walls, buffer crops (like chilies), and active (movable) deterrents like fire or firecrackers,
chili powder bombs, guard dogs, human patrols and so on are tried and tested techniques.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
However, they had a relatively poor success rate. Finally, the scientists presented the farmers
with the "beehive fence," a natural instrument, and two years of testing were conducted. Using
this information, rural farmers are preventing crop-raiding elephantsArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
from entering their farms
with the help of The Elephants and Bees Project. The goal of this research has been to better
understand how farmers are adjusting to new technologies and to track the effectiveness of
beehive fences in discouraging crop-raiding elephants. Elephants have not been able to breach
the barriers and access the crops thus far thanks to the beehive fences.
Reason for avoiding bees by Elephant
Elephants flee when they hear honey bees being disturbed. The elephants' distinctive low-
frequency "bee alarm rumble" vocalization, which they release while they flee, alerts other
elephants nearby to take cover as well. According to these behavioral findings, elephants seem to
have a bad memory of honey bees, which makes them "scare" away from certain areas.
Elephants can get stung behind their thinner skin at the ears, up their trunk, and around their
eyes. Locals who have seen swarms of bees sting elephants report that the agony is intense
enough to make the elephants avoid getting stung by the insects in the future.
Methodology
Beehive barriers can be constructed from any kind of beehive to prevent elephants from
accessing specific farms.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

Modern hives come in three primary varieties that are widely used across the globe.
 The Langstroth Hive
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 The Top-bar Hive

 The ware Hive

In addition to them, there are Kenyan Top Bar Hives (KTBH) Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
and Traditional Log Hives.
The beehive fence can be constructed from any kind of hive. The conventional log hive is the
most affordable method.
Beehive fences using Traditional Log Hives
1. The hives can be placed eight meters apart because the bee house supports are set six meters
apart.
2. Only securely fastened fencing wire to the top of the poles should allow the beehives to swing
freely.
3. Sturdy, taut fencing wire that hooks onto the permanent wire of each hive should be used to
connect them all. It is important that the fence's upright posts be behind the hives on the crop
side.
An elephant that tries to approach the field will be diverted between the bee huts and
avoid the bee huts' intricate, strong structure. The linked beehives swing fiercely as the elephant
tries to push through the thigh-high wire, upsetting and releasing the bees to sting or annoy the
elephant.
Beehive fences using Kenyan Top Bar Hives (KTBH)
1. The "bee hut" and the connecting wire that connects one beehive to the next, with a 7-meter
space between each bee hut's post, make up this beehive fence.
2. The apiary has an 80cm-long Kenyan Top Bar Hive, which is made of 9mm plywood and
engineered to create three apiaries from a single, substantial 2.4 x 1.8m industrial plywood sheet.
3. There is a flat thatched roof to shield the rain-proof corrugated iron sheet roof from the sun.
4. A thin binding wire suspends the ceiling, making it impossible for honey badgers to descend if
they manage to cross the 70cm iron sheets that are fastened to the posts for protection.
5. To keep termites away, a low-cost oil-based insecticide needs to be applied to the nine-foot
posts.

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6. The hive is suspended by punching tiny holes in its side walls and allowing food to pass
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
through a more robust plain wire. After passing through the hive, the ends can be fastened to the
roof by drilling a tiny hole the size of a nail. This loops around the top of the upright posts with
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ease.
7. One beehive can be connected to the next beehive ten meters away using a sturdy length of
plain wire by simply twisting the hive's hanging wire on the farm side Article ID:hut.
of the bee AG-VO2-I08-07

An elephant will naturally try to get between the bee huts in order to approach the farm.
As the wire stretches, the strain on the beehives causes them to swing irregularly and, if they are
occupied, releases the bees. To prevent an elephant from pulling down the hive due to extreme
pressure, the wire is just wrapped through the hoop and not securely twisted back onto itself.
Beehive fences using Langstroth Hive
1. Rectangular or square boxes that nestle snugly on top of one another are used to construct
Langstroth beehives.
2. A series of frames with a thin foundation strip of beeswax, secured in place with tiny wire
strips, are found in the bigger brood chamber at the bottom.
3. A second "super" box should be positioned on top of the brood chamber once the bees have
taken up residence there and constructed the foundation combs with brood and beeswax.
4. A queen excluder wire mesh rests between the two boxes, covering the tops of the brood
chamber combs in a horizontal sheet. By doing this, the worker bees are able to fill the super
with pure wax comb and honey stores, preventing the queen from ascending into the super box.
You harvest this part for honey, leaving the brood chamber unattended.
5. There should be a 7-meter space between each bee hut's posts. Three meters should separate
the second post where the hive will be hung.
6. The 8 or 9-foot-long wooden posts should ideally be sprayed from top to bottom with an
insecticide and allowed to completely dry before being inserted into the ground.
7. The bees will remain dry in the rain thanks to the iron sheet roof, but if the hive is left in the
sun, it will warm, drive the bees out, and they will become hostile.
8. To ensure that the beehives swing in the event that an elephant tries to breach the fence, each
beehive in the fence should be connected to the others with a sturdy piece of plain wire that loops
through the wire that hangs the hive. This wire must, most importantly, be on the inside of the
farm.

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Application
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Other researchers in Tanzania later replicated the experiment following its enormous
success rate in Africa. Next, the initiative is started in India as well. Every year in India, some
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
400 people lose their lives defending their crops from elephants. An innovative project was
initiated by the Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA, Wayanad) in
Article ID:
collaboration with the State Forest and Wildlife Department, NABARD, AG-VO2-I08-07
Khadi and Village
Industries Board, with the goal of preventing elephant raids by installing beehive fencing. As a
trial project, ATMA installed a 700-meter bee fence in December 2012 at Mathamangalam, a
small village in Poothadi grama panchayat. They did not initially receive enough support from
the local population, which contributed to its failure.
Then, in January 2016, a local farmers' group launched a second project at
Mayilattumpara at a cost of Rs 5,00,000, with the support of the federal government's
Agriculture Technology Management Agency, or ATMA. No one in Mayilattumpara was able to
get a good night's sleep two years ago. The people living in the village at the foot of the hills in
the Thrissur district of Kerala state, southwest India, were afraid of wild elephant incursions. But
in the last 12 months, things have changed for the better. Today, a 2.5 km (1.5 mile) wire fence
adorned with beehives encircles 18 village farms.
Italian honey bees reared in Kerala inhabit the hives that are spaced every ten meters
along the wire. It turns out that bees, with their loud buzzing and powerful stings, terrify
elephants. Angry bees swarm out when elephants attempt to cross the wire fence, causing the
elephants to swiftly retreat. With the bees' protection, farmers may resume tending to their crops.
Additionally, some people are starting to grow honey for a new harvest. However, the work is
starting to pay off now. Every one of the 260 beehives arranged along the fence might provide up
to 30 kg of honey during the December through March honey season. Even with the expenses of
keeping the hives, each farmer might profit significantly from this, with the potential to earn up
to Rs 65,000.
Case studies in Karnataka:
As a response to HEC, the Wildlife Research Conservation Society (WRCS) has
presented the idea of Community Based Conflict Management (CBCM), which gives the local
communities in Karnataka's North Canara District the authority to take charge by employing
efficient guarding techniques to minimize crop loss and preserve the wild elephants that remain.

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Many farmers in Karnataka, India's North Canara District have been inspired to install bee-hive
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
fences by Mr. Ravi Bandekar, the Program Officer with WRCS. The project was started in 2009
and is being funded by the Asian Elephant Conservation Fund (AECF) of the US Fish and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Wildlife Service. It uses bee-hive fences, trip alarms, chilly-based obstacles, and night guards.
To protect their crops, about 75 farmers have erected watch towers. They have also employed
rotating fire balls, drums, torches, and catapult explosives to scareArticle
awayID:
theAG-VO2-I08-07
elephants. By
positioning them in the most vulnerable regions, chilled smoke is another extensively utilized,
low-cost method of keeping the elephants away from the fields.
Pre-recorded Apis mellifera (bee) noises were broadcast during crop raiding episodes,
sparked by Dr. Lucy King's investigation, and the results indicated an immediate elephant retreat
from the crop fields. Owing to their success, low-cost beehives made of bamboo, logs, and clay
pots are being built in order to keep elephants away and give farmers financial advantages. The
farmers and employees of the forest department have discovered that the recommended actions
work well to keep elephants from damaging crops.
Conclusion
Beehive barriers have not only lessened human-elephant conflict but also safeguarded
human life and crops. It is a more affordable and organic method. Thus, anyone can attempt this
method. In addition to using it as a fence, farmers can extract a significant quantity of honey
from the beehives. Even with the expenses of keeping the hives, it can earn each farmer as much
as Rs 65,000, which would still leave them with a healthy profit. Therefore, farmers benefit from
it as well. To conserve the elephants and lessen the conflict between humans and elephants by
embracing the "elephants and bees project," all we need to do is implement this technique
through a few trial projects and with the cooperation of the government's agriculture and forest
agencies.
References
Joshi,R.,Singh,R.,2008, Feeding behaviouror of wild Asian elephant (Elephax maximus) in
Rajaji National park.The journal of American Science.,4(2),1-49.
King,L.E.,Douglas-Hamilton,I.,Vollrath,F.,2007, African elephants run away from the sound of
disturbed bees.Current Biology.,17,R832-R833.
King,l.E.,Douglas-Hamilton,I.,Vollrath,F.,2011, Beehive fences as a effective deterrents for
crop-raiding elephants:Field trails in northern Kenya.African journal of Ecology.,1-9

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

King,L.E.,2013Elephant and bees.Sanctuary Asia.,61-65

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
King,L.E.,Lawrence,A.,Douglas-Hamilton.,Vollrath,F.,2009, Beehivefence deter crop raiding
elephants.African journal of Ecology.,47,131-137.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Madusudan, M.D.,2003, Living Amidst Large Wildlife: Live Stock and Crop Depredation by
Large Mammals in the Interior Villages of Bhadra Tiger Reserve, South India.
Environmental Management.,31,466-475. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Mishra,S.R.,Nandi,D.,Nayak,A.K.,2013, Human elephant conflict:Case study from Balasore and

Rairanpur Division of Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve,Odisha,India.International research
journal of Environmental Science.,5-9
Sabic, K.,2011, Human-Wildlife Conflicts in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand,
India.Research Work- Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradum .,1-29.
Sukumar, R.,1991, The management of large mammals in relation to male strategies and conflict
with people. Biological conservation.,93-102.
Sukumar,R.,1990, Ecoclogy of Asian elephants in South India,Feeding habitat and crop raiding
patter.Journal of tropical Ecology.,6,33-35.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

NANOTECHNOLOGY: HARNESSING NANOPARTICLES

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
TO ALLEVIATE ABIOTIC STRESS IN PLANTS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-55
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

K. Akhil1*, Gangannagari Karthik2, M.M. Kadasiddappa3 and K Charan Teja4

12
, : Teaching Associate, Agricultural College Palem, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
34
, Assistant Professor, Agricultural College Palem, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Abiotic stress, stemming from environmental factors like extreme temperatures, water scarcity,
and salinity, presents significant challenges to global agriculture and ecosystem sustainability.
With the exacerbation of these stressors due to climate change, there is an urgent need for
innovative solutions to mitigate their adverse effects on plant growth and productivity.
Nanotechnology, through the manipulation of materials at the nanoscale, holds immense promise
in addressing these challenges. This paper explores the potential of nanoparticles in alleviating
various forms of abiotic stress in plants, including heat, cold, drought, flood, and salinity stress.
The effectiveness of nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), cerium oxide (CeO2), silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), zinc oxide
nanoparticles (ZnO NPs), iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs), chitosan nanoparticles (CS
NPs), and graphene oxide nanoparticles (GO NPs) is examined in mitigating specific stressors.
Mechanisms underlying nanoparticle-mediated stress mitigation, including regulation of gene
expression, enhancement of antioxidant defense mechanisms, and improvement of membrane
stability, are discussed. While nanotechnology presents promising opportunities, it also poses
challenges such as nanoparticle toxicity, environmental persistence, and regulatory concerns.
Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists,
policymakers, and stakeholders to ensure the safe and sustainable application of nanotechnology
in agriculture and environmental management. Further research is warranted to optimize
nanoparticle properties, elucidate underlying mechanisms, and develop cost-effective and eco-

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

friendly nanoparticle-based strategies. By harnessing the potential of nanotechnology, we can

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
pave the way towards resilient and sustainable agricultural practices in the face of escalating
abiotic stressors.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanoparticles, abiotic stress, heat stress, cold stress, drought stress,
flood stress, salinity, stress tolerance, remediation.
Introduction Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Abiotic stress, resulting from various environmental factors such as temperature extremes,
water scarcity, flooding, and salinity, poses significant threats to ecosystems, agriculture, and
human welfare. Climate change exacerbates the frequency and intensity of abiotic stressors,
emphasizing the urgent need for innovative solutions to mitigate their adverse effects.
Nanotechnology, the manipulation of materials at the nanoscale, offers promising opportunities
to address abiotic stress challenges by harnessing the unique properties of nanoparticles.
Abiotic stress in crops
Plants are constantly exposed to various stress factors throughout their life span. As per the
data available, the relative decreases in potential maximum yields associated with abiotic stress
factors vary between 54 and 82%. Crops confront various types of abiotic stress and it has been
well documented as well that among stresses, extreme temperatures (freezing, cold, heat), water
availability (drought, flooding), and ion toxicity (salinity, heavy metals) are the major causes
which adversely affect the plant growth and productivity worldwide

Types of abiotic stress with their effects on growth of plants.

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Nanoparticles for Mitigating Abiotic Stress

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1.Heat Stress
Heat stress adversely affects plant growth and productivity by disrupting cellular processes
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
and inducing oxidative damage. Nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) and cerium oxide
(CeO2) have been shown to enhance heat tolerance in plants by regulating heat shock proteins,
Article
scavenging ROS, and improving photosynthetic efficiency (Gurunathan et al.,ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
2016; Singh et al.,
2019).
2.Cold Stress
Cold stress inhibits plant growth and development by causing cellular damage and
impairing metabolic processes. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have
demonstrated potential in mitigating cold stress by enhancing membrane stability, modulating
gene expression, and promoting antioxidant defense mechanisms (Mahakham et al., 2017;
Tripathi et al., 2017).
3.Drought Stress
Drought stress reduces water availability to plants, leading to wilting, stomatal closure,
and decreased photosynthesis. Nanoparticles such as silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) and zinc oxide
nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have been reported to alleviate drought stress by improving water use
efficiency, enhancing root growth, and modulating osmotic adjustment mechanisms (Siddiqui et
al., 2018; Tripathi et al., 2020).
4.Flood Stress
Flood stress results in oxygen deprivation and waterlogging, impeding nutrient uptake
and causing root damage in plants. Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs) and magnetic
nanoparticles have shown promise in mitigating flood stress by enhancing soil aeration,
promoting root growth, and facilitating nutrient absorption (Yadav et al., 2017; Kaur et al.,
2020).
5.Salinity Stress
Salinity stress disrupts ion balance and osmotic regulation in plants, inhibiting growth
and reducing crop yield. Nanoparticles such as chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) and graphene
oxide nanoparticles (GO NPs) have been explored for alleviating salinity stress by enhancing ion
homeostasis, promoting osmotic adjustment, and reducing ion toxicity (Raliya et al., 2015;
Tripathi et al., 2018).

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Mechanisms and Challenges

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
The mechanisms underlying the effects of nanoparticles on abiotic stress involve
complex interactions between nanoparticles and biological systems, including nanoparticle
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
uptake, translocation, and physiological responses. However, challenges such as nanoparticle
toxicity, environmental persistence, and regulatory concerns need to be addressed to ensure the
Article
safe and sustainable application of nanotechnology in mitigating abiotic stress.ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Various nanoparticles with their effect on plant growth.

Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Nanotechnology holds immense potential for mitigating abiotic stress in various
applications, including agriculture, environmental remediation, and materials science..

Figure 1. Mechanisms of NPs mitigate abiotic stresses in plants.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, optimize nanoparticle

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
properties, and develop eco-friendly and cost-effective nanoparticle-based strategies.
Collaboration among scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders is essential to realize the full
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
benefits of nanotechnology while addressing potential risks and ensuring environmental
sustainability
References Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Gurunathan, S., Han, J. W., & Dayem, A. A (2016). Oxidative stress-mediated antibacterial
activity of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
International Journal of Nanomedicine, 11, 5901–5914.
Mahakham, W., Sarmah, A. K., & Maensiri, S. (2017). Nanopriming technology for enhancing
germination and starch metabolism of aged rice seeds using phytosynthesized silver
nanoparticles. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–13.
Raliya, R., Nair, R., & Chavalmane, S. (2015). Mechanistic evaluation of translocation and
physiological impact of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles on the tomato
(Solanum lycopersicum L.) plant. Metallomics, 7(12), 1584–1594.
Singh, N., Akhatar, J., & Nazir, M. (2019). Cerium oxide nanoparticles: A review of recent
developments. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2019, 1–22.
Siddiqui, M. H., Al-Whaibi, M. H., & Faisal, M. (2018). Silicon nanoparticles more efficiently
alleviate arsenate toxicity than silicon in maize cultivars. Saudi Journal of Biological
Sciences, 25(4), 672–681.
Tripathi, D. K., Tripathi, A., & Shweta, S. (2017). Differential response of oxidative stress and
thiol metabolism in contrasting rice genotypes for arsenic tolerance. Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety, 141, 1–11.
Tripathi, D. K., Singh, S., & Singh, S. (2018). Nitric oxide alleviates silver nanoparticles
(AgNP)-induced phytotoxicity in Pisum sativum seedlings. Plant Physiology and
Biochemistry, 132, 731–744.
Tripathi, D. K., Singh, V. P., & Prasad, S. M. (2020). Roles for nitrogen and phosphorus in the
regulation of drought tolerance in plants and adaptation to climate change: A review.
Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 39(2), 362–378.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

IMPACT OF INTERLINKING OF RIVERS IN INDIA -

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
SHORT NOTES
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-56
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

B. Sureandiran*, Isha Vainsh and Shivani Tandel

Department of Fisheries Resource Management, College of Fisheries Science, Kamdhenu
University, Veraval, Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
India's water shortage is anticipated to worsen significantly in the next generations due to
the current worldwide situation. Additionally, due to a lack of water for both satisfaction and the
use of basic necessities like crop protection, aquaculture operations, etc., these drought
circumstances may cause climate variability, which can affect humans and cause misery in many
parts of the country. Freshwater has become scarce in many places of India due to the
tremendous rise in demand for it brought on by population and economic expansion. As a result,
the disparity between the population and the available water resources is getting worse every
day. A significant project has been undertaken by the National Water Development Agency
(NWDA), and over 30 linkages have been planned to connect the major rivers. (Fig. 1). An
MOU has been signed between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and the Union
Government, and the Government of India has approved the nation's first river interlinking
project on the Ken-Betwa (Mehta and Mehta, 2018).
Large-scale inter-basin transfers are normally very expensive, which makes them
economically risky. They also frequently have considerable social and environmental
consequences, typically for both the river basin supplying and receiving the water (Joshi et al.,
2017). According to the current level of knowledge, there are both good and negative effects on
the freshwater aquatic ecosystem caused by big dams, inter-basin transfers, and water withdrawal
from rivers. There may be both positive and negative effects on fish and aquatic biodiversity,
both of which will be covered here

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig.1 Interlinking of rivers in India

.
Background of the interlinking proposal in India
• 1972 - Ganga Cauvery link proposed by Union Minister Dr. K.L. Rao.
• 1974 - Garland Canal proposal by Captain Dinshaw J Dastur, a pilot. Both plans were rejected
due to technical infeasibility and huge costs.
• 1980 - Ministry of Water Resources frames the National Perspective Plan (NPP) envisaging
inter-basin transfer.
• 1982 - The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was set up to carry out pre-
feasibility studies. These form the basis of the ILR plan.
• 1999 - A national commission (NCIWRDP) set up to review NWDA reports concluded that it
saw ‘no imperative necessity for massive water transfers in the peninsular component’ and that
the Himalayan Component would require more detailed study.
•August 15, 2002 - President Abdul Kalam mentions the need for river-linking in his
Independence Day speech; based on which senior advocate Ranjit Kumar filed a PIL in Supreme
Court.

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• October 2002 - Supreme Court recommends that the government formulate a plan to link the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
major Indian rivers by the year 2012.
• December 2002 - Govt. appointed a Task Force (TF) on Interlinking of rivers (ILR) led by Mr.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Suresh Prabhu. The deadline was revised to 2016 (Bandyopadhyay and Perveen, 2004)
Effects over fish environment (Alla and Liu, 2021)
1. As a physical barrier: Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

The dam impedes the flow of species, changing the species composition in the upstream
and downstream areas and even causing species extinction. By dividing river systems and
obstructing the transit of species and their use of diverse types of habitats, the obstruction limits
migration.
2. Loss of habitat
In India the construction of the Farakka barrage on river Ganga has grossly affected
(Hilsa, Tenualosa ilisha), Indian major carps (Catla catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhinus mrigala),
catfishes, freshwater prawns, and many more fishes leading to detrimental effects on physical
attributes and destruction of feeding, spawning, and migration routes of fishes.
3. Alteration in spawning and breeding grounds
The nursery areas are impacted by a drop in freshwater flow and nutrients as a result of
water channelization, dam construction, and water diversion. These changes result in salinity
increases, the invasion of predatory fish, and a decrease in the amount of food that is available.
4. Effect of changed temperature
The chemical and thermal properties of river water can be altered by dams. This may
have an impact on fish populations and species downstream. Changes in water temperature have
frequently been implicated as a factor in native species decline.
5. Increased exposure to predation
The construction of a dam may alter normal predation behavior; it appears that fish or
other predators are more aggressive toward migrating species in the area of an installation.
6. Impact on fish production
The proposed interlinking of rivers will include 30 canal linkages and more than 36 large
dams. Barrages and irrigation canals will also increase significantly. These significant reservoirs,
canals, and other water-gathering infrastructure will increase the nation's potential fisheries
resources.

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7. River siltation and dredging

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Due to interlinking, the siltation pattern in the donor and reception rivers may change. In
the Himalayan region, heavy siltation of rivers, canals, and lakes is already a serious issue. The
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
effectiveness of river bed dredging for enhancing river ecology and fish output must be evaluated
immediately.
Other environmental aspects Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1. Salinity
The Himalayan Mountain ranges, where there is typically heavy precipitation, are the
source of the majority of the rivers that flow through the Ganga Plains and Northeast India. Most
rivers flow through arid or semiarid areas of Ganga Plain, where the concentration of total
soluble solids is often low. In such circumstances, the concentration of salt through evaporation
increases steadily with downstream distance, especially in their lower reaches.
2. Water supply
The picture of water supply of the whole country is going to change by transferring the
‘surplus water’ to water ‘deficit area’. The concept of ‘surplus water’ is itself faulty, as a
reduction of surplus/flood water will affect the surface water supply in terms of quantity and
quality as well.
Conclusion
India's proposed river-linking project is a very ambitious idea. It goes without saying that
water resources are necessary for supporting life on Earth and all types of socioeconomic
development activities. Since India already faces a growing population and a lack of all kinds of
natural resources, including water, proper planning and management of aquatic resources are
crucial. Many pertinent aspects concerning the sustainable protection of aquatic biodiversity
must be visualized.
References
Bandyopadhyay, Jayanta & Perveen, Shama. (2004). Interlinking of Rivers in India: Assessing
the Justifications. Economic and Political Weekly. 39: 5307-5316.
Joshi, K. D., Alam, M. A., Jha, D. N., Srivastava, K., Srivastava, S. K., Kumar, V., & Sharma, A.
P. (2017). Studies on ecology, fish diversity and fisheries of Ken–Betwa Rivers (India):
Proposed for inter-linking. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 20: 71-85.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Mehta, D., & Mehta, N. K. (2018). Interlinking of rivers in India: Issues & challenges. Geo-Eco-
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Marina, 19: 137-144.
Mohamed Khir Alla, Yousra & Liu, Lee. (2021). Impacts of Dams on the Environment: A
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Review. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology. 6: 064-
074.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
A COMPREHENSIVE STARTUP AND STRATEGIC
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
PLANNING FOR BACKYARD POULTRY FARMING
VENTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-57
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr Prarthana R1*, Dr Purushotham R.V1, Dr A.S Patil2 and Dr Anil Kumar G.K3
MVSc Scholar, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243122, India
Professor and Head, Veterinary Hospital, UAS Dharwad- 580005, Karnataka, India
Associate Professor and Head of Animal Husbandry, UAS Dharwad- 580005, Karnataka, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
An overview of the rising demand for fresh, organic poultry products and the growing interest in
backyard farming. It emphasizes the need for a well-structured startup plan to navigate the
complexities of the backyard-poultry farming industry. This abstract describes a thorough start-
up strategies that takes into account all the important elements needed to create a profitable
backyard poultry farm, including operational strategies, infrastructure construction, market
research, and sustainable practises. Infrastructure development outlines the physical and
technological infrastructure required for a backyard poultry farm. It covers aspects such as
choosing suitable chicken breeds, designing brooder house for optimal comfort and safety,
implementing biosecurity measures for monitoring and management. Efficient operational
strategy discusses key considerations such as feed management, health monitoring, waste
disposal, and biosecurity protocols. It also explores the implementation of sustainable practices
to reduce environmental impact. The target demographics, local demand, and customer
preferences are all determined through market research. The analysis encompasses an
examination of rival companies, their pricing tactics, and possible avenues for distribution in
order to facilitate efficient market entry. Backyard poultry farming has a significant positive
impact on the economic and nutritional status of low-income and malnourished people in India.
Backyard poultry production accounts for 15% total poultry production and Native chicken

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varieties raised in backyards produce around 11% of total egg production in India. Improved
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
chicken breeds appropriate for backyard farming must be introduced, and farmers' knowledge of
general management, housing, feeding, and disease control must be developed for sustained
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
production. This article highlights on emphasizing the holistic nature of the startup plan and
importance of a realistic budget to ensure financial sustainability and growth
Keywords: Backyard poultry, Biosecurity, Profitable business, DiseaseArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
control.
Introduction
According to the most recent (20th) livestock census, there are 851.81 million chickens in
India as of 2019, an increase of 16.8% over the previous census. Accordingly, the number of
backyard chickens in the nation increased by 45.8% from the previous Census to 317.07 million
in 2019. On the other hand, commercial poultry production climbed by 4.5% from the previous
census, reaching 534.74 million birds in 2019. The statistics data by itself indicates that the
backyard poultry industry is expanding tremendously. It is growing at a much faster rate as
compared to commercial poultry production. This article explores the peculiarities of backyard
poultry farming in India, rearing and managemental practices along with project report proposal
for 1000 chicks and its contribution to farming people' livelihoods, and potential future
initiatives for increasing backyard chicken output. Indigenous avian species exhibit remarkable
resilience, demonstrating the ability to thrive in challenging environmental conditions.
These birds possess inherent immunity to common diseases, excel as nurturing mothers, and
display exceptional foraging skills. Scavenge freely around homes, they generate high-quality
animal protein through the production of eggs and meat. Their capacity to endure irregular feed
and water supply, coupled with minimal healthcare, results in sustained production levels. For
small and marginal farmers, as well as agricultural laborers, these birds serve as a crucial source
of additional income. While backyard bird farming is primarily extensive, some supplementary
feeding enhances productivity in the management of these flocks. The establishment of night
shelters plays a crucial role in safeguarding birds from harsh weather conditions and potential
predators. While birds scavenge for food during the day, consuming insects, pests, crop residues,
and more, this scavenging alone does not ensure an optimal diet for maximum production. The
nutrient intake of scavenging birds varies based on location, seasons, crops, and natural
vegetation. Common feedstuffs in family poultry include maize grains, maize scrap, millet bran,
food scraps, grower mash, and poultry mash, often provided in the form of mash or pellets. The

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

manure produced by birds serves as an excellent source of organic matter, contributing to soil
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
fertility and increased crop yields. Given the seasonal nature of agriculture, poultry farming
offers the potential for year-round employment opportunities for many individuals.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Optimal Returns with Minimal Investment: Launching a poultry unit requires as few as
two chickens, scaling up to a large flock. The feed cost is negligible, thanks to efficient use of
agricultural by-products and leftover feed. With a burgeoning localArticle
marketID: AG-VO2-I08-07
demand for high-
quality desi chicken meat and eggs, selling at premium prices is viable. This venture not only
enhances family income but also provides opportunities for family members unable to engage in
other agricultural activities, such as older family members or children. Backyard poultry farming
serves as a flexible income source, akin to an 'ATM,' allowing the sale of birds and eggs at any
time and place for immediate cash. Furthermore, the organic farming approach ensures superior
quality chicken and eggs, as the birds thrive in a stress-free environment with natural inputs.
Optimum conditions required in poultry shed Temperature: 22-30º C (70-85ºF), Relative
humidity: 30-60 per cent, Litter moisture: 15-25 per cent, Airflow: 10-30 meters per minute,
Ammonia: less than 25 ppm
Materials and Methods
1 Brooding operations
In preparation for the imminent arrival of chicks, it is essential to set up the brooder
approximately 24 hours beforehand, as illustrated in Figure 1. The housing facility should
undergo thorough cleaning, including disinfection, whitewashing, and the use of a blow lamp,
for proper brooder arrangements, a layer of paddy husk, reaching a height of 5 cm, should be
spread, with newspaper placed over it to prevent the ingestion of husk by young chicks. Metal
sheets and cardboard are employed as brooder guards, arranged in a circular fashion on the litter
material, extending 1.5 feet. The diameter of the brooder guard is determined by the number of
chicks, for an example with a recommended 150 cm diameter for 225 chicks and 180 cm
diameter for 300 chicks. Adequate free space should be provided around waterers and feeders to
allow unrestricted movement.
The lighting setup is crucial, with a requirement of 1 watt per chick. Bulbs should be
turned on 1-2 hours prior to the chicks' arrival to maintain a warm environment. On the first day,
continuous light for 24 hours is necessary, followed by a schedule from the 3rd day evening (4
pm) to the following morning (8 am). Maintaining optimal brooding temperature according to

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

chicks age, at first week house temperature was maintained at 35 ºC, second week at 32.2 ºC,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
third week at 29.4 ºC and by fourth week at 26.6 ºC and followed by removal of brooder guard
on 7th day and space was given as per standard managemental procedure 0.5 square feet/chick.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Vaccination of chicks were started by 7th day by F-strain for Raniket disease by intra-
occular route followed by Georgia strain for Infectious bursal disease on 14th day and lastly by
Lasota vaccine for Raniket disease (Booster dose) on 28th day Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

2. Summer management
Mitigating the Impact of Elevated Summer Temperatures on Poultry: Effective Strategies for
Managing Growth Rate and Egg Production. Poultry farmers face substantial economic losses
due to the heightened ambient temperatures during summer, leading to severe depression in
growth rate and egg production. Implementing proper summer management practices can
significantly overcome these challenges, focusing on shed and feed modifications.
Shed management strategies encompass the use of thatched roofing with a thickness of
more than 6 inches (maintained at temperatures above 45º C), avoiding excessive stocking
density, increasing floor space by 10%, incorporating ridge ventilation, limiting litter thickness
to 6 cm to prevent heat generation, applying white paint to walls for heat reflection and stress
reduction, covering side walls with wet curtains, enhancing air flow rate and air exchange by at
least 25%, and utilizing sprinklers on the roof to operate continuously from 10-18 hours for roof
cooling.
Feed modifications involve replacing 10-15% of calories (energy) in the feed with fat or
oil (adding 2-3% fat without increasing the total calorie content), providing 1-2% protein with a
10% reduction in energy, adding 0.48% potassium chloride to water to lower heat stress,
incorporating 0.5-1% sodium bicarbonate, and increasing water supply as intake rises by 2-4
times during the summer.
3 Debeaking Procedure
It is necessary in backyard farming to prevent feed wastage and vent pecking among
birds causing self-mutilated wounds. The 1stdebeaking done at 10th -14th day. Their beaks have
to be cut and cauterised by electrical cauterization, by maintaining Temperature of 550-600ºC.
Results and Discussions
The market analysis involves extensive market research revealed a growing demand for
locally sourced poultry products, indicating a favorable market for the proposed venture and

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

identified key competitors and market trends, providing crucial insights for strategic planning
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
and differentiation. The ffinancial viability was conducted by thorough financial analysis,
including startup costs, operational expenses, and revenue projections over a five-year period and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
developed financial models to assess profitability and return on investment, ensuring the
economic sustainability of the backyard poultry farming venture. Operational framework has
Articlehealth
established a comprehensive operational plan covering breeding, feeding, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
management,
and waste disposal and also implemented biosecurity measures to prevent disease outbreaks,
ensuring the overall health and productivity of the poultry.
The strategic planning formulated a detailed strategic plan encompassing short-term and
long-term goals, market positioning, and potential expansion opportunities. The technology
integration was explored by innovative technologies for poultry farming, including automated
feeding systems, health monitoring, and data analytics for optimized decision-making and
demonstrated how technology integration can improve efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance
overall productivity. The regulatory compliance was developed by a regulatory compliance
framework to guide the venture in adhering to industry standards and ethical practices.
Community impact and sustainability investigated the potential environmental impact of the
poultry farming venture and proposed sustainable practices. The risk assessment and mitigation
involved identification of potential risks associated with the backyard poultry farming venture,
such as disease outbreaks, market fluctuations, and regulatory changes and also formulated a
robust risk management plan, outlining strategies to mitigate and respond to identified risks.
Conclusion
In conclusion, It asserts that a well-executed plan will not only ensure the success of the
backyard poultry farming venture but also contribute to the broader goals of food security and
environmental responsibility. A robust marketing strategy is essential for creating brand
awareness and attracting customers. It's important to focus on converting conventional backyard
chicken farming into scientific backyard poultry farming in order to draw in more farmers and
make the industry more profitable or cost-effective.
The feasibility and viability of the comprehensive startup and strategic planning for the backyard
poultry farming venture. The findings provide a solid foundation for the successful establishment
and sustainable growth of the proposed enterprise.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

MILLETS OCCUPATIONAL
: INDIAN SCENARIO, BENEFITS
HEALTH HAZARDS AND TYPES
OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-58

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. C. Deepa*
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agril. Extension, SKCAS, ANGRAU, A.P., India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Indian Millets are nutritionally superior to wheat and rice as they are rich in protein, vitamins
and minerals. They are also gluten-free and have a low glycemic index, making them ideal for
people with celiac disease or diabetes. Millet is a resilient small-seeded grass that grows well as
a rain-fed crop under marginal soil fertility and moisture conditions in dry regions. The earliest
domestically farmed cereal grain millets are Sorghum, Finger Millet, Foxtail Millet, Proso
Millet, and Barnyard Millet. While rice and wheat require a lot of water and fertiliser, millets can
thrive in dry areas since they are rain-fed crops. They are low in fat, low in glycemic index, and
high in dietary fibre. According to some research, Millet may also raise your “good” cholesterol
levels and lower your triglycerides. Eating millet regularly may assist in keeping your heart
healthy because it lowers cholesterol levels.
Key words : Fibre, Glycemic index, Health, Millets,
Introduction
Indian millets are a group of nutritiously rich, drought tolerant and mostly grown in the
arid and semi-arid regions of India. They are small-seeded grasses belonging to the botanical
family Poaceae. They constitute an important source of food and fodder for millions of resource-
poor farmers and play a vital role in ecological and economic security of India. These millets are
also known as "coarse cereals" or "cereals of the poor". Indian Millets are nutritionally superior
to wheat and rice as they are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals. They are also gluten-free and
have a low glycemic index, making them ideal for people with celiac disease or diabetes. India is

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among the top 5 exporters of millets in world. World export of millet has increased from $400
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
million in 2020 to $470 million in 2021 (ITC trade map) India exported millets worth $64.28
million in the year 2021-22, against $59.75 million in 2020-21. Share of Millet based value
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
added products is negligible.
India is the largest producer as well as the largest exporter of cereal products in the
Article
world. India's export of cereals stood at Rs. 96,011.42 Crore / 12,872.64 USDID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Millions during
the year 2021-22. Rice (including Basmati and Non-Basmati) occupy the major share in India's
total cereals export with 75% (in value terms) during the same period. Whereas, other cereals
including wheat represent only a 25 % share of total cereals exported from India during this
period.
Indian Millet Production Scenario
Millet is a type of grain that is popular in many parts of the world, especially in Africa
and Asia. It is a staple food in many parts of the world, particularly in Africa and Asia.
According to the World Food Programme, there are an estimated 1.2 billion people who
consume millet as a part of their diet.
Millet production has remained relatively stable over the past few years, with an
estimated production of 28 million metric tons in 2020. The majority of millet is produced in
Africa, followed by Asia. India is the largest producer of millet, followed by Niger and China.
Other major millet-producing countries include Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal.While millet is
not a major food crop in the developed world, it plays a vital role in the diets of many people in
developing countries. Millet is a drought-tolerant crop that can be grown in dry, arid climates
where other crops would fail. It is also a nutritious grain that is high in fiber and essential
minerals. For these reasons, millet will continue to be an important food crop in the years to
come.
In India, millet production has been on the rise in recent years. India is one of the largest
producers of millets &Indian farmers have been increasingly planting millet as a drought-
resistant crop. The Indian government has also been promoting millet production as part of its
National Food Security Mission. As a result of these factors, millet production in India is
expected to continue to grow in the coming years. The graph below depicts the production trends
of millets in India.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Indian Millet Sourcing Point:

India is one of the leading producers and suppliers of millet, and there are a number of
millet sourcing points located throughout the country. The main millet-growing states in India
are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh These states have
a large number of millet farmers who grow the grain for both domestic and international markets.
In addition to the major millet producing states, there is also a number of smaller millet
producing regions located throughout India. These regions include the states of Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
Benefits of Millets:
 Niacin, found in millet, aids the body in more than 400 enzymatic processes. Niacin is
necessary for a healthy immune system and healthy skin and organs. Because it’s such a vital
component, it’s typically added to processed foods as a supplement.
 Beta-carotene is abundant in millet, particularly the darker kinds. This natural pigment
functions as an antioxidant and a precursor to vitamin A to protect your eyes and your body from
free radicals.
 Millet is a low-glycemic index (GI) as well as a non-acid forming food because it is low in
simple carbohydrates and high in complex carbohydrates. Therefore, millet flour requires more
time in the digestive process. People with diabetes can better control their blood sugar levels by
eating meals with a low glycemic index (GI).
 Insoluble and soluble fibre can be found in millet. As a prebiotic, millet’s insoluble fibre
promotes the healthy microorganisms in your intestines.

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 In addition to helping keep you regular and decreasing your chance of colon cancer, this
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
particular form of fibre helps bulk up stools.
 Millet’s
soluble fibre may help lower bad cholesterol levels, which is a risk factor for the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
development of atherosclerosis. In the stomach, soluble fibre forms a gel that absorbs
cholesterol, allowing it to exit the body safely.
 According Article ID:levels
to some research, Millet may also raise your “good” cholesterol AG-VO2-I08-07
and lower
your triglycerides. Eating millet regularly may assist in keeping your heart healthy because it
lowers cholesterol levels.
Nutrition
 Potassium, found in abundance in millet, aids kidney and heart health. Nerve signal
transmission, which is how your mind and muscles communicate, also relies on
potassium.
 Potassium, Phosphorus and Niacin are also found in abundance in this food, as well as
Vitamins A and B. Millets are also rich sources of minerals.
Wide Capacity for Adoption
 Millet is a resilient small-seeded grass that grows well as a rain-fed crop under marginal soil
fertility and moisture conditions in dry regions. The earliest domestically farmed cereal grain
millets are Sorghum, Finger Millet, Foxtail Millet, Proso Millet, and Barnyard Millet. While rice
and wheat require a lot of water and fertiliser, millets can thrive in dry areas since they are rain-
fed crops. They are low in fat, low in glycemic index, and high in dietary fibre.
 According to agronomics, the resurgence of millet production in the southern states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana is a step toward more environmentally friendly
farming methods that preserve the region’s rich biodiversity. Millets have several advantages
over other crops in terms of sustainability.
 When comparing the amount of water required to cultivate rice and millets, it is clear that rice
requires more water. An ICRISAT study has found that a single rice plant requires
approximately 2.5 times the amount of water as a single millet plant of most kinds. This global
research organisation is striving to popularise millets.
 During the Kharif (April-October) season, it was a staple food in the northern and southern
Karnataka regions during the Kharif (April-October) season. It was grown alongside groundnuts
and other crops by farmers in Dharwad, Bagalkot and the surrounding areas. When rice and

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wheat arrived in the region three to four decades ago, millet was supplanted as the primary
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
source of food for farmers in the Mandya and Tumakuru regions.
Types of millets
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Jowar (Sorghum)
Sorghum is commonly known as Jowar in India. Traditionally, jowar was used as a grain to
make flat breads/ rotis. Enriched with the goodness of iron, protein and Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
fibre, jowar can help in
reducing cholesterol level as it has a component called policosanols (a part of sorghum wax). It is
good for people who have wheat intolerance.
Ragi (Finger Millet)
Ragi is used as a healthy substitute for rice and wheat. Ragi is undoubtedly a powerhouse
of nutrition. Loaded with protein and amino acids, this gluten free millet is good for brain
development in growing kids.
Foxtail millet
Foxtail millet has healthy blood sugar balancing carbohydrates, and it is popularly available
in the form of semolina and rice flour. The presence of iron and calcium in this millet helps in
strengthening immunity.
Bajra (Pearl millet)
This millet is known for its umpteen health benefits. Packed with the goodness of iron,
protein, fibre, and minerals such as calcium and magnesium; the daily consumption or inclusion of
this millet can work wonders.
Barnyard millet
This nutrient dense millet has high fiber content, which can effectively help in losing
weight. It is a rich source of calicum and phosphorius, which helps in bone building and its daily
caonsumption helps infighting bone diseases.
Proso millet
This millet can effectively help in balancing blood sugar level. Its low glycemic index has
made it a fad among weight watchers. In India is has been a commonly bird feed.
Little millet
Packed with the goodness of B-vitamins, minerals like calcium, iron, zinc and potassium,
little millets can provide essential nutrients, which further help in weight loss. It is a part of many

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traditional dishes in south India. What's more, more than anything its high fiber content makes it a
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
healthy replacement for rice.
Government Measures to Increase Millets Production
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Despite its multiple advantages, Millet use is confined to traditional consumers, i.e., tribal

communities. There aren’t many ready-to-eat millet-based goods available to consumers.

 Millets have recently received attention, and attempts are beingArticle
made ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
to obtain easy and
value-added processed products from them. Millets, such as jowar, bajra, ragi, and other
varieties, are important food sources for many households in dry and hilly regions. As a result, it
has been advocated that the Public Distribution System add millets to its food supply.
 Millets have been acknowledged as an important part of the food chain by the government.
The NFSM’s first projections for increasing food grain production by 25 million tonnes include a
2 million-ton share for millets or 8 percent of the increased food grain output.
Conclusion
It has several advantages, including low-maintenance, disease resistance, nutritional
value, market demand, fodder value, and ecological benefits.
Millets, often known as C4 crops, are extremely effective at absorbing and utilising CO2. Most
millets are well-known for their toughness and ability to produce grains and fodder, even when
subjected to protracted periods of drought and high heat.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
OCCURRENCE OF COCONUT BUTTON/ NUT BORER (CYCLODES
OCCUPATIONALOMMA)
HEALTHIN
HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ORATHANADU BLOCK OF THANJAVUR DISTRICT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-59
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

M. Shanmuga Priya, V.G. Mathirajan, K.Chozhan, R. Thilagavathi and A. Velayutham

Department of Entomology, Dr. M.S.S Agricultural College and Research Institute (TNAU),
Eachangkottai – 614 902, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is one of the important commercial crops, cultivated as a
sole crop or as an intercrop. It is in high demand for cooking, tender coconut and coconut oil.
India is the largest coconut producer (19,247 million nuts) worldwide and accounted for 31. 45
% of world’s total production during 2021-22. Thereby contributes approximately Rs. 307, 498
million to country’s gross domestic product. In Tamil Nadu, coconut is being cultivated in 4.3
lakh’s hectares with the production and productivity of 4515 million nuts and 10484 nuts ha-1
respectively and ranks first in coconut processing activities. It is cultivated around 95,000 acres
in Thanjavur district, particularly in Pattukottai and surrounding areas such as Peravurani,
Orathanadu, and Sethupavachathiram.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

This crop is vulnerable to many major insect pests viz., rhinoceros beetle, red palm
weevil, eriophyid mite, black-headed caterpillar, rugose whitefly, etc. However, scales, leaf
eating caterpillar, nut borer, thrips, white grubs, red tree ants, etc. are some of the minor pests of
coconut palm occurring in Tamil Nadu.
The palm coconut trees at Ampalapattu, Sivakollai, Vadacherry and Thirumangalakottai
villages of Orathanadu block in Thanjavur district were observed with damages caused by
coconut nut borer, Cyclodes omma (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on coconut buttons. It is a sporadic
pest normally found in dwarf genotypes and also in hybrids. The excessive application of
nitrogenous fertilizers is one of the factors responsible for pest outbreak. Palms subjected to
assisted pollination are more susceptible to this pest attack. ..

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Symptoms
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Caterpillars bore into buttons after pollination as well as immature nuts and feeds
voraciously during night hours and cause button shedding.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Later infestation destroys the entire bunch of developing nuts.
 Caterpillar excreta were also evident on the palm leaf petiole.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 The pupal stages are observed on the debris of palm crown.

Preventive and Curative measures

 Crown cleaning and removal of immature stages of the pest by hand picking and
destroying is the effective management tactics.

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 Judicious and need based application of nitrogenous fertilizers

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Application of the entomopathogen, Bacillus thuringiensis @ 20 g per litre or neem oil
0.5% OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
(5 ml per litre with 10 g soap powder) using hand sprayers would reduce pest incidence.
 Pressurized spraying of neem oil @ 3 ml/ lit with 1.5 ml of spreader/ soap oil at 45 days
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
interval which disturbs the egg masses
 As prophylactic measure, spray 1% of Bordeaux mixture to the spindle/leaf or crowns of
the tree before onset of the monsoon.
 In case of severe infestation spray chlorantraniliprole 9.3% +Lamda cyhalothrin 4.6 %
ZC @ 2ml/lit or spraying of Lamda cyhalothrin 5 % EC @ 2ml/ lit
 After 30 days, again spraying of neem oil @ 5ml/ lit with 2ml of teapal on all emerging
newly developed inflorescence.
 Repeat the neem oil spray at 15 days interval upto 2 months.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

THE ROLE OF IOT IN ADVANCING PRECISION

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
AGRICULTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-60
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

S. H. Parmar*, D. D. Vadalia, G. V. Prajapati and P. A. Pandya

Centre of Excellence on Soil and Water Management, Office of Research Scientist (Agril.
Engg.), Junagadh Agriculture University, Junagadh, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) in agriculture, particularly in precision farming, has
revolutionized farming practices, significantly boosting efficiency, sustainability, and
productivity. Precision agriculture relies on real-time data-driven decision-making, facilitated by
IoT technologies. By deploying interconnected devices, sensors, and actuators across fields,
farmers access valuable data on soil health, weather conditions, and crop growth patterns. This
empowers them to optimize resource usage and minimize environmental impact. A key
application of IoT in precision agriculture is soil monitoring, where smart sensors provide real-
time insights into soil composition, moisture levels, and nutrient content. This data guides
precise irrigation and fertilization strategies, maximizing yields while minimizing resource
overuse. Crop monitoring and management benefit from IoT as well, with smart devices
monitoring health, detecting diseases or pests early, and optimizing agricultural inputs. This
proactive approach fosters healthier crops and a more sustainable farming ecosystem. IoT
extends into machinery and equipment, where smart tractors, harvesters, and drones equipped
with sensors enable precise and automated farming operations. Integration of GPS technology
enhances accuracy, ensuring efficient field utilization. Moreover, IoT aids in weather forecasting
and predictive analytics, leveraging data from various sources to inform planting schedules and
harvest timings, mitigating risks and increasing farm resilience. The role of IoT in advancing
precision agriculture signifies a transformative shift, redefining farming practices for increased

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precision, productivity, and sustainability. The seamless integration of IoT devices, data
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
analytics, and smart machinery allows farmers to operate with unprecedented efficiency,
maximizing yields while minimizing environmental impact. Overall, IoT in agriculture
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
represents not just a technological advancement but a fundamental reimagining of how we
cultivate the land and nourish the world.
Keywords: Precision farming, IoT integration, Sustainable agriculture,Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Enhanced productivity
Introduction
Agriculture holds the largest share in India's economy, contributing around 18% to the
gross domestic product and engaging approximately 57% of the rural population. Despite a rise
in overall agricultural output, the proportion of farmers has declined from 71.9% in 1951 to
45.1% in 2011 (Reddy and Dutta 2018). According to the Economic Survey 2018, the
agricultural workforce is projected to decrease to 25.7% of the total workforce by 2050. In rural
areas, farming families are gradually losing the next generation of farmers due to factors such as
rising cultivation costs, low per capita productivity, inadequate soil maintenance, and a shift
towards non-farming or more lucrative occupations. At present, the world is on the brink of a
digital revolution, making it an opportune time to integrate agricultural landscapes with wireless
technology, thereby introducing and facilitating digital connectivity for farmers.
The current phase of agriculture, known as Agricultural Era 4.0, integrates advanced
technologies such as the Internet of Things, big data analysis, artificial intelligence, cloud
computing, and remote sensing. The adoption of these new technologies has led to significant
enhancements in agricultural practices through the creation of cost-effective sensor and network
platforms. These platforms aim to optimize production efficiency while minimizing the usage of
water resources and energy with minimal environmental impact (Ferrandez et al., 2016). In smart
farming, big data analysis offers real-time insights into agricultural conditions, enabling farmers
to make informed decisions (Wolfert et al., 2017). Additionally, real-time programming,
utilizing concepts of artificial intelligence, is embedded in IoT devices to assist farmers in
making optimal decisions (Liakos et al., 2018).
Precision agriculture stands as a strategic approach to farming management, leveraging
technology and data to enhance both the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural production.
This method revolves around the meticulous observation, measurement, and response to
variations within fields and crops. By employing advanced technologies and analytical tools,

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farmers gain the ability to make well-informed decisions regarding the allocation of resources.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
This proactive strategy not only optimizes the utilization of resources but also contributes to a
more sustainable and environmentally conscious approach to agriculture.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
At its core, precision agriculture entails a comprehensive process of monitoring and
analyzing various factors influencing crop growth, including soil conditions, weather patterns,
Article
and overall field variability. Armed with this valuable data, farmers ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
can implement targeted
interventions, adjusting their practices based on real-time information. This enables a more
precise and efficient use of resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides, minimizing waste
and environmental impact. In essence, precision agriculture transforms traditional farming by
integrating cutting-edge technologies into the decision-making process. The result is a more
dynamic and responsive approach to agricultural management, fostering increased productivity
while concurrently promoting sustainable farming practices. Through the continual refinement of
techniques and the integration of emerging technologies, precision agriculture remains at the
forefront of modern farming strategies, offering a path towards a more resource-efficient and
environmentally responsible future for the agricultural sector.
Fundamental Aspects
Technologically-Enhanced Framework: Utilizes contemporary instruments and employs data
analysis to enhance the efficiency of agricultural methods.
Enhanced efficiency and heightened productivity: Aim to optimize crop yields while
minimizing resource inefficiencies, resulting in increased overall production.
Environmentally Responsible Approaches: Concentrates on reducing environmental
consequences through the efficient utilization of resources such as water and fertilizer.
Information-Based Decision Making: Depends on information gathered from sensors, satellites,
and various tools to inform decisions regarding planting, irrigation, pest management, and
harvesting strategies.
Predictive Modelling Methods: Utilizes diverse models such as Crop Growth Models, Digital
Twins, and Machine Learning to forecast crop behaviour, optimize the distribution of resources,
and detect potential issues.
Benefits of IoT
Greater Financial Prosperity: Greater financial gains result from increased yields and more
efficient utilization of resources.

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Superior Environmental Resilience: Reduces environmental footprint by employing responsible

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
practices in water and chemical usage.
Better-Quality Harvest: The adoption of data-driven management practices leads to crop quality
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
that is both healthier and more consistently maintained.
Upgraded Decision-Making Proficiency: Farmers possess the ability to make knowledgeable
decisions by utilizing both real-time data and historical patterns. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Examples of Technology Used:

Applied in field mapping, monitoring

equipment location, and generating zone
maps to facilitate the variable rate application
Satellites and drones assess the well-being
(VRT) of resources.
of crops and analyze the conditions in the
field.
GPS and GIS Remote Sensing

Modifies the rates of input applications,

Measure crop yield during harvest, providing
such as water, fertilizer, and pesticides,
valuable data for analysis.
according to field-specific data.
Yield Tracking Systems Variable Rate Technology

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Enhance water efficiency by providing crops Automated functionalities in tractors,

with the precise amount of water needed. planters, and additional equipment
facilitate more accurate and precise
operations.
Precision Irrigation Systems Autonomous Agricultural Equipment
Precision agriculture marks a noteworthy progression toward a farming future
characterized by sustainability and reliance on data. Through the adept use of technology and
information, farmers can establish an agricultural system that is not only more effective and
productive but also environmentally conscious.

Within the realm of agriculture, IoT (Internet of Things) encompasses a network of

linked devices, sensors, and actuators designed to gather, exchange, and analyze data for the
enhancement of farming practices. This integral element of precision agriculture facilitates
immediate monitoring, automated control, and decision-making guided by data analysis.

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Components of IoT in Agriculture

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Sensor: These components act as the mainstay, collecting information on different elements of
the farm environment and crops. Instances encompass sensors for soil moisture, temperature, and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
humidity, along with those gauging plant health and weather conditions.
Sensor technology plays a crucial role in precision agriculture by continuously
Article
monitoring critical environmental and crop-related factors. These sensors ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
provide real-time data
on:

Soil Moisture: Ensures optimal irrigation Temperature: Helps predict frost risks and
practices and prevents water waste. adjust crop management strategies.

Humidity: Provides insights into disease Crop Health: Monitors plant health and
and pest threats, allowing for preventative identifies potential problems early on.
measures.
2. Controls: These devices utilize data gathered by sensors to initiate physical operations in
various environments. For instance, they can manage irrigation systems based on soil moisture
levels, dispense fertilizer automatically, and control equipment from a distance.
Acting Based on Data: The collected sensor data is used to control actuators, which are
essentially automated mechanisms that translate data into physical actions. These controls:
1. Regulate Irrigation Systems: Adjust water delivery based on real-time soil moisture levels.

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2. Manage Fertilizer Dispensers: Apply fertilizers precisely based on specific needs of different
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
areas in the field.
3. Control Other Farm Equipment: Automate various farm functions for increased efficiency and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
precision.
3. Linkage: Devices establish communication with each other and a central platform through a
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
range of technologies such as cellular networks, Wi-Fi, or satellite connections.

4 Information platform: The platform gathers, retains, and analyzes data sourced from sensors,
offering farmers valuable insights to support informed decision-making.
Benefits of IoT Implementations in Agriculture Sector
 Optimized decision-making: Timely data empowers farmers to make accurate choices
regarding irrigation, fertilization, pest management, and harvest, thereby optimizing resource
distribution and crop output.
 Increased resource effectiveness: Through accurately directing resources according to
specific requirements, IoT aids in reducing water and fertilizer wastage, promoting the
adoption of more sustainable agricultural practices.
 Enhanced efficiency: Through the surveillance of crop health and early intervention in
addressing issues, IoT enables farmers to attain greater yields and produce crops of superior
quality.
 Reduced human resource expenses: Automation through actuators and remote monitoring
can reduce the need for manual labor, allowing farmers to manage larger areas effectively.
 Improved monitoring: Collecting data from the farm to the table improves food safety and
transparency for consumers.

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IoT Applications in Agriculture:

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Smart irrigation: Sensors monitor soil moisture and automatically adjust irrigation systems
to deliver the right amount of water at the right time.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Remote area observation: Farmers can monitor crop health, weather conditions, and
equipment status remotely using sensors and data platforms.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Variable rate application (VRA): Sensors are capable of charting field discrepancies,
facilitating the accurate dispensation of fertilizers and pesticides tailored to the distinct
requirements of various areas.
 Livestock management: Livestock necessitates consistent monitoring. Utilizing IoT-enabled
smart tracking can provide farmers with direct access to stock information on their smart
devices. This technology aids in identifying flu outbreaks at earlier stages, enabling the
segregation of unaffected breeds from those infected.
 Crop Monitoring: Field supervisors have access to diverse crop monitoring tools, including
IoT devices deployed within the fields to gather data on crop health, water levels, and soil
condition. Another alternative for overseeing large-scale crop conditions is satellite
monitoring. These tools aid in the early detection of potential issues such as nutrient
deficiencies, diseases, and water scarcity, facilitating prompt interventions.
Conclusion
The future of agriculture appears promising due to the transformative capabilities of the
Internet of Things (IoT). Through interconnected sensors, data-driven analysis, and intelligent
automation, IoT is facilitating the emergence of precision farming, an approach that encourages:
Improved ecological balance: IoT empowers farmers to maximize resource utilization, such as
water and fertilizers, thereby reducing their environmental footprint.
Improved profitability: Precision farming results in improved yields and reduced waste by
employing precise interventions, ultimately leading to increased profitability.
Richer Harvests: Data-driven decisions based on real-time insights empower farmers to
maximize crop health and harvest bountiful yields.
These advantages extend well beyond individual farms. Every farmer and agricultural business
owner can harness the power of IoT-driven precision farming to:
Make informed decisions: Real-time data enables proactive and accurate field management.

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Manage risks: Early identification of potential issues enables prompt intervention and reduces
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
adverse effects.
Optimize resource utilization: Precise targeting ensures efficient resource use, resulting in cost
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
savings and environmental stewardship.
For instance, envision a farmer deploying a drone equipped with imaging sensors. These
Article
sensors capture detailed crop health data, which is then analyzed by ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
machine learning
algorithms. This analysis identifies areas susceptible to pests or diseases, enabling the farmer to
take precise action, reducing pesticide application and ensuring a thriving harvest.
References
Ferrandez-Pastor, F. J., Garcia-Chamizo, J. M., Nieto-Hidalgo, M., Mora-Pascual, J., & Mora-
Martínez, J. (2016). Developing ubiquitous sensor network platform using internet of
things: Application in precision agriculture. Sensors, 16(7), 1141.
Liakos, K. G., Busato, P., Moshou, D., Pearson, S., & Bochtis, D. (2018). Machine learning in
agriculture: A review. Sensors, 18(8), 2674.
Reddy, T. K., & Dutta, M. (2018). Impact of agricultural inputs on agricultural GDP in Indian
economy. Theoretical Economics Letters, 8(10), 1840.
Wolfert, S., Ge, L., Verdouw, C., & Bogaardt, M. J. (2017). Big data in smart farming–a
review. Agricultural systems, 153, 69-80.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

EMPOWERING HORTICULTURE: GENOME EDITING

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
(CRISPR-CAS) AS A TOOL FOR VEGETABLE CROP
IMPROVEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-61
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Gandikota Brahmani1*, Silaru Raghuveer2, Yoshita Sri Krishna Shastri3 and Rashmi H4
1,3,4
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, University of Horticultural Sciences,
Bagalkot, 587 103, Karnataka, India.
2
Contractual Teacher, Department of Plantation, Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Dr.
YSR Horticultural University, Andhra Pradesh, India.
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]
Abstract
Vegetables play a crucial role in human nutrition, providing essential nutrients like vitamins,
minerals and fibre, thus promoting overall health. Many biotic and abiotic stresses threaten these
crops' crop growth, yield and quality. Hence, there is an urge to develop crop plants with good
agronomic traits and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Nowadays, gene or genome editing
technology plays an indispensable role in improving crop plants. Genome editing technology
enables precise manipulation of DNA sequences in organisms facilitating targeted mutations. It
offers a promising approach for improving crop varieties by altering gene functions in plants.
Compared to classical mutation breeding, genome editing is simpler to use and carries a lower
risk of off-target effects. Additionally, it can be applied to crops with complex genomes or those
difficult to breed using traditional methods. With highly versatile tools for precise editing of
plant genomes, the scope of application extends to functional genomics research and molecular
crop breeding. This technology accelerates the development of new germplasm resources with
improved agro-economic traits. This article provides an overview of genome editing technology,
its potential applications in olericulture, challenges encountered and prospects.
Keywords: Gene editing, vegetables, resistance, applications
Introduction
Crop improvement has been an ongoing process for several thousands of years. Initially,
Traditional breeding approaches mainly relied on natural variations of the gene pool, selection

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from related species and spontaneous mutations. Later on, the introduction of artificial
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hybridization by Fairchild in 1716 marked a significant development. Then, in 1930, Stadler
used X-rays to induce mutation and assist in a new era of mutagenesis breeding including
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chemical means. Thus, plant breeding has evolved with accompanying innovations including
precision breeding and molecular breeding encompassing gene editing (GE) and marker-assisted
selection (MAS) has become integral to the field. In the current Article
era, theID: AG-VO2-I08-07
term "New Plant
Technologies" (NBTs) encompasses recent biotechnological developments aimed at crop
improvement. The first green revolution in the late 1960s was a coordinated effort by various
stakeholders. Subsequently, achieving self-sufficiency in food and enacting the Right to Food
Act in 2013 underscored the need for continued efforts in strengthening local food ecosystems to
address biotic and abiotic challenges. To sustain and increase food production, there is a growing
need to incorporate advanced tools including genomics, genome editing (GE), artificial
intelligence and deep learning. This multifaceted approach is crucial for addressing the evolving
challenges in agriculture and ensuring food security.
Genome or gene editing encompasses a myriad of innovative techniques empowering
scientists to precisely modify the genome sequences. Utilizing genome editing to enhance
agricultural and horticultural productivity becomes imperative in light of the expanding global
population. Through this technology, we can strategically alter the regulation of gene expression
patterns within specific regions, unlocking unprecedented insights into the functional genomics
of organisms. The pivotal role of genetic diversity in enhancing traits in plants underscores the
importance of creating variations in the gene pool for the development of novel plant varieties.
The advent of genome editing has ignited significant enthusiasm, particularly among agricultural
scientists owing to its ease of use, accuracy and effectiveness. Genome editing emerges as a
powerful tool, not only for developing enhanced crops but also for unraveling the intricacies of
reverse genetics. Its versatility positions it as a crucial asset in basic research, opening avenues
for groundbreaking discoveries and advancements in agricultural and horticultural science.
Genome-edited plants are differentiated from conventional transgenic plants as they may not
incorporate foreign DNA.
Types of genome editing
There are 3 types of modifications produced by genome editing: Type I includes altering
a few nucleotides; Type II involves replacing an allele with a pre-existing one and Type III

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allows for the insertion of new gene(s) in predetermined regions in the genome. Because most
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genome-editing techniques can leave behind traces of DNA alterations evident in a small number
of nucleotides, crops created through gene editing could avoid the stringent regulation
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procedures commonly associated with GM crop development.
Mechanism of genome editing
Article
Genome editing encompasses a wide variety of tools using ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
either a site-specific
recombinase (SSR) or a site-specific nuclease (SSN) system. Both systems require recognition of
a known sequence. The SSN system generates single or double-stranded DNA breaks and
activates endogenous DNA repair pathways. SSR technology, such as Cre/loxP and Flp/FRT
mediated systems can knock down or knock in genes in the genome of eukaryotes, depending on
the orientation of the specific sites (loxP, FLP etc.) flanking the target site. There are 5 main
classes of SSN developed to cleave genomic sequences viz., meganucleases/homing
endonucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis (ODM),
transcriptional activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and the CRISPR / Cas nuclease
system (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated protein).
Site-specific double-stranded breaks (DSBs) are enabled by CRISPR/Cas which further activate
the cellular DNA repair systems. These DSBs can either be corrected by the non-homologous
end joining (NHEJ) pathway or through the homology-directed repair (HDR) pathway. The use
of first-generation technologies like ZFNs and TALENs has been limited due to their adverse
mutagenic outcome, low editing efficiency, time-consuming process and the labour-intensive
selection and screening process.

The second-generation genome editing technology i.e. CRISPR/ Cas9 is easier to design
and execute and more cost-effective. The use of CRISPR/Cas9 in vegetable crops has
substantially expanded gene editing technology and made it possible to create novel genotypes

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with desired phenotypic features and altered genomic functions at the base pair level. The
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recombinase-mediated genome engineering depends on the recombinase (sub-) family & target
site and induces high frequencies of homologous recombination….
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Genome editing relies on a DNA repair mechanism. DNA damage occurs in all living
cells due to exogenous factors (UV radiation) or endogenous factors (metabolic by-products and
Articlebreak
free radicals). The most lethal type of DNA damage is the double-strand ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
(DSB) which
must be repaired before DNA replication, which has led to either non-homologous end joining or
homology-directed repair. In non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), it can quickly and
imprecisely, be repaired the break. In one way, several different proteins bind to broken DNA
ends and are joined together resulting in the INDELs of nucleotides. In another way, NHEJ, 5′
ends are cut until 3′ overhangs with homology are created. DNA strands then bind at their
complementary sequence, and non-homologous DNA is excised which results in NHEJ and often
leads to frameshift mutations which can result in premature stop codons, resulting in non-
functional genes. The second DNA repair pathway is homology-directed repair (HDR) which
relies on template DNA. Homologous recombination is an important process that occurs in
somatic cells to repair DSBs and in meiotically dividing cells to exchange genetic material
between parental chromosomes. The most common conservative HDR mechanism in plants,
which repairs almost all DSBs in somatic cells, is the synthesis-dependent strand annealing
(SDSA) pathway.
Application of genome editing tools especially CRISPR CAS-9 in vegetable crops:
 Development of albino phenotypes
 Development of abiotic and biotic stress-resistant traits in crop plants
 Quality improvement (nutritional, post-harvest etc)
 Improvement of polyploidy crops like potato, okra, etc.
 Enhancement of yield or productivity
 Herbicide resistance
 Induction of parthenocarpy
 Enhancement of seed germination etc.,
Role of genome editing in a few vegetable crops
1. Tomato: Disrupting BRASSINAZOLE RESISTANT 1 (BZR1) through knockout inhibited
the induction of RESPIRATORY BURST OXIDASE HOMOLOG1 (RBOH1) and promoted the

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production of H2O2, enhancing heat tolerance in tomatoes. The introduction of exogenous H2O2
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restored heat tolerance in bzr1 tomato mutant plants. Furthermore, CRISPR-Cas9-induced
mutations in slmapk3 increased heat stress tolerance in tomatoes. The slmapk3 mutant exhibited
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reduced wilting, mild membrane damage, lower reactive oxygen species production and
enhanced antioxidant enzymatic activity under heat stress. In tomato, SlDMR6-1 orthologue
Article
Solyc03g080190.2 is up-regulated when infected due to Pseudomonas ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
syringae pv. tomato and
Phytophthora capsici. The tomato homologue genes were knocked out using CRISPR-Cas9 to
cause mutations in DMR6, which resulted in broad-spectrum resistance to Pseudomonas,
Phytophthora and Xanthomonas spp. The homology-directed repair (HDR) pathway was used to
replace the allele of ALC with the alc gene, resulting in T1 homozygous tomato plants with a
long shelf life.
2. Brinjal: Three polyphenol oxidase genes (SmelPPO4, SmelPPO5 and SmelPPO6) showing
the highest transcript levels in the fruit after cutting were regarded to be associated with
enzymatic browning of eggplants/brinjal. CRISPR-Cas9-based mutagenesis has been applied to
knock out three target PPO genes simultaneously aiming to reduce fruit flesh browning.
3. Cucumber: The initial utilization of CRISPR-Cas9 in cucumber aimed to establish broad viral
resistance by knocking out the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) gene.
Gynoecious inbred lines in cucumbers hold significance due to their increased yield and reduced
labor costs for crossbreeding. CRISPR-Cas9 tools to create Cswip1 mutants targeting the WPP
trp/pro/pro domain Interacting Protein1 (CsWIP1) gene, responsible for encoding a zinc-finger
transcription factor. The resulting Cswip1 T0 mutants exhibited a gynoecious phenotype,
characterized by the presence of only female flowers, indicating the gene's involvement in
inhibiting cucumber carpel development.
4. Watermelon: Artificial gynoecious watermelon lines have been generated using the CRISPR-
Cas9 system targeting the ClWIP1. The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to generate the knockout
mutation of the phytosulfokine1 (ClPSK1) gene responsible for the infection by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. niveum (FON). The loss-of-function mutation of ClPSK1 rendered watermelon
seedlings more resistant to infection by FON. CRISPR-Cas9-mediated mutations in the phytoene
desaturase (ClPDS) gene, encoding a key enzyme of carotenoid synthesis, caused the expected
albino phenotype in watermelon plants. Watermelon plants possessing C to T mutations in the

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Pro 190 (CCG) codon at the ClALS gene have become resistant to all sulfonylurea herbicides
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without compromising fruit size, seed size and seed yield.
5. Potato: CRISPR/Cas has emerged as a substitute and effective method for the control of late
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blight and viral diseases of potatoes. Targeting P3, CI, Nib and CP viral genes, Cas13a protein
was used to give resistance to three PVY strains (RNA viruses). Similarly, the functional
Article
knockouts of StDND1, StCHL1, DMG400000582 (StDMR6-1) andID:caffeoyl-CoA-O-
AG-VO2-I08-07

methyltransferase gene generated potato plants with increased late blight resistance. Improved
starch quality with a full knockout of granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS), starch synthase
gene (SS6) and starch-branching enzymes (SBEs) genes SBE1 and SBE2 was reported in
potatoes using CRISPR-mediated genome editing.
6. Lettuce: The CRISPR/Cas9 technique was employed to knock out the LsNCED4 (9-cis-
EPOXYCAROTENOIDDIOXYGENASE4) gene, leading to the elimination of thermo-
inhibition of lettuce seed germination. Genome editing of the upstream open reading frame
(uORF) enabled the modulation of the translation of mRNA. Editing the uORF of LsGGP1 and
LsGGP2, which encodes a key enzyme in vitamin C biosynthesis, increased mRNA translation,
thereby elevating ascorbate content and oxidation stress tolerance.
Regulation of genome editing crops
Genome and gene editing involves precise alterations to DNA or RNA sequences in
organisms ranging from single base pair changes to significant genomic reorganizations. This
technique can introduce novel traits by incorporating genes not naturally present in the
organism's gene pool. Due to the genetic manipulation involved, adherence to regulatory
frameworks such as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is essential for any country. Diverse
approaches to regulating genome-edited crops exist worldwide. The United States exempts
CRISPR-Cas9 edited crops from regulatory oversight, considering them akin to conventionally
bred varieties. This approach streamlines testing and legislation, facilitating quicker crop
development. In contrast, Canada mandates further regulatory scrutiny for novel gene editing
technologies ensuring safety regarding toxicity, allergenicity and ecological impacts. Similarly,
the European Court of Justice imposes strict regulations on gene-edited crops, treating them to
traditional genetically modified plants. South American countries like Argentina, Chile and
Brazil follow the Cartagena Protocol's guidelines for genome-edited product approval, relying on
case-by-case evaluations with exemptions for transgene-free edits. Australia's regulatory

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framework distinguishes between different genome editing methods, with only SDN-2 and SDN-
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3 edits regulated as GMOs, while New Zealand regulates genetically modified plants under the
Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act 1996. In India, regulations are governed
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by the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 overseen by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee (GEAC). This committee evaluates and approves permits for experimental trials and
Article
commercial release of genetically altered crops, including those modified ID:CRISPR/Cas9.
using AG-VO2-I08-07

Overall, the regulation of genome editing technologies varies globally, reflecting

differing approaches to balancing innovation with safety and environmental concerns. These
regulations aim to ensure the responsible development and deployment of genetically modified
organisms while safeguarding human health and the environment.
Challenges
 Undesirable site effects
 Delivery efficiency
 Ethical and regulatory concerns
 Costly and time consuming
References
Abdallah, N. A., Prakash, C. S., & McHughen, A. G. (2015). Genome editing for crop
improvement: challenges and opportunities. GM Crops & Food, 6(4), 183-205.
Bhattacharya, A., Parkhi, V., & Char, B. (2021). Genome editing for crop improvement: A
perspective from India. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Plant, 57(4), 565-
573.
Devi, R., Chauhan, S., & Dhillon, T. S. (2022). Genome editing for vegetable crop improvement:
Challenges and future prospects. Frontiers in Genetics, 13, 1037091.
Kim, Y. C., Kang, Y., Yang, E. Y., Cho, M. C., Schafleitner, R., Lee, J. H., & Jang, S. (2021).
Applications and major achievements of genome editing in vegetable crops: a
review. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 688980.
Sheelamary, S. & Sujanand, G. K. (2020). Precise Genome editing tools for crop improvement.
Just Agriculture, 1(4), 165-169.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION IN CROP

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
IMPROVEMENT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-62
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Dr. R Vinoth1, Dr. A. Thanga Hemavathy2 and Dr. S. Kavitha3

*1
Teaching Assistant (PBG), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Tichy, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Associate Professor (PBG), Department of Pulses, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
3
Associate Professor (SST), Department of SST TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is the process of using morphological, biochemical, or
DNA markers as indirect selection criteria for selecting agriculturally important traits in crop
breeding. This process is used to improve the effectiveness or efficiency of selection for the traits
of interest in breeding programs. MAS allows heritable traits to be linked to the DNA segments
that are responsible for controlling that trait. These segments of DNA or QTLs (Quantitative
Trait Loci) can be detected through specific laboratory techniques. The most commonly used
method is Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) that amplify segments of DNA linked to heritable
traits such as yield or disease resistance.
This method is useful because the DNA that we amplify is different (polymorphic) between
cultivars. It is this difference that we use to determine whether the plant has the desired trait or
not. The process in which the differential DNA sites (or primer sites) are explored, comes from
genetic mapping techniques, i.e. RAPD, microsatellites etc. With a marker assisted selection
breeding program the simpler methods are necessary since they are time and cost effective. PCR
is an effective method for generating large quantities of a specific DNA sequence from a small
amount of starting DNA. This technique is useful for a MAS breeding program because the
results are reliable. To learn how MAS works, basic molecular biology principles need to be
understood. This paper “Marker Assisted Selection in crop improvement” has been designed to

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provide a basic understanding with regards to use of molecular markers in crop improvement.
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This bulletin describes basic concepts used in marker assisted breeding programme, different
applications of MAS and basic principles underlying DNA extraction, PCR, running of gel and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
data analysis.
Features of MAS
Pre-Requisites Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

There are two pre-requisites for marker assisted selection. These are: (i) a tight linkage between
molecular marker and gene of interest, and (ii) high heritability of the gene of interest.
Markers Used:
 MAS makes use of various types of molecular markers. The most commonly used
molecular markers include amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP), restriction
fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD),
simple sequence repeats (SSR) or micro satellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms
(SNP), etc.
 The use of molecular markers differs from species to species also.
Efficiency:
 The relative efficiency of MAS is greatest for characters with low heritability, if a large
fraction of the additive genetic variance is associated with the marker loci. In other
words, MAS is useful when the heritability of the trait is low. Moreover, MAS is more
efficient than purely phenotypic selection in quite large populations.
 It has been found by some workers that MAS may become less efficient than phenotypic
selection in the long term. This is because the rate of fixation of unfavourable alleles at
QTLs with small effects is higher under MAS than under phenotypic selection.
 It may be a consequence of the strong selection applied to QTLs with large effects under
MAS in early generation. However, such problem comes after a long period.
Accuracy:
Molecular markers have very high accuracy. They are not affected by environmental
conditions. MAS is a new breeding tool which is available to make more accurate and useful
selections in breeding populations. MAS allows heritable traits to be linked to the DNA which is
responsible for controlling that trait.

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Speed of Progress:
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 MAS is a rapid method of crop improvement.
 For example, OCCUPATIONAL
in conventional breeding
HEALTHwhenHAZARDS
we transfer OF
a recessive
WORKERS character through
backcross, one selfing is required after every backcross for identification of recessive
character.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 MAS permits identification of recessive alleles even in heterozygous condition and thus
speeds up the progress of crop improvement work.
Traits Improved:
 MAS can be used for improvement of both oligogenic and polygenic traits.
 In the past, MAS has been mostly used for the genetic improvement of oligogenic traits
and little progress has been made with polygenic traits.
Material Developed:
 MAS leads to development of non-transgenic genotypes or cultivars. In other words,
MAS is used for development of non-transgenic cultivars.
 The transgenic cultivars face public resistance. On the other hand, cultivars developed by
MAS are acceptable by consumers.
Cost:
 MAS is very costly as compared to phenotypic selection.
 In MAS, the costly items include equipment’s, consumables, infrastructure, labour and
DNA extraction process. MAS requires sophisticated and well equipped laboratory.
Applications of MAS
 MAS is very effective, efficient and rapid method of transferring resistance to biotic and
abiotic stresses in crop plants.
 It is useful in gene pyramiding for disease and insect resistance.
 It is being used for transfer of male sterility and photo period insensitivity into cultivated
genotypes from different sources.
 MAS is being used for improvement of quality characters in different crops such as for
protein quality in maize, fatty acid (linolenic acid) content in soybean and storage quality
in vegetables and fruit crops.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Fig 1: Steps involved in Marker Assisted Selection

 MAS can be successfully used for transferring desirable transgene (such as Bt gene) from
one cultivar to another.
 MAS is very effective in introgression of desirable genes from wild into cultivated
genotypes.
 MAS is equally effective in genetic improvement of plants and animals.
 MAS is useful in genetic improvement of tree species where fruiting takes very long time
(say 20 years) because for application of phenotypic selection we have to wait for such a
long time.
 MAS has wide application for genetic improvement of oligogenic traits as compared to
polygenic traits.
Marker assisted forward breeding in rice
Marker-assisted forward breeding is a quick and effective method for combining multiple
QTL and genes. Lines with 5–8 QTL and genes for drought and genes for blast and bacterial
leaf blight were developed

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

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Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Flow diagram depicting different steps of marker assisted forward breeding to combine multiple
biotic-abiotic stress resistance/tolerance in rice Crossing program was initiated in WS2013 which
involved crossing of recurrent parent (Swarna+drought, possessing drought tolerant QTLs
namely (qDTY1.1, qDTY3.1) with four different donors possessing targeted genes or BB (Xa4,
xa5, xa13, Xa21), blast (Pi9), BPH (Bph3 and Bph17) and GM (Gm4 and Gm8). The number
over the chromosome represents the chromosome number of the respective donors. Through
several rounds of inter-crossing, IC3F1 with desirable QTLs/genes combinations were obtained
in WS2015. Further, MAFB approach was utilized to combine genes/QTLs for BB, blast, BPH,
GM and drought tolerance

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References
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Bertrand, C. Y. C., and D. J. Mackill. 2008. Marker-assisted selection: an approach for precision
plant breeding in the twenty-first century.Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363:557-572
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Cobb, J.N., Biswas, P.S. & Platten, J.D. Back to the future: revisiting MAS as a tool for modern
plant breeding. Theor Appl Genet 132, 647–667 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-
018-3266-4. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Kumawat, G.; Kanta Kumawat, C.; Chandra, K.; Pandey, S.; Chand, S.; Nandan Mishra, U.;
Lenka, D.; Sharma, R. Insights into Marker Assisted Selection and Its Applications in Plant
Breeding. In Plant Breeding—Current and Future Views; Abdurakhmonov, I.Y., Ed.;
IntechOpen: London, UK, 2021; ISBN 978-1-83968-309-1.
Nadeem, M. A., et al.DNA molecular markers in plant breeding: current status and recent
advancements in genomic selection and genome editing, Biotechnology and
Biotechnological Equipment. 2018. 32 (2): 261-285.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

VERTICAL FARMING: BENEFITS, OPPORTUNITIES AND

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
CHALLENGES
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-63
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Shifina Shanavas1 and Ameena M2.

1
Research Assistant, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani,
Thiruvananthapuram 695522, Kerala, India
2
Professor (Agronomy), Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani,
Thiruvananthapuram 695522, Kerala, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Soil fertility is reduced by rapid urbanization, natural disasters, excessive use of
chemicals and pesticides. Thereby, the productivity has declined and the availability of land to
each person has also decreased. Water resources also get deteriorated due to change in climate,
uncertainty in meteorological conditions. World population is expected to increase 8.9 billion by
2050 and the world has to produce 50 % more food to meet the needs. Many countries mainly
rely on import of foods to meet the needs and usually have less choice for healthy food due to
higher prices. So, in this scenario, we need soil-free cultivation systems. By adopting vertical
farming systems, we can resist the modern challenges.
Vertical farming is a modern agriculture technique using hydroponic or aeroponic
culture systems inorder to produce crops in a vertically stacked layers on a protected indoor
space. Main advantage of vertical farming is that the crop yield can be increased from a smaller
unit area of land. They also need less water use, less amount of pesticides and herbicides and can
protect the crops from severe weather. Also, they can be established in almost anywhere,
including underground, all the factors lead to meet the increase in population and the increase in
requirement of food.
Types of vertical farming
Vertical can be divided into three types based on structure:

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1. Hydroponics
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It is the mostly used growing system in vertical farming. In this growing system,
plants are grown in nutrient solutions which is free of soil. NASA researchers identifies
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hydroponics as a good option for growing food in outer space. Some of the vegetables which
have success growing through hydroponics are onions, lettuce and raddish. It has gaining
popularity nowadays over soil-based cultivation. Because, it has the Article ID:toAG-VO2-I08-07
potential eliminate soil-
based cultivation issues like the insect, fungi and bacteria in soil. Moreover, hydroponics is a less
labor-intensive method. It is easier to control pH and nutrient levels in hydroponics. There are
many factors like temperature, oxygen level as well as moisture to determine the availability of
these nutrients to plants. Hydroponics can produce good yield than other methods when the
plants get good even amount of nutrients.
2. Aeroponics
The innovative indoor growing technique, aeroponics, has been developed by National
Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA). Aeroponics can be defined as growing plants in
an air/ mist condition, has very little amount of water and with no soil. As the system uses mist
or nutrient solutions, it doesn’t need containers or trays to retain water. The major advantage of
aeroponics is that it has excellent aeration. Aeroponic system is the most efficient plant growing
system in vertical farming as it uses upto 90% less water than the most efficient hydroponic
system and aeroponics does not require replacement of growing medium and use of fertilisers
and pesticides. In addition to, harvesting is easier and get higher yield than high density planting
method.
3. Aquaponics
Aquaponics is the combined production of fish farming and hydroponic vegetable,
flower and herb. In indoor ponds, fish are grown and the plants uses nutrient rich source
produced by fishes in the vertical farm. Then, the waste water purified and filtered by the plants
can be recycled to the fish ponds. Fish excrete metabolites into water after they consume the
food. Inorder to act as a nutrient source to plants, fish effluent has to be treated to remove
ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, phosphorous, potassium from the waste stream. In aquaponic system,
lettuce, herbs and plants such as spinach, chives, basil and water cress can be grown. Aquaponics
give a considerable advantage over traditional farming methods among countries where nutrient
enrichment is considered.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Vertical farming can be divided into two based on designs:

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1. Simple designs
 Container vertical gardens
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
In container vertical gardens, plants are grown in containers arranged vertically, mostly
on walls or structures. Various container types can be used like pocket planters, hanging pots or
Article
modular systems. We get a good yield by choosing suitable containers, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
appropriate plants by
considering growth habits and by giving proper irrigation and sunlight. We have to regularly
water the plants and good amount of fertilisers for maintaining the vertical garden.
 Trellies vertical garden
In trellies vertical garden, trellies are used as support structures for growing climbing
or vining plants and allow for vertical growth. Plants have to be placed by considering the factors
like growth habit of plants and size of the trellies. Inorder to encourage vertical growth, plants
have to be trained by gently tying or weaving through the trellies. Ensure proper care and
attention inorder to make a beautiful trellies vertical garden.
 Tower system vertical garden
In tower system vertical garden, towers are made up of various metals such as plastic,
metal or fabric. Planting pockets or containers are found on each level of the tower. We have to
choose the plant according to the size of the planting pockets. Tower system mostly contains drip
or wick irrigation system, here, water is supplied from the top and it reaches each level to give
adequate moisture. Maintain the plants by providing adequate sunlight, water and fertilisers.
2.Sophisticated designs
 Building based
In building based vertical garden, climbing plants or modular systems like panels,
pockets or grids can be used to cover the building surface with vegetation. We have to ensure
whether building can support the additional weight of garden. Give good maintenance like
adequate water, sunlight and fertilisers to get good yield.
 Shipping container
Here, a shipping container can be transformed into a self-contained, portable garden
space. Firstly, interior of the shipping container has to be modified inorder to accommodate more
plant growth by installing shelves, rack for placing planting pockets. LED lights can be used
inorder to ensure adequate light for plant growth. The main advantage of this vertical garden is

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

the portability of shipping containers, so containers can be relocated to different places.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Environmental factors can be monitored by sensors and automated monitoring systems.
 Deep farms
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Deep farms vertical garden is constructed on underground tunnels, abandoned mine
shafts or any subterranean environment. Deep farms need only less heating energy as
underground temperatures and humidity are usually remains constant.Article
Deep ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
farms can also use
ground water near to it to reduce the water costs. Deep farms can generate 7 to 9 times more food
than traditional farming.
Need of vertical farming
 Utilize less water and space: Vertical farming techniques need only 98% less water and 99
% less land than traditional farming methods. Vertical farms can produce 240 times more crop
yields than traditional farms. Vertical farms use LED lights, so, these systems are not reliant on
fossil fuels.
 Increased production: Vertical farms offer consistent year-round production. There are
times when some fruits and vegetables were only available seasonally. But, by introducing
vertical farms, all types of crops can produce year-round with less dependence of weather and
climate. Vertical farming has introduced to solve the problem of increase in population and
scarcity of farm land. Vertical farming can produce more food from smaller area based on a
simple principle. As vertical farming is mainly an indoor farming, it is weather independent and
has the ability to produce higher yields than traditional farming inorder to meet the expected
food security demands.
 Environmental impacts can be eliminated by Controlled Environment Agriculture
(CEA): Indoor vertical farming is done by CEA. CEA means providing a series of technologies
which provides optimal conditions for plants. CEA controls temperature, lighting and humidity
which lessens the occupational hazards caused by traditional farming. Vertical farming escapes
farmers from hazards, poisonous chemicals and diseases such as malaria.
 Reduced arable land: As we know that arable land is depleting day by day because of erosion
and pollution, we need an alternate way to produce the healthy food without using acres of land.
Vertical farms can be constructed on green houses, roof tops, inside ware houses or even in
depleted areas, thus by reducing the usage of arable land.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

 Free of pesticides: As vertical farming controls the environment around crops, naturally they
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
can resist the pests. So, there is no need of using chemical pesticides.
 Reduced emissions: As vertical farms HEALTH
OCCUPATIONAL are mostlyHAZARDS
constructed OF
in urban areas, it reduces the
WORKERS
carbon emissions by reducing the travel between farm and grocery stores. Moreover, consumer
gets fresh food as the distance between producer and consumer is less.
Challenges of vertical farming Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 High startup cost: The initial cost for starting a vertical farming is high. Because technologies
and tools needed for vertical farming is very expensive. The cost of many components in vertical
farms rises as the global supply chain issues emphasized by the Covid 19 pandemic. The
expansion of vertical farming is both expensive and time consuming.
 Only a limited number of crops can grown independently: Limited number of crops can
be grown in vertical farming than traditional farming. It is not only due to space constraint but
also due to economic viability. Mostly, leafy greens, small vegetables are grown through vertical
farming. Nowadays, potatoes, mushrooms, cucumbers and tomatoes can also be grown but most
of them are not economically viable when grown in large scale systems. One of the big
challenges for growing flowering plants is their pollination. As, vertical farming have controlled
environment systems, the pollination by bees, birds and even wind cannot happen. So, here,
pollination is done by manual, human made process, but it is not economically sustainable.
 Risk of growing tall field crops: Tall field crops and protein dense plants do not fit into the
vertical farming systems as they are not economically viable.
 Proper working of technology: Vertical farming works by the use of innovative technologies
and high automation systems and the proper working of those systems are itself considered as a
risk. For example, irrigation system in hydroponic system has to work properly because it gets
nutrients through nutrient rich water solution instead of soil. Thus, if the irrigation system
doesn’t work properly, growth of plant reduces.
 High energy usage: Vertical farming needs high energy usage for working automation,
irrigation systems and so on. Artificial lightning also requires high energy usage as vertical
farming is done on indoors.
 Requires experienced personnel: Vertical farming needs highly educated people from fields
like engineering, software development, agricultural sciences, data management. The companies

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

also have to be prepared to pay higher salaries for those experienced personnel. Also, there is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
lack of availability for these experienced personnels in the labour market.
Future potential of vertical farming
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
High environmental impacts in the current fossil-based economy can be caused by the
usage of artificial lightning in indoors. However, change towards nuclear and renewable energy
Article ID:
resources will make the vertical farming more sustainable than traditional AG-VO2-I08-07
farming . Vertical
farming can also reduce water use, eutrophication and food transport requirements.
As there is high investment and running costs for vertical farming, it gains popularity
only among some places. Need to expand the market opportunities of vertical farming to make it
more widely applicable. There are many technological advancements are going on integration of
automation and artificial intelligence on vertical farming. Many researches are also going on for
generating dwarf, fast growing, high -yielding, high quality and easy to harvest crops through
breeding adapted to vertical farming. Researchers are also focusing on developing vertical
farming in low and middle-income nations rather than high income nations. They are trying to
develop local farming methods, local irrigation systems and to use the local solar power to run
the vertical farming.
Conclusion
Vertical farming has been gaining popularity in nation because it is emerging as a
promising solution for sustaining food production in urban homesteads. This innovation
technology has a vertical design which maximises the use of limited space, cultivate crops on
controlled environment and reduces the environmental impacts. However, the challenges such as
initial cost set up, energy requirement, high experienced personnel contracted the set up of
vertical farming in high income nations only. The economic feasibility and long-term
sustainability of vertical farming systems needs to be evaluated for the widespread adoption.
Various researches are going on to change the source of energy, suitable crops and to improve
the yield through vertical farming. So, inorder to get the full potential of vertical farming,
economic factors and technological advancements are need to be considered in the long run.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

MEDICINAL IMPORATNCE OF DRAGON FRUIT: QUEEN

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
OF THE NIGHT
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-64
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

*Dr. R Vinoth1, R. Kannan2, Dr. D. Balu3 and Dr. V.Guhan4

*1
Teaching Assistant (PBG), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Tichy, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Tichy, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Post Doctoral Fellow, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Chidambaram
Tamil Nadu, India
4
Project Scientist II, Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva – Agro Advisory Service, Meteorological
Centre, Indian Meteorological Department, Hyderabad, Telangana – 500016, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) is indigenous to the Americas. Its name comes from
its appearance - leather-like skin and scaly spikes on the exterior of the fruits. It is also known as
‘Pitaya’, ‘Pitahaya’, ‘strawberry pear’, ‘noble woman’ and ‘Queen of the night’ throughout the
world. Dragon fruit, as the name suggests, resembles a dragon. It grows on climbing cactus
known as Hylocereus, which can be found in tropical regions. The outer covering of dragon fruit
is in shades of red and pink or yellow. Their leaves resemble a dragon and have spikes that shoot
up like a flame around the fruit. Hylocereus originally grew in Southern Mexico, South &
Central America, and the French brought it to Southern East Asia during the early 19th century.
The dragon fruit was introduced to home gardens in India in the 1990s. It gained wider
popularity among farmers due to its profitability and the fact that it needed lower inputs once
established. The plant sustains yield for more than 20 years, is high in nutraceutical properties
and good for value-added processing industries.The low maintenance and high profitability of
dragon fruits has attracted the farming community throughout India. This has led to a steep
increase in dragon fruit cultivation in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Gujarat and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as in
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
many north eastern states.A recent estimate by Indian Council of Agricultural Research-National
Institute of Abiotic Stress Management, Baramati in Maharashtra found that dragon fruits are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
cultivated on 3,000-4,000 hectares in various states of India. The country produces
approximately 12,000 tonnes of the fruit every year.
Article
The fruit can be exported to Persian Gulf countries, the European ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Union and the United
States. In June 2021, India exported its first consignment of dragon fruit from a farmer of
Maharashtra to Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.The dragon fruit plant is a member of the
cacti family. It is hardy and grows in diverse climatic conditions with varied soils, especially in
the semi-arid and arid regions of India. It prefers slightly acidic soil and can tolerate some salts
in soil too. Several dragon fruit types are available, which are cultivated across the world. The
inside of a dragon fruit is white, semi-solid fruit that can be eaten with a spoon and has nutty
seeds sprinkled all over it. It is juicy with a slightly sweet taste, whereas the seeds have a nutty
flavour. There are many benefits of dragon fruit that we will discuss in this paper

Importance of Dragon Fruit

 Following are some other importance of dragon fruit.
 Helps in lowering cholesterol
 Helps in weight management
 High in fats and proteins
 Good source of antioxidants
 Helps in preventing arthritis
 Helps in improving heart health
 High in vitamins & minerals
 Helps in fighting against ageing
 Helps in preventing asthma
Types of Dragon fruits:
1. Hylocereus Undatus
Its other name is Pitahaya and has white flesh with pink skin. The fruit has 6-12 cm
length, 4-9 cm thickness and edible black seeds. It is famous among types of dragon fruit.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

2. Hylocereus Polyrhizus
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Red Pitaya is the other name of this variety, and has red flesh with its pink skin. The native
country of this variety is Mexico, but now it is available in many countries. This variety is
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
profitable among different types of dragon fruit varieties.
3. Hylocereus Costaricencis
Article
The other name of this variety is Costa Rican Pitaya, native to ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Costa Rica. It has
violet-red flesh and pink skin, and its fruits are magenta, and the seeds are pear-shaped. We
can easily cultivate this variety of dragon fruit in India.
4. Hylocereus (Selenicereus) Megalanthus
It’s native to South America and renowned for its white flesh with yellow skin.
It looks beautiful among other dragon fruit varieties.

Climatic Requirements:
This fruit plant grows in poor soil conditions and temperature variations. So, the
tropical climate conditions are perfect for dragon fruit farming. The ideal annual rainfall
for Protected Cultivation is 50 cm. The temperature for dragon fruit cultivation must be
between 20 °C to 30 °C. The dragon fruit plants cannot tolerate too much sunlight. So if you
want to cultivate it in a high sunlight area, just do it by providing shading.
Soil for Dragon Fruit Cultivation:
Dragon fruit is grown in different types of soil, from sandy loam to clay loam.
However, the ideal soil for its cultivation is sandy soils with good organic matter and a perfect
drainage system. The pH of 5.5 to 7 is best for dragon fruit farming.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Land Preparation:
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Plough the field until the soil achieves its fine tilth and is weed-free. Apply any type of
organic compost in a proportionate ratio.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Plantation Method:
The most common dragon fruit propagation method is cuttings. However, it can also
propagated by seeds. plant to plant distance of 2 meters x 2 meters.Article
dig 60ID:
cmAG-VO2-I08-07
x 60 cm x 60
cm for the size of the pits. In addition, fill these pits with topsoil and manure, including 100
grams of superphosphate. In this way, we can accommodate about 1700 plants in 1 acre of
land.
Training:
To get the huge dragon fruit farming profit or proper plant growth, you should give support of
concrete or wooden columns. You have to tie Immature plants with these columns. To
maintain the dragon shrub, you have to use a round/circular metal frame.

Manures and Fertilizers:

 For the good growth and development of the dragon fruit plant, organic manure plays a
crucial role.
 Apply each plant with a minimum of 10 to 15 Kg of organic compost. After that, you
have to increase the manure by 2 kg per year. Along with the organic, it also needs
inorganic fertilizers to give good vegetative growth.
 The fertilizer ratio for vegetative stage is muriate of potash:superphosphate:urea =
40:90:70 grams /plant.

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Dragon Fruit Irrigation:

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
This plant requires less water in comparison to others. Iirrigate the field frequently
during the planting, flowering & fruit development stages and hot/dry climate conditions. For
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
effective water usage, you can use drip irrigation.
Pests and Diseases:
This is the highest benefit in this farming in that it has noArticle ID:diseases.
pests or AG-VO2-I08-07
So, no
need to treat the plants with other chemicals. Therefore, it reduces the dragon fruit cultivation
cost per acre.
Harvesting:
 Dragon fruit starts appearing on the plants in the first year. From Aug to Dec month, it
bears the fruits, and fruits are ready for harvesting after one month of flowering. Apart
from this, the flowering time continues till December.
 Picking up these fruits can be done up to 6 times within this period. When the fruits
turn red, it is the best time for harvesting. The ideal time for harvesting is after 3 to 4
days of colour change.
 Harvest the fruit after 1 day of colour change for exporting. Fruit yield will be 5 to 6
tonnes per acre.
Dragon Fruit Farming in the Different States of India:
 Dragon fruit is a tropical fruit that also has an increasing demand in India. Nowadays,
the demand for this exotic fruit is increasing, but the supply is limited. That’s why
dragon fruit farming can be profitable in India.
 Thus, the Indian farmers are taking a massive interest in this farming. The farmers
from Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands are mainly involved in commercial
dragon fruit cultivation.
 In addition, West Bengal, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are also
taking up this fruit farming.
Health Benefits of Dragon Fruit:
Dragon fruit contains several health benefits along with a delicately sweet taste. Let’s
have an eye on the following benefits.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

1. High in Nutrients
Dragon fruit has several nutrients, which helps people to stay fit and healthy. So, the
nutrients are:
 Calories: 136
 Protein: 3 grams
 Fibre: 7 grams
 Iron: 8% of the RDI
 Fat: 0 grams
 Carbohydrates: 29 grams
 Vitamin E: 4% of the RDI
 Magnesium: 18% of the RDI
 Vitamin C: 9% of the RDI
2. Fight Chronic Disease
Dragon Fruit has several types of potent antioxidants. And antioxidants neutralise free
radicals to prevent cell damage and inflammation.
 Vitamin C : Studies have found vitamin C intake reduces the cancer risk.
 Betalains : Betalains can combat oxidative stress and can suppress cancer cells.
 Carotenoids : Carotenoids have the ability to reduce the risk of heart disease and
cancer.
3. Good Source of Fibre
Health authorities say to take 38 grams of fibre for men and 25 grams for women per
day. However, fibre is renowned for its role in digestion. It is also valuable for minimising

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

heart diseases, managing type 2 diabetes, reducing the risk of colon cancer and maintaining
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
healthy body weight.
4. Strengthens Immune System
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Immune System (the body’s ability to fight infection) depends on different factors,
including your diet quality. The dragon fruit may boost your body’s ability to fight infection
and prevent disease as it has vitamin C and carotenoids. It can alsoArticle
protectID: AG-VO2-I08-07
your white blood
cells from damage.
5. Keeps a Healthy Gut
The community of microorganisms can impact your health, and imbalances in the gut
can promote the risk of asthma and heart disease. So, we have to consume dragon fruit as it
contains prebiotics. It can balance good bacteria in your gut.
6. Reduces Risk of Diabetes
Dragon fruit is known to control diabetes. It is partly due to the fibre contained in the
fruit that avoids sugar spikes. Some researchers also attribute this benefit to its ability to replace
damaged pancreatic cells. The pancreas produces insulin that breaks down sugar. Hence, dragon
fruit is attributed to controlling sugar.
7. Reduces Risks of Cancer
Dragon fruit is rich in antioxidants, flavonoids, phenolic acid, and betacyanin, which
inhibit the damage by free radicals. Free radicals are the substances that cause cancer and
premature ageing. One of the majorly occurring antioxidants is vitamin C which prevents chronic
diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, etc. This is one of the major health benefits
of dragon fruit.
8. Helps Boost Immunity
As enunciated above, dragon fruit is a major source of Vitamin C. Vitamin C is a
powerful antioxidant that helps prevent diseases and boosts your immunity. Some studies
suggest eating 200 grams of dragon fruit every day to ward off diseases.
9. Improves Digestion
Dragon fruit contains prebiotics such as oligosaccharides which encourages the growth of
good gut bacteria. These prebiotics help in the digestion of food since they reside in the lower
digestive tract, where they encourage the growth of good gut bacteria. Gut bacteria help break

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

down food by making them easily absorbed. They also provide vitamins that protect the body
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
against various diseases
10. Improves Heart Health
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Our body contains Haemoglobin (Hb) which is an iron-rich cell. These Hb cells help in
transporting oxygen from the heart to other body parts. Dragon fruits are a rich source of iron
Article
and hence aid in the manufacture of haemoglobin. The dragon fruit withID: AG-VO2-I08-07
red-coloured pulp
contains betalains, which are unique nitrogen-containing pigments. Betalains are uniquely known
to lower the bad cholesterol in the body. Apart from that, the fruit also contains black seeds that
are abundant in omega-3 and omega-9, which are good for the heart and lower the chances of
cardiovascular diseases.
11. Fights against Ageing Skin
As enunciated above, dragon fruit contains antioxidants that help fight ageing from
pollution, stress, poor diet, etc. Vitamin C in dragon fruit also brightens the skin.
12. Good for Hair
Studies suggest that taking dragon fruit every day with milk reduces hair damage caused
by pollution and artificial colours. It also makes our hair soft and shiny, enhancing its beauty.
13. Healthy Bones
Dragon fruit contains magnesium that strengthens bones, helping us avoid injury and pain
associated with old age. Hence, it is highly recommended that individuals who are at a higher
risk of bone diseases consume dragon fruit regularly.
14. Good For Eyes
This fruit contains beta-carotene, which breaks down into Vitamin A. The human eye
lens is rich in lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin, which help maintain eye health and
prevent ophthalmic diseases. Research suggests that humans should take 3 milligrams to 6
milligrams of beta carotene every day to prevent eye diseases.
15. Boost Low Iron Levels
Dragon fruit is an iron-containing fruit. The work of iron is to transport oxygen
throughout the body. It also plays a vital role in breaking the food into energy.
16. Good Source of Magnesium
Dragon fruit offers magnesium around 18% of your RDI (Recommended Dietary
Intake) in just one cup. In addition, your body contains 24g of magnesium.

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17. Good During Pregnancy

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Dragon fruit helps during pregnancy in the following ways: -
 Rich source of fats -
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Good fats help maintain high energy levels in the body and also assist in the development
of the foetal brain.
 Guards against infections - Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dragon fruit safeguards one against infections and helps in cell regeneration.
 Relief from constipation -
Fibres in dragon fruit prevent constipation and other gastric diseases in pregnant women.
 Elevation of haemoglobin levels -
The iron in the dragon fruit helps improve the blood cells' capacity to carry oxygen,
thereby boosting haemoglobin levels, which is highly essential for pregnant women.
Conclusion
Till now, we have seen that dragon fruit has innumerable health benefits. Easy ways to
eat dragon fruit are to have it with salad, use it as a topping for greek yoghurt, squeeze it in
juices, or put it in ice cream. Eating dragon fruit on a regular basis will help you ward off
diseases and improve your health.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

REVIVINGOCCUPATIONAL
THE EARTH:HEALTH
HARNESSING THE POWER OF
HAZARDS OF WORKERS
BIOREMEDIATION
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-65
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

S. N. Gund1, A. P. Solanke2 and S. U. Kalbhor3

1,2
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Plant physiology, PGI, Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Tamil Nadu, India
3
M.Sc Scholar, Department of Agricultural Entomology, COA, Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction:
The term of bioremediation has been made of two parts: “bios” means life and refers to living
organisms and “to remediate” that means to solve a problem. “Bioremediate” means to use
biological organisms to solve an environmental problem such as contaminated soil or
groundwater. Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of
organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. Bioremediation is the use
of living microorganisms to degrade environmental pollutants or to prevent pollution.
Bioremediation is a means of cleaning up contaminated environments by exploiting the diverse
metabolic abilities of microorganisms to convert contaminants to harmless products by
mineralization, generation of carbon oxide and water or by conversion into microbial biomass.

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Kinds of Bioremediations:
A. In situ bioremediation:
To eliminate the pollutants in contaminated soils and groundwater. It is a superior method
for the cleaning of contaminated environments because it saves transportation costs and uses
harmless microorganisms to eliminate the chemical contaminations.
1. Bioventing:
Bioventing is a process that increases the oxygen or air flow into the unsaturated zone
of the soil, this in turn increases the rate of natural in situ degradation of the targeted
hydrocarbon contaminant (García Frutos et. al., 2010).
2. Bio stimulation:
Bioremediation can be carried out by bacteria that are naturally present. In bio
stimulation, the population of these helpful bacteria can be increased by adding nutrients.
(Kapah and Sachdeva 2019 and Kalantary et. al., 2014).
3. Bioattenuation:
During bioattenuation, biodegradation occurs naturally with the addition of nutrients
or bacteria.
4. Biosparging:
Biosparging is the process of groundwater remediation as oxygen and possible
nutrients, is injected.
B. Ex Situ Techniques:
1. Biopiles:
Biopiles, similar to bioventing, are used to reduce petroleum pollutants by introducing
aerobic hydrocarbons to contaminated soils.

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Essential Factor for bioremediation:

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Sr.
Factors Desired Conditions
no.
MicrobialOCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Suitable Kinds HAZARDS
of organisms that can OF WORKERS
biodegrade all of the
1.
Populations contaminants Ex: Pseudomonas
2. Oxygen About 2% oxygen in the gas phase and 0.4 mg/lit in the soil water.
3. Water Soil moisture 50%-70% Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur and other nutrients to support good
4. Nutrients
microbial growth
5. Temperature Appropriate tem. (0-4 0c)
6. pH 6.5-7.5
Advantages of bioremediation:
 Natural process:
 Complete destruction:
 Economic process:
Disadvantages of bioremediation:
 Limited up to biodegradable compounds
 Specificity
 Technological advancement and Regulatory uncertainty.
Conclusion
Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to
neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site and is a similar approach used to treat wastes
including wastewater, industrial waste and solid waste. Being natural process is accepted by the
public as waste treatment method for contaminated material such as soil and is employed for the
complete destruction of a wide variation of contaminants.
References
García Frutos F.J., Escolano O., García S., Babín M. and Fernández M. D. (2010). Bioventing
remediation and ecotoxicity evaluation of phenanthrene-contaminated soil. Journal of
Hazardous Materials. 183: 1–3.
Kalantary, Roshanak R., Mohseni-Bandpi, Anoushiravan; Ali E., Nasseri, Simin, Ashmagh,
Fatemeh Rashid, Jorfi, Sahand, Jafari and Mahsa (2014). Effectiveness of bio stimulation
through nutrient content on the bioremediation of phenanthrene contaminated soil. Journal
of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 12 (1): 143.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

PLASTIC MULCHING: A GAME-CHANGER FOR

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
VEGETABLE GROWERS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-66
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Kalpana Yadav*, Indu Arora and Pooja Pahal

Department of Vegetable Science,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Mulching is a widely used technique in intensive agriculture to improve soil quality and overall
growing conditions of crops. These plastic mulches offer several advantages such as reducing
water loss, preventing erosion, controlling weeds, and maintaining soil temperature. The
selection of mulch types depends on ecological situations and primary and secondary aspects of
mulching. This article highlights the importance of plastic mulching in vegetables and its
benefits in improving crop yield.
Introduction
Plastic mulching in vegetables is a horticultural practice where plastic sheets are laid on
the soil surface to modify the microclimate, conserve moisture, and suppress weed growth. This
technique is commonly used in high-value crops such as lettuce, muskmelons, honeydews,
watermelons, squash, cucumbers, tomatoes, peppers and cole crops including pumpkins etc. The
plastic mulch acts as a barrier between the soil and the atmosphere, reducing evaporation,
keeping the soil warm, and creating a more favourable crop-growing environment. Additionally,
the reflective properties of the plastic sheets can increase the amount of sunlight available to the
crops, which can improve yields, improved fruit quality, and earlier harvest times. Low-density
polyethene (LDPE) and biodegradable plastics are the most used plastic materials for mulching.
The plastic mulch is usually removed at the end of the growing season and can be recycled or
disposed of properly.

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Advantages of Plastic Mulching in Vegetable Farming

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Mulching is an effective way of insulating and protecting delicate plant root systems
against harsh weather conditions. Plastic mulching increases the temperature of the plough layer,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
reduces soil moisture loss during crop growth, and enhances radiation and water use efficiencies.
This leads to increased production of photoassimilates and expands both source and sink size
Article
during crop growth, ultimately resulting in higher crop yields. Moreover, ID:mulching
plastic AG-VO2-I08-07
aids in
weed control by blocking light protects the soil from erosion and compaction, and enhances soil
structure and fertility. The reflective properties of plastic mulch can increase the amount of
sunlight available to the crops, leading to improved yields. Plastic mulching serves as a barrier to
pests, reducing the need for chemical pesticides and improving crop health. It also helps in
creating the barrier between soil particles and edible parts of the crop which eliminates soil
deposition due to the splashing of raindrops hence, harvested produce will be clean with a good
appearance. Coloured plastic mulches interfere with the movement of insects and can also reduce
the incidence of whiteflies which transmit viral diseases in solanaceous crops thus, it can be an
integral part of Integrated Pest management (IPM). Plastic mulching helps farmers to use
resources more efficiently by reducing water and fertilizer needs, and by improving crop yields
and can save time and labour by reducing the need for manual weeding and other cultural
practices. Overall, plastic mulching is an effective tool for improving the health and yields of
vegetable crops and can help to maximize the efficiency and profitability of vegetable farming
operations.
Disadvantages of Plastic Mulching
While plastic mulching has many advantages in vegetable production, there are also some
drawbacks. One of the most significant concerns is the environmental impact of plastic waste
generated by the practice. Plastic mulching sheets can accumulate in the soil, causing pollution
and posing a hazard to wildlife. The production and transportation of plastic mulch can
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change. Additionally, plastic
mulching can alter the soil's chemical and biological properties, reducing microbial activity and
nutrient availability, leading to long-term soil degradation. Furthermore, the use of plastic
mulching requires careful management, such as proper disposal of the plastic sheets and
monitoring of soil moisture levels to prevent waterlogging. Plastic mulch can make it difficult
for farmers to access the soil for tasks such as planting, fertilizing, and harvesting, leading to

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

increased labour costs, and making it less accessible to small-scale farmers. Overall, while
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
plastic mulching can provide benefits, it needs to be balanced with environmental considerations
and responsible management practices.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
TYPES OF PLASTIC MULCHES
1. Black mulches
2. Clear or transparent mulches Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

3. White mulches
4. Two-side colour mulches
a. Yellow/black
b. White/black
c. Silver/black
d. Red/black
5. Degradable mulches
a. Photo-degradable
b. Bio-degradable
1. Black plastic mulch: This type of plastic mulch is widely favoured and extensively utilized
due to its popularity. It serves the purpose of absorbing a range of wavelengths, such as UV,
visible and infra-red, from incoming radiation and then redirects them through thermal radiation
or long-wavelength infra-red radiation. This, in turn, transfers heat from the mulch to the soil,
causing the soil temperature to rise by approximately 2-4°C during the daytime. Moreover, this
mulch is also effective in limiting weed growth as it obstructs light from penetrating the soil.
2. Clear or transparent mulches: Transparent films can be used to solarize soil, which is a
process of using sunlight to kill soil-borne diseases and pests. The film traps heat in the soil,
which can raise the temperature to levels that are lethal to many pathogens. Transparent films
can also be coated with herbicides to prevent the growth of weeds. This is a common practice in
nursery cultivation, where solarizing the beds before planting seeds can help to ensure high
germination rates and a healthy nursery.
3. White mulch: This type of material is designed to reflect incoming radiation back into the
plant canopy rather than absorbing it, which means it has minimal impact on soil temperature. As
a result, it can be particularly useful for establishing crops during hot summer weather.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

4. Bicoloured plastic mulches: Photo-selective or wavelength-selective films are designed to

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
absorb specific wavelengths of solar radiation, which modifies the spectrum of the sunlight that
passes through the film or is reflected into the plant canopy and can significantly impact plant
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
growth and development. These films offer growers greater control over various plant properties,
such as fruit and leaf size, colour, root development, yield, and more. Additionally, they warm
Article ID:
soil temperature, block weed growth, and improve carbohydrate transport. AG-VO2-I08-07
These films have
lower heat re-emission rates than black mulches, which can result in lower leaf temperatures.
These films also alter red-far-red light balance, influencing plant morphology via phytochrome
processes. They reflect more ultraviolet radiation, repelling insects like aphids, thrips, and
whiteflies that transmit viruses. White/black, silver/black, or aluminized black combinations are
ideal for cooler root-zone temperatures in various Indian regions.
The effects of some of the coloured mulches are given below:
Yellow/black- may attract certain insects and act as a trap for them, helping to prevent disease.
White/black- tends to have a cooling effect on the soil.
Silver/black- Also cool the soil but may not be as effective as white/black film. Silver/black
mulches may also repel some aphids and thrips.
Red/black – These mulches are partially translucent, allowing radiation to pass through and
warm the soil. At the same time, they reflect radiation back into the plant canopy, altering the
ratio of red to far-red light. These factors can cause variations in plant vegetative growth, flower
development, and metabolism, ultimately leading to early fruiting and increased yields in certain
fruit and vegetable crops.

4. Degradable plastic mulches: Degradable mulches have many of the same properties as non-
degradable plastic mulches, with the added benefit of being able to break down after receiving a
certain amount of sunlight. These mulches may be either bio-degradable or photo-degradable,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

which helps to solve the problem of plastic mulch disposal. Depending on the type of degradable
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
mulch, it can break down within a period of 6-10 months when exposed to sunlight. However,
the edges of plastic mulches that are buried in the soil will not degrade until they are exposed to
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
sunlight after being lifted out of the soil.
The choice of mulch to be used depends on the specific ecological conditions as well as the
Article
primary and secondary requirements for mulching. Below are some ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
suggested mulches for
different situations:
Response of The Plastic Mulch on The Yield of The Crop
S.No. Crop Thickness of mulch film (micron) Increase in yield (%)
1. Chilli 25 50-60
2. Potato 25 35-40
3. Cauliflower 25 40-50
4. Tomato 25 45-50
5. Capsicum 25 35-45
6. Okra 25 50-60
7. Brinjal 25 30-35

Selection of Mulch
Rainy season - Perforated mulch
Orchard and plantation - Thicker mulch
Soil solarisation - Thin transparent film
Weed control through solarisation - Transparent film
Weed control in cropped land - Black film
Sandy soil - Black film
Saline water use - Black film
Summer cropped land - White film
Insect repellent - Silver colour film
Early germination - Thinner film
Durability of The Plastic Mulches
The durability of plastic mulches depends on various factors such as the type of plastic
used, the thickness of the film, the amount of exposure to sunlight, and the soil conditions.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Generally, thicker plastic films are more durable than thinner ones and are less likely to tear or
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
degrade quickly. The durability of plastic mulches also varies depending on their intended use.
For example, mulches designed for short-term use, such as for a single growing season, are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
generally less durable than those designed for long-term use, such as for perennial crops.
Another factor that affects the durability of plastic mulches is their exposure to UV radiation
Article ID:
from the sun. UV radiation can cause the plastic to break down, become AG-VO2-I08-07
brittle and lose its
strength, leading to tears and holes. Mulches made from UV-stabilized plastic are designed to
withstand prolonged exposure to sunlight without breaking down quickly. Finally, soil
conditions can also affect the durability of plastic mulches. Rocks and other sharp objects in the
soil can puncture the plastic, while wet or muddy conditions can cause the film to tear more
easily. Proper installation of the mulch can also impact its durability, as a secure and tight fit will
help prevent tearing and damage. In general, plastic mulches can be expected to last for one
growing season to several years, depending on their intended use, thickness, and quality.
Cost Economics of Mulching
The economic cost of mulching is a crucial consideration when deciding whether to use
this technique. In general, plastic mulching is a capital-intensive process, and the initial cost of
investment can be high. However, the long-term benefits of plastic mulching, such as improved
crop yields, reduced water consumption, and weed control, can outweigh the initial investment
cost. The amount of mulch required for a field depends on the type of field and the method of
mulching. For a levelled field, the area of mulch required is almost the same as the field area.
However, for a field with ridges and furrows, the amount of mulch required is significantly
greater than the field area. This is because the mulch must cover both the ridges and the furrows.
Mulching is typically carried out in strips that cover 50-60% of the field area. This helps to
conserve mulch and reduce the cost of mulching. In the current era, where conserving moisture
and minimizing rainfall is a priority, the cost of mulching becomes less important, particularly
when considering the value of a precious commodity like water. A cost-benefit analysis can help
farmers determine the economic feasibility of plastic mulching. This analysis considers the cost
of plastic mulching and the expected increase in crop yields, which can be translated into
revenue. In some cases, government subsidies or loans may be available to help offset the initial
cost of plastic mulching.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Conclusion
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Plastic mulching is an agricultural practice that involves the use of plastic sheets to cover
the soil surface to enhance crop production. The plastic sheets are laid over the soil, creating a
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
microclimate that promotes plant growth and development by increasing soil temperature,
reducing water evaporation, and suppressing weed growth. The practice has gained popularity
Article
due to its effectiveness in increasing crop yields and reducing production ID:However,
costs. AG-VO2-I08-07
plastic
mulching has been associated with environmental concerns, including the generation of plastic
waste and soil pollution. Researchers have proposed alternative materials and management
practices to mitigate these environmental impacts. Overall, plastic mulching has potential
benefits and drawbacks, and a balanced approach is necessary to maximize its benefits while
minimizing environmental impacts.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

IMPROVED CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF SMALL

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
MILLET RAGI
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-67
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Pradeep Kumar1*, Rajeev Kumar2 , Anand kumar jain1 and Abhinaw Kumar Singh3 and
Sourabh Kumar4
1,3&4Department of agronomy, VKSCOA, Dumraon, Buxar (Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour, Bihar), India
2 Department of agronomy, School of Agriculture, Sanskriti University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh,
India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Millets represent some of the earliest cultivated crops, referring to a group of grass
species whose seeds are utilized for food or animal feed. There are five main commercially
significant millet species: proso, foxtail, barnyard, browntop, and pearl. Historical records from
China trace the cultivation of foxtail and proso millet back to 2000 to 1000 BC. Foxtail millet
(Setaria italica L.), likely originating in southern Asia, holds the distinction of being the oldest
cultivated millet and is alternatively referred to as Italian or German Millet. The cultivation of
foxtail millet gradually expanded westward into Europe over time. While foxtail millet was
seldom cultivated in the United States during colonial periods, its cultivation significantly surged
in the Great Plains after 1850. However, the introduction of Sudan grass led to a decline in the
acreage dedicated to foxtail millet cultivation. Millets possess several health benefits: they are
anti-acidic, gluten-free, aid in detoxifying the body, and contain Niacin (vitamin B3), which can
contribute to lowering cholesterol levels. Additionally, millets are believed to help prevent breast
cancer, type 2 diabetes, and are effective in reducing blood pressure.
Ragi, also referred to as finger millet, is a small gluten-free grain renowned for its
richness in nutrients such as calcium, iron, and fiber. It is hailed as a nutritional powerhouse,
boasting essential nutrients vital for health. With its reddish-brown hue, ragi finds widespread

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use in South Indian cuisine, where it is utilized to prepare various dishes like ragi dosa, ragi malt,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
and ragi balls. Its slightly nutty flavor and coarse texture render it a versatile ingredient suitable
for both sweet and savory recipes.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Ragi is often considered a nutritious substitute for rice and wheat owing to its exceptional
nutritional profile. Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Gujarat are among the major states where ragi cultivation
is prevalent. In India, finger millet, or ragi, is cultivated across approximately 1.19 million
hectares, resulting in a production output of 1.98 million tonnes and an average productivity of
1661 kg per hectare. By adhering to these steps and adopting suitable management practices,
farmers can effectively cultivate ragi and harness its manifold nutritional and agronomic
advantages.
Season
Finger millet, or ragi, is cultivated across all cropping seasons in various regions of the
country. Over 90% of the area is under rainfed conditions, with cultivation predominantly
occurring during the Kharif season. Ragi is typically grown during the rainy season or in areas
with adequate irrigation facilities. The precise planting season may vary based on local climatic
conditions and agricultural practices, but it generally spans from June to August in tropical
regions.
Field Preparation and Sowing of Direct Seeded Crop
During April or May, it is advisable to conduct one deep ploughing using a mould board
plough, followed by two ploughings with a wooden plough. Prior to sowing, secondary tillage
with a cultivator and multiple-tooth hoe is essential to create a smooth seedbed. Minor land

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smoothening before sowing aids in better in-situ moisture conservation. Given that ragi seeds are
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
very small (400 seeds/gram) and take 5-7 days to germinate, utilizing high-quality seeds and
thorough land preparation facilitates better germination, minimizes weed issues, and effectively
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
conserves soil moisture. In regions like Uttaranchal, where frequent ploughing operations are
challenging, effective digging and soil turning, removal of perennial weeds, land smoothening,
Article ID:
and the creation of inward slopes with shallow drains are recommended to AG-VO2-I08-07
manage excess
rainwater B. Umesh and S. C. Ravi (2016).
Prepare a well pulverized seed bed for direct seeding of ragi. Apply FYM or compost
5t/ha and incorporate well into the soil along with fertilizer before sowing. Before planting, the
land is plowed and harrowed to create a fine seedbed. Seeds can be sown directly into the
prepared soil at a depth of 2-3 centimeters and spaced according to the desired plant density with
a seed rate of 10 kg/ha will be adequate for line sowing crop.
3. Nursery:
In some cases, ragi seeds are germinated in nurseries before being transplanted into the
main field. This method allows for better seedling establishment and weed control, particularly
in areas with poor soil fertility or water logging issues. Seedlings should be raised in well
prepared nurseries in an area of 500m2 for transplanting of 1 ha area. Apply 20 basket of FYM
and small dose of fertilizer to help rapid growth of the seedlings. The seedling will be ready
within 25 to 30 days. 8-10 kg of seeds will be sufficient for transplanting one ha.

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Transplanting
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Ragi seedlings are usually transferred into the main field when they reach a height of 15-
20 centimeters. This strategy promotes regular plant spacing and early establishment, resulting in
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
higher yields. Line sowing is helpful because it promotes intercropping and good weed control. It
is critical to maintain an optimal plant population of 4–5 lakh plants per hectare. Apply manure
and fertilizer once the land has been prepared. Transplantation shouldArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
be closed. Spacing: Early
kinds are 20x10cm, while medium-duration varieties are 22.5x10 cm. When the next furrow is
drawn, cover the plant's base with earth. Shallow planting at 5 cm depth promotes quick
establishment and better tillering.
Fertilization
Ragi reacts well to both organic and inorganic fertilizers. Farmers can stimulate initial
growth by applying a basal dose of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium fertilizer before to
planting. Additional nitrogen can be supplied during the vegetative stage to promote optimal
development. It is preferable to apply fertilizer based on soil test recommendations. 40:20:20
NPK kg/ha for short-duration varieties grown in rainfed settings; 60:30:30 NPK kg/ha for short
and medium-duration varieties grown in irrigated conditions. Nitrogen should be administered in
two parts, 50% as a base and 50% as a top dressing, right before hoeing and weeding to absorb
fertilizer into the soil. Entire P2 O5 and K2 O must be given at the time of sowing
Bio-fertilizers
Treating seeds with Azospirillum brasilense (N fixing bacterium) and Aspergillus
awamori (P Solubilizing fungus) @ 25 g/kg seed is beneficial. In case seeds are to be treated
with seed dressing chemicals, treat the seeds first with seed dressing chemicals and then with
bio-fertilizers at the time of sowing.
Procedure for inoculating seeds with bio-fertilizers
Bio -fertilizer culture specific to the crop is to be used @ 25g per kg of seed. Sticker
solution is necessary for effective seed inoculation. This can be prepared by dissolving 25g
jaggery or sugar in 250 ml water and boiling for 5 minutes. The solution thus prepared is cooled.
Smear the seeds well using the required quantity of sticker solution. Then add culture to the
seeds and mix thoroughly so as to get a fine coating of culture on the seed. The culture-coated
seed is to be dried well in shade to avoid clumping of seeds. Use the inoculated seeds for sowing.

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Weed Management
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Weed competition may significantly influence ragi yields, so proper weed management is
crucial. Manual weeding, herbicide application, and intercropping with leguminous crops are
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
standard tactics for controlling weed development and maintaining crop health. Early weeding of
the direct planted crop is critical for achieving high yields. The first hoeing and weeding is done
Article
about 2 to 3 weeks after seeding. When necessary, a second weeding can beID:done
AG-VO2-I08-07
15-20 days
after irrigation. In continuous rainfall and irrigated areas: Pre-emergence spray: Isoproturon @
0.5 kg a.i./ha (rainfed areas), Oxyflurofen @ 0.1 lta.i/ha (irrigated areas). Post-emergent spray
with 2,4-D sodium salt at 0.75 kg a.i./ha. Weeds can be effectively controlled by spraying about
20-25 days after seeding.
Water Management
Ragi is relatively drought-tolerant but requires adequate moisture during critical growth
stages. Depending on the availability of rainfall and irrigation facilities, farmers must monitor
soil moisture levels and apply supplemental irrigation as needed to ensure optimal plant growth
and development. Excess irrigation should be avoided. Rabi & Summer ragi should be irrigated
at 20-25 days intervals.
Plant Protection
Ragi is susceptible to various pests and diseases, including birds, rodents, aphids, and
blast disease. Integrated pest and disease management strategies, such as crop rotation, use of
resistant varieties, and timely application of biopesticides or fungicides, are essential to minimize
damage and maintain crop productivity.
Insects
Finger millet attracts several pests of which army worm, cutworm, stemborer, leaf aphid,
grasshoppers, grey weevil, shootfly and ear caterpillars are important.
Stem borer : spray nursery bed once at 15-20 days after germination with Chloropyriphos or
Monocrotophos @ 40ml/ 10 cm nursery area.
Before transplanting apply Phorate @ 0.5kg or Carbofuran 3G 1.2 kg/ha.
Aphids- Spray Methyl Demeton @1000 ml/ha at pre flowering stage.
Ear caterpillars- Dust crop with Malathion 5% @ 25 kg/ha

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Diseases
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Finger millet is affected by a variety of diseases of which blast caused by
Pyriculariagrisea is the major problem. The disease is quite severe in kharif crop at all the growth
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
stages. The losses caused will be more if the disease appears in the nursery and on the ears
affecting the neck and fingers.
Management practices Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

By growing resistant varieties like GPU 28, GPU 26 and GPU 48. Treating seeds with
fungicides like carbendazim @ 2g/kg a day before sowing. If necessary spraying the nursery
with carbendazim (0.05%) or kitazin (0.1%) or Ediphefos (0.1%) or Saaf (0.2%). Spray any of
the above fungicides at 50 per cent flowering and repeat 10 days later if Kitazin or Ediphenfos
were used to control neck and finger blast.
In recent years, brown spot caused by Drechsleranodulosa is gaining importance. Its
damage could be severe if the crop is subjected to drought or nutrition deficiency. The disease
can be effectively managed by proper nutrition and water management. Need based spraying of
Mancozeb or Saaf (0.2%) can be resorted to. Other diseases affecting the crop are mottle streak
& streak virus, foot rot (Sclerotiumrolfsii), downy mildew or green ear (Sclerosporamacrospora),
grain smut (Melanopsichiumeleusinis). Besides, at higher altitudes Cercopspora a leaf spot and
in the coastal regions sheath blight (Rhizoctonia sp.) also appear, but are of minor importance.
9. Harvesting and Yield:
Ragi is typically harvested when the grains are fully mature and the stalks have dried out,
usually around 3-4 months after planting. Depending on the variety and growing conditions,
average yields can range from 800 to 1200 kilograms per hectare. After harvesting, the grains are
threshed and winnowed to separate them from the straw. The crop matures in about 120 - 135
days depending on the tract and the variety. The ear heads are harvested with ordinary sickles
and straw is cut close to ground. Its yield is possible to harvest 20 - 25 qtl/ha of grain and 60 - 80
qtl/ha of fodder. The Straw of finger millet makes nutritious fodder.
10. Nutritional Benefits of Ragi:
Ragi is a rich source of calcium, iron, protein, fiber and other minerals. The cereal has
low fat content and contains mainly unsaturated fat. It is easy to digest and does not contain
gluten. Finger millet is considered one of the most nutritious cereals which helps in keeping
weight in control, maintaining bone health, lowering blood cholesterol, control anaemia and for

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diabetics because of lower glycemic response i.e lower ability to increase blood sugar level. Ragi
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
is rich in amino acids which are vital in normal functioning of body and are essential for
repairing body tissues. If consumed regularly, M. Sankaran (2017) Ragi could help in keeping
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
malnutrition, degenerative diseases and premature aging at bay. Green ragi is recommended for
conditions of blood pressure, liver disorders, asthma, lactating mother and heart weakness. Its
Article it
high intake could increase quantity of oxalic acid in the body. Therefore, ID:isAG-VO2-I08-07
not advised to
patients having kidney stones. Finger Millet can be value added to prepare cakes, roti, dosa,
porridge, upma, pitha, halwa, biscuits from the powder of Ragi.
By following these steps and implementing appropriate management practices, farmers
can cultivate ragi successfully and reap its numerous nutritional and agronomic benefits.
Conclusion
The cultivation of ragi encompasses a combination of traditional knowledge, modern
agricultural practices, and ongoing research and innovation. By understanding the intricacies of
its growth cycle and addressing challenges related to pest management and post-harvest
handling, farmers can maximize yields and ensure the sustainability of this ancient grain for
generations to come. Through continued investment and collaboration, ragi has the potential to
make a meaningful contribution to global food security and nutrition.
Finger millet (ragi) varieties grown in India:
VLMandua-204: A robust variety with an average yield of approximately 12 to 15 quintals per
hectare (rainfed conditions).
VLMandua-146: Another high-yielding variety.
VLMandua-314: Known for its sturdy culm and non-lodging characteristics.
VLMandua-315: Offers good yield potential.
H-22: A reliable variety with decent yields.
K 1: Widely cultivated for its grain production.
Hullubele: Known for its resilience.
Karegidda: A popular choice among farmers.
Gidda: Provides satisfactory yields.
Jasarilambi: A promising variety.
Madayyanagiri-1 and Madayyanagiri-2: Both offer good yield prospects.
Dodda: A traditional variety.

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Jadesanga: Known for its adaptability.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Jenumudda: A reliable choice for farmers.
VL Mandua-124, VL Mandua-149, CO-9, CO-13, CO (Ra)-14, and TRY-1: These varieties
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
exhibit varying yield potentials.
Paiyur-1 and Paiyur-2: Suitable for different agro-climatic conditions.
VL Mandua-101: A versatile variety. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Remember that actual yields can vary based on crop management practices, soil quality, and
local conditions. For rainfed crops, an average yield of 12 to 15 quintals per hectare can be
expected, while irrigated crops may yield 40 to 45 quintals per hectare.
References
Antony ceaser, T.Maharajan, T. P. Ajeesh Krishna, M.Ramakrishnan, G.Victor Roach, Lakkaula
Satish and SavarimuthuIgnacimuthu(2018) Finger millet(Eleusinecoracana(L.) Gaertn):
improvement; current status and future interventions of whole Genome sequence.
Doi.10.3389/fpls.2018.01054
B. Malathi, Chari Appaji, G. Rajender Reddy, K. Datatri and N. Sudhakhar(2016) Growth
pattern of millets in India. Indian Journal Agriacultural Research,50(4);382-386
M. Sankaran(2017) Status of Ragi crop: Changing trends and growth of its area, production and
productivity in India, volume-5,Issue 7,EPRA International Jpurnal of Economic and
Business Review
VeerabhadrappaBellundagi, K. B. Umesh and S.C. Ravi Growth dynamics and forecasting of
finger millet(Ragi) production in Karnataka
Christian Goverman, K.B.Umesh, Sylvain Quiadeville, B. Ganeshkumar, S. Sakamma and
Simon Moakes(2018) The Economic Realty of underutilised crops for climate Resilence ,
food security and Nutrition; Assessing finger millet productivity in India.
Agriculture,8,131;doi 10.3390/8090131
Amubhashukla, AdarachLalit, Vinay Sharma, SharadVaaaats and Afrozalam(April 2015) Pearl
and Finger millet; The hope of food security. Apllied Research Journal Vol.1, Issue 2, pp.
59-66.
https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/millets_ragi.html#:~:text=Finger%20millet%20i
s%20grown%20in,crop%20by%20planting%20January%20%E2%80%93%20February

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CONFRONTING TOMATO LEAF CURL VIRUS: HARNESSING THE

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
POTENTIAL OF RESISTANCE BREEDING IN TOMATO

Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-68

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Bhaskar Reddy S1*, O. Reshma1 and Byrapuram Arani Jyothi2

1
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, india
2
S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU, Guntur, A.P., India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Tomato belongs to the family Solanaceae, which includes more than 3000 species.
Solanum section Lycopersicum includes the cultivated tomato, Solanum lycopersicum L., the
only domesticated species. Tomato was one of the most widely eaten vegetable in the world.
India is the second largest producer of tomato after China with an annual production of 19.69
million t from an area of 8.08 million ha and 24.36 MT/ha productivity. The demand for
tomatoes is increasing day by day but as its production is affected by many diseases and stresses
(biotic and abiotic stress). Moreover, there are many factors, which are also responsible for the
limited production and growth of tomato such as drought, high or low temperature, salinity and
insect and pest attacks. Tomato yield has been affected by more than 200 diseases caused by
fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes worldwide. Among them viral diseases are major limiting
factor in plant cultivation and extremely difficult to control or eradicate. About 136 viral species
have been described to infect tomato crops, which is notably higher to any other vegetable crop.
Among that Tomato Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV) is one of the most economically important virus
causing disease in tomato plant world-wide. Usually, the disease causes a loss of the order of 28-
92%, but may be as high as 100%. Therefore, development of disease resistant varieties are main
objectives for plant breeding.
Understanding Tomato leaf Curl Virus
Tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD) is the most devastating disease of tomato, affecting a
large area under cultivation; it can be on the scale of an epidemic. In India, Tomato leaf curl

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

disease (ToLCD) was first reported by Vasudeva in 1948 from Northern India and Sam Raj in
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
1950 from Central India. The disease is caused by different species having circular single-
stranded DNA (ssDNA), of the genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae. Currently, 322
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
begomovirus species have officially been accepted by International Committee on Taxonomy of
Viruses (ICTV) from all over the world causing infection in different crops, out of them 82 are
reported from India. Among them, around 19 species of begomovirusArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
have been shown to cause
leaf curl disease in tomato. Two species namely Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus and Tomato
leaf curl Palampur virus predominantly distributed in Northern India and one species namely
Tomato leaf curl Bangalore virus is dominant in Southern India (Muniyappa et al.,2000; Kirthi et
al., 2002).
Disease symptoms
The symptoms of leaf curl disease are intricate, manifesting in various ways such as
curling and puckering of leaves, yellowing of veins, stunted growth, increased branching, and
leaf size reduction. Additionally, it can cause severe leaf distortion, plant stunting, and premature
shedding of flowers and fruits. In certain plant types, it leads to specific symptoms like green
vein banding, leaf twisting, and the appearance of green enations on the underside of leaves.
Depending on the plant genotype and the stage of infection, symptoms may vary. At a cellular
level, observable changes include nucleus hypertrophy, accumulation of dark granules, and the
presence of virus-like particles in the cytoplasm.
Transmission of virus and host range
Under natural conditions, whiteflies transmit the tomato leaf curl viruses
(ToLCVs) from infected to healthy plants. Even a single whitefly can transmit the virus.
Minimum acquisition access period and inoculation access period of 30 min each is required for
successful transmission to occur. Pre-acquisition and pre-inoculation starving of the vector
results in higher levels of transmission. ToLCV can persist up to 10 days after acquisition in a
single adult whitefly. Females are more efficient transmitters than the males. The virus is also
transmitted by dodder (Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.). Under artificial conditions, grafting can transmit
the disease. It is also known that some of the isolates of ToLCVs are also sap transmissible under
laboratory conditions. ToLCVs can infect crops such as Lycopersicon esculentum, L.
peruvianum, L. hirsutum, L glandulosum, L. pimpinellifolium, Capsicum annuum, Nicotiana
tabacum, Vigna unguiculata, and Luffa cylindrica. The viruses perpetuate on many weed hosts,

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

viz. Acanthospermum hispidum, Ageratum conyzoides, Blainvella rhomboids, Euphorbia hirta,

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Fraveria hirta, Parthenium hysterophorus, Malvastrum coromandalinum, and Croton
bonplandianum.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Resistance breeding for ToLCV
Development of genetic resistance is the best solution for any virus problem, and
especially for whitefly-transmitted viruses such as ToLCV. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Steps in breeding programme

 Screening of tomato genotypes for ToLCV
 Identification of major sources and inheritance of resistance genes.
 Breeding methods
Screening of tomato genotypes for ToLCV
Since ToLCV is not mechanically transmitted, whitefly-mediated transmission method
has long been employed for screening tomato genotypes, which can ensure up to 100 per cent
transmission, with an uniform (as much as possible) inoculum pressure. Tomato genotypes are
screened by using three different methods.
1. Field screening with spontaneous natural infection
Screening tomato genotypes through spontaneous infection under field conditions
is largely based on the occurrence of ToLCD at high level so as to induce 100% infection
in the control genotype by a single virus species of interest through the whitefly
individuals possessing uniform viral load.
2. Screening by whitefly-mediated transmission under glasshouse conditions
Screening under controlled glasshouse inoculations enables the researchers to
manipulate and have control over the species & age of whiteflies being used, acquisition
feeding period, inoculation feeding period, number of viruliferous whiteflies per plant,
species of begomovirus of interest against which the genotypes are to be screened
and much more. There are three types
i) Free choice method
ii) No choice method
iii) Clip-Cage no choice method
3. Screening by Non-whitefly-mediated transmission

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Transmission through whiteflies is a tedious process due to the involvement of

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
aseptically maintained pure culture of known virus species, known biotype and species of
aviruliferous whiteflies, a well-furnished insect-proof glasshouse and the skilled
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
manpower. To ivercome these challenges, non-whitefly-mediated inoculation procedures
were employed.
i) Graft Inoculation Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

ii) Agroinoculation with infectious clones of virus

iii) Agro–infiltration with infectious clones of virus
Identification of major sources of resistance genes
Many ToLCD resistance genes (Ty-1/Ty-3, Ty-2, Ty-4, ty-5, ty-6) have been
identified till date, most of which are recognized from wild tomato species including S.
pimpinellifolium, S. peruvianum, S. chilense, S. habrochaites and S. cheesmaniae (Ji et
al., 2007b; Verlaan et al., 2013). These resistant genes are well characterized and mapped
using molecular markers, Ty-1 (Zamir et al., 1994) and Ty- 3 (Ji et al., 2007a) mapped on
chromosome 6 from S. chilense. However, recent studies demonstrated that Ty-1 and Ty-
3 are allelic and code for an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (Verlaan et al., 2013).
Another major gene, Ty-2 identified in S. habrochaites and mapped on chromosome 11
(Hanson et al. 2000). A recessive resistance gene, ty-5 identified in tomato cultivar Ty-
King, mapped on chromosome 4 (Anbinder et al., 2009; Hutton et al., 2012). In addition
to recently ty-6 resistance gene was identified in S. Chilense, mapped on chromosome 10
(Kadirvel et al., 2013).
Breeding methods
The most important breeding techniques used in order to improve tomato for ToLCV
resistance are Introduction, Selection, Hybridization, Pedigree and Backcross method. But these
conventional methods are not much effective in breeding resistance to virus because all the
resistance genes identified are majorly present wild species, so it is difficult to transfer the genes
to cultivated species very precisely. There may be chance of transfer of undesirable genes, which
will effect yield and quality of fruit. So, it is better to use biotechnological approaches along with
conventional method is the better way to breed for resistance varieties/hybrids against virus. The
biotechnological approaches used are Marker assisted selection, Marker assisted backcross, Gene
pyramiding, Gene silencing and genome editing technologies.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

1) Traditional Breeding: Traditional breeding involves crossing tomato plants with known
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
resistance to ToLCV with susceptible varieties. The offspring are then evaluated for resistance to
the virus. Through several rounds of selection and crossing, tomato lines with improved
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
resistance can be developed.
2) Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): MAS involves identifying molecular markers linked to
genes conferring resistance to ToLCV. These markers can be used toArticle
screen ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
tomato plants at an
early stage of development, allowing breeders to select plants with resistance genes more
efficiently. This method accelerates the breeding process by eliminating the need for time-
consuming and labor-intensive field evaluations.
3) Pyramiding Resistance Genes: Pyramiding involves combining multiple resistance genes
into a single tomato variety to provide broader and more durable resistance against ToLCV. This
strategy reduces the likelihood of the virus overcoming resistance conferred by a single gene,
thereby increasing the longevity and effectiveness of resistance in tomato cultivars.
4) Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering techniques can be employed to introduce
resistance genes into susceptible tomato varieties. This involves the insertion of specific genes
from a resistant source into the tomato genome. Genes encoding resistance proteins or those
involved in signalling pathways that enhance plant defense mechanisms against ToLCV can be
introduced. Transgenic tomato plants expressing these genes can exhibit improved resistance to
the virus.
5) Gene Silencing: RNA interference (RNAi) technology can be used to silence specific genes
essential for ToLCV replication or transmission in tomato plants. This approach disrupts the
virus's ability to infect and spread within the plant, leading to reduced disease symptoms and
severity.
6) Genome Editing: Genome editing technologies, such as CRISPR-Cas9, can be used to
precisely modify the tomato genome to introduce or enhance resistance to ToLCV. This method
allows for targeted changes in the DNA sequence, including the insertion, deletion, or
modification of specific genes associated with resistance.
By employing these breeding methods, breeders can develop tomato varieties with
enhanced resistance to ToLCV, ultimately reducing the impact of the disease on tomato
production. However, it's essential to consider the efficacy, durability, and potential

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

environmental impacts of each breeding strategy before widespread deployment in agricultural

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
contexts.
Resistant varieties developed in India for Tomato leaf Curl Virus
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Many tomato varieties and hybrids that are resistant to tomato leaf curl virus were
released by public and private sectors. Some of the examples are Abhinav, Hissar Anmol, Pusa
Article
Early Dwarf, Vyabhav, Kashi amul, Nandi, Sankranthi, Arka Vishesh, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Arka Apeksha, Arka
Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Abhed etc.
Conclusion
The Tomato Leaf Curl Virus poses a significant challenge to tomato cultivation in India,
exacerbated by additional symptoms caused by whitefly infestation. To address these challenges,
researchers are exploring a comprehensive understanding of the virus's diversity and its spread,
aiming to develop effective management strategies. Identification of resistance for ToLCV is
necessary. Artificial screening is appropriate to identify resistant genotype which is possible
using wild genetic resources as donor parents. Resistance in wild species is controlled by a
single, dominant gene and is promising material for genetic improvement of resistance to tomato.
Resistance breeding offers a beacon of hope in the fight against Tomato Leaf Curl Virus,
offering farmers a sustainable and effective means of protecting their crops. By leveraging the
power of genetics and collaboration, we can cultivate a resilient tomato industry that is better
equipped to withstand the challenges posed by ToLCV and other viral threats.
References
Fentik, D. A. 2017. Review on Genetics and Breeding of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum
Mill.). Adv. crop Sci. and Tech. 5:5.
Giordano, L.B., Bezerra, I.C., Ferreira, P.T.O. and CR,Borges Neto . 1999. Breeding tomatoes
for resistance to whitefly-transmitted geminivirus with bipartite genome in Brazil. Acta
Hort. 487: 357–360
Ji, Y., Schuster, D.J. and Scott, J.W. 2007a. Ty-3, a begomovirus resistance locus near the
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus resistance locus Ty-1 on chromosome 6 of tomato. Mol
Breed. 20: 271–284.
Singh, R.K., Rai, N., Singh, A.K., Kumar, P. and Singh, B. 2018. A critical review on Tomato
leaf curl virus resistance in tomato. Inter J. Veg Sci. 15:1-23

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Varma, A. and Malathi, V.G. 2003. Emerging geminivirus problems: A serious threat to crop
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
production. Ann. Appl. Biol. 142:145-164
Zamir, D., Michelson, I. E., Zakay, Y., Navot, N., Zeidan, M., Sarfatti, M., Eshed, Y., Harel, E.,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Pleban, T., van Oss, H., Kedar, N., Rabinowitch, H. D. and Czosnek, H. 1994. Mapping
and introgression of a Tomato yellow leaf curl virus tolerance gene, Ty-1. Theor. Appl.
Genet. 88:141-146. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

BEYOND THE FIELD: EXTENSION EDUCATION'S

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
INFLUENCE ON COMMUNITY AND ECONOMY
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-69
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Hemraj Kumawat1 and Shivraj Kumawat2

1
M.Sc. (Ag) Student, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Sri Karan Narendra
Agriculture University, Jobner, India
2
Ph.D Scholar Student, Department of Agricultural Economics, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture
University, Jobner, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Extensions are essential for nodes to facilitate access and transfer information across
different organizations inside the innovation system. Extension education, a core objective of the
land-grant university (LGU) system, significantly impacts community and economic growth. It
converts research-based discoveries, optimal methods, and knowledge into informal educational
programmes that are easily available to both corporations and people. This distinctive method
enables extension educators to include community-specific research and teaching into their
research plan, promoting a culture of ongoing learning and improvement.
After the green revolution, there has been a significant improvement in the situation,
leading to the attainment of food security. New poverty alleviation programmes have been
implemented to decrease rural disparities. Breakthrough technologies have stopped advancing in
recent years. The effect of the 'technology push', which was significant in the 60s and 70s, is no
longer as crucial to demonstrate its immediate impact. Experience has shown that the extension
service faces obstacles when it becomes static and loses its dynamism in addressing regional and
temporal variances or challenges in expanding agriculture.
Agriculture encounters a wide range of requirements, possibilities, and future outlooks.
To effectively address emerging difficulties, more focus must be placed on information-based

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

technology and enhancing methods of disseminating knowledge to farmers. State Departments of

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Agriculture (DoAs) were the only arbiters of agricultural extension before to the 1960s. A
coordinated strategy allowed for the expansion to take place. Various development programs,
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
such as IADP, IAAP, etc., were launched. Working with the KVKs, ICAR launched programs in
the 1990s such as the Lab-to-Land and Operational Research Programs. Training programs for
Article ID:
authorities and farmers were launched by State Agricultural Universities AG-VO2-I08-07
(SAUs), who also
organized demonstrations and exhibitions. Each State Agricultural University established a
Directorate of Extension to implement the University-based Extension Education Approach.
The Commodity-based Extension Approach and the Command Area Development
Authorities were two such groups that spearheaded extension initiatives. Since the public sector
was responsible for overseeing the whole process of technological creation and transmission, the
expansion was seen as a public benefit. The primary objective was to increase the number of
extension specialists and launch a number of initiatives in order to broaden the scope of
extension services throughout the country. The Commodity-based Extension Approach and
Command Area Development Authorities were both set up to aid certain commodities and areas
with their respective extension programs. Because the public sector was entrusted with the
exclusive responsibility of managing the development and distribution of technology, extension
was seen as a public benefit. The major goal was to increase the number of extension specialists
and launch several programs in order to expand extension services throughout the nation.
In the 1980s, many nations implemented the World Bank-funded Training and Visit
(T&V) system. Enhancements were made to the funding and personnel distribution for extension
services, and a unified command structure for extension was established. The T&V system had
diverse results due to its failure to account for the nation's agro-climatic and socio-economic
diversity. The T&V system produced diverse results due to its failure to account for the nation's
agro-climatic and socio-economic diversity.
Agricultural extension programs have seen an influx of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), agro-input companies (AICs), and agro-processors since the 1980s. Extension services
for certain crops and commodities are being more and more provided by farmer groups and
producer cooperatives. Many extension services are being offered by input agencies, especially
fertilizer companies. The increase in rural literacy has led to newspapers devoting more space to
stories on the use of agricultural technologies.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Research in Extension Education

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Extension education research is currently neglected, with a deficiency in fundamental
research being carried out in the discipline. The focus remains on diffusion, adoption, and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
communication research. There is a need to revamp the postgraduate curricula in extension
education to enable research in these areas, enhancing the discipline's quality and uniqueness
Article
Incorporating management ideas and techniques into postgraduate, ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
Ph.D., and field-level
extension education curricula is essential.
Production to Marketing
According to the National Commission on Farmers (NCF), farmer-to-farmer learning and
technology transfer are widespread and reliable.. Establish farm schools at farms run by
successful farmers in various agro-climatic regions and agricultural systems. Farm School and
Farmer Field School are important instruments for farmer-led extension. It is crucial to transition
extension emphasis from production-centered to market-driven extension in order to boost farm
revenue via the implementation of a comprehensive methodology. Market-driven extension
services assist farmers in reducing production costs, enhancing the quality of agricultural
products, boosting product value and marketability, ultimately leading to increased revenue for
farmers.
New growth prospects have emerged as a result of the liberalization of global agriculture
trade. India's diversified agro-climatic settings, cheap labor costs, and near-total dependence on
its own resources give it a competitive edge in a number of agricultural exports. A wide variety
of agricultural goods, including seafood, cereals, cashews, coffee, tea, spices, oil meals,
vegetables, castor, tobacco, and fruits, have been exported thanks to these qualities over the
years. Although it faces competition, India has a specialized market access for goods like
Basmati rice. Between fourteen and eighteen percent of the total exports of the nation are
agricultural products.
Developing Cases as Tool for Technology Dissemination
Case studies are particularly valuable for explaining the reasons behind a situation or how
it came to be. When drafting a case study, it is crucial to consider that it might encapsulate
significant themes in a region's developmental history and must identify stakeholders impartially.
Themes may be shown from several perspectives in a case, frequently allowing for greater
creative expression compared to an academic article. A success story is the positive and intended

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

consequence or outcome of a project. You wish to illustrate how 'Extension' impacts the lives of
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
the individuals it serves. Anecdotes of success demonstrate the impact that extension services
have had on individuals' lives. It delineates favorable transformation and advantages. Success
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
stories are crafted to exchange programming ideas and determine effective strategies. Success
stories are written to communicate the problem scenario, including who discovered the issue and
how it was resolved, to stakeholders or farmers. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Future perspectives,
In India, extension education is mostly used for production-oriented programmes, area
development initiatives, target group-based service schemes, and predominantly as a technology
distribution mechanism. There is an increasing awareness of the need to transition from a
technology-focused strategy to a more inclusive and comprehensive approach that takes into
account the social, economic, and environmental aspects of sustainable development. Research
in extension education, presently the most neglected, requires strengthening. There is a notable
absence of fundamental research in the field that requires attention. Research may provide vital
insights into the efficacy of extension programmes, pinpoint emerging trends and difficulties,
and guide the creation of new strategies and interventions.
Conclusion
Extension education is crucial for fostering community and economic growth. It offers
resources and services to improve the well-being and prosperity of people, families, and
communities, while also supporting the larger benefits of teaching and research disciplines. The
obvious institutional boundaries between research, extension, farmers, farmers organizations,
NGOs, and commercial firms were blurred as a consequence. It is crucial to keep investing in
extension education and research to maintain its relevance and effectiveness in meeting the
changing demands and problems of our communities in the future. The innovation system must
provide effective institutional mechanisms to enhance overall performance. Failing to provide
this crucial duty will further marginalize extension.
Reference
https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/govt_schemes_services/pdf/govt_schemes_extn%20recc.pdf
Singh A. K,Chauhan J., Singh L., and Burman R. R. 2009. Future Extension Education
Perspective in India. Indian Research Journal of Extension Education, 9(3): 9-14

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CHICKPEA LANDRACES: A VALUABLE AND

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
DIVERGENT SOURCE FOR HEAT TOLERANCE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-70
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Thippeswamy Danakumara1, Chellapilla Bharadwaj2*, Nilesh joshi1, Neeraj Kumar3,

Uttarayan Dasgupta1, Somsole Bharat1 and Jayanth kallugudi1
1
Ph.D. Research scholar, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi -110012, India
2
Principal Scientist, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi – 110012, India
3
Scientist, Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi – 110012, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Heat-tolerant chickpea landraces offer a sustainable solution for farmers facing drought and heat
stress. Chickpeas are crucial for crop rotation, intercropping, and soil fertility maintenance,
contributing significantly to farming systems sustainability. A narrow genetic base has hindered
efforts to enhance chickpea productivity, leading to low genetic gains in breeding improved
varieties. In order to increase chickpea resistance to abiotic conditions like heat and drought,
research highlights the significance of investigating a variety of sources of genetic diversity,
including wild Cicer species and landraces former cultivars.
Introduction
Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) a globally significant crop, facing challenges from high-
temperature stress, which affects growth, development and yield by affecting various
physiological processes like germination, shoot growth, and leaf viability. Proline is an amino
acid known for enhancing heat tolerance in plants like chickpeas. Understanding the genetic
basis of heat tolerance in chickpeas by Genetic dissection has been crucial in identifying

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

essential genes associated with drought and heat tolerance in chickpeas. By using genome-wide
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
association studies (GWAS) to explore the genetics of heat tolerance in chickpea landraces,
researchers hope to improve breeding efforts and create climate-resilient cultivars that can
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
withstand harsh weather conditions.
Benefits chickpea landraces for farmers
Chickpea landraces are a great crop choice since they provideArticle
farmersID:with
AG-VO2-I08-07
a number of
benefits such as they are hardy in harsh conditions because they can withstand environmental
shocks, such as moisture and heat stress. They contribute to both economic and nutritional
security because of their low production costs, which also diversify food, nutrition, feed usage,
and health advantages. Chickpeas landraces are also quite valuable on the market and are
essential to the sustainable intensification of agricultural systems. Additionally, studying the
diversity of chickpea germplasm broadens the genetic foundation of the crop and increases its
resistance to abiotic stresses like heat and drought. Chickpeas landraces significantly impact
farming systems because they improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and releasing phosphorus,
which benefits the entire soil ecosystem.
Chickpeas are grown in a variety of agroclimatic settings throughout the world and are
vital to mixed cropping systems, intercropping, and crop rotation. Before germplasm can be used
for agricultural improvement, it must be characterized. Characters are immediately observable,
highly heritable, and expressive in all contexts, and they are recorded in phenotypic
characterization. The ICRISAT genebank's descriptors were created for characterization
(https://genebank.icrisat.org/IND/Char_Chickpea?Crop=Chickpea).
Research has demonstrated the economic potential of chickpea production by using
centers of diversity for chickpea is the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region as well as its
advantages in terms of low production costs, tolerance to climate shocks, high market value, and
sustainable intensification. These illustrations highlight the various ways in which farmers in
various locations employ landraces of chickpea, underscoring the significance of these age-old
cultivars in farming and food security. These landraces help ensure farmers financial and dietary
stability since they thrive in harsh conditions. Furthermore, examining the genetic diversity of
landraces chickpea expands the genetic basis of the crop and increases its resistance to abiotic
stresses like heat and drought. Chickpeas also contribute significantly to the sustainable
intensification of farming systems by fixing nitrogen in the soil and releasing phosphorus, which

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

improves soil fertility and the soil ecosystem as a whole. Many regions have emphasised the
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
economic potential of chickpea production, highlighting the advantages of these traditional types
for smallholder farmers concerning market value, adaptability, cost of production, and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
sustainability.
Chickpea landraces differ from commercial varieties
There are a number of reasons why chickpea landraces are Article
differentID:from
AG-VO2-I08-07
commercial
cultivars in terms of quality and output. Ethiopian landraces and other landraces from the crop's
centre of origin are rather similar, possessing distinctive seed traits such small, black, and
angular seeds, low attachment of the initial bean, and low seed yield. Comparing these
characteristics to commercial kinds can affect both yield and quality. Conversely, commercial
types are frequently bred for particular qualities such as market preferences, uniformity, disease
resistance, and increased yield potential. They go through rigorous breeding programmes aimed
at improving the quality and productivity that farmers and consumers want. Comparing this
breeding focus to traditional landraces may result in variations in yield potential and overall
quality.
Factors affecting the yield of chickpea landraces and commercial varieties
Studies indicate that higher plant densities can improve competition for resources like
light, space, and nutrients, resulting in improved soil moisture retention and possibly higher
yields. Plant density is a key factor in determining chickpea output. Chickpea yield gains are also
highly influenced by fertiliser application; NPK and occasionally S fertilisers have been shown
to have positive benefits on productivity. Furthermore, the yield and quality of grown chickpeas
are significantly influenced by environmental factors such as terminal heat stress and limited
rainfall, underscoring the significance of climate conditions in chickpea cultivation. The yield
discrepancies between landraces and commercial types are also influenced by genetic potential;
hence, breeding programmes aim to generate high-yielding cultivars to maximise productivity
under target conditions. Unpredictable climate changes, including increased frequency of
drought, high temperatures (>30°C), and low temperatures (<15°C), pose challenges to chickpea
production by reducing grain yields considerably. Rainfall patterns influence chickpea growth
and development, with drought stress being a significant constraint that can reduce crop yields
by about 45-50% globally. Drought conditions can hasten maturity in chickpeas by stopping
growth, while late-season rains can cause plants to green back up, affecting overall yield

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

potential. Temperature extremes, both cold and heat stress, impact chickpea productivity and
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
quality. High temperatures during flowering can lead to flower abortion and reduced pod set,
affecting yield potential. Graph of monthly average temperature of chickpea growing season of
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
2021 to 2023 in three different regions of India (Figure1).

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Figure 1. Graph of monthly average temperature of chickpea growing season of 2021 to 2023 in
Three different regions of India.
Chickpea landraces and commercial varieties differ in their ability to adapt to environmental
stresses due to various factors. Landraces, being traditional varieties, often exhibit greater
genetic diversity and adaptability to local conditions, making them more resilient to
environmental stresses like drought and heat compared to commercial varieties. These landraces
have evolved over time to survive in diverse environments, allowing them to cope better with
fluctuations in rainfall patterns and temperature extremes. On the other hand, commercial
varieties are often bred for specific traits like high yield potential, uniformity, and disease
resistance, which may compromise their ability to adapt to a wide range of environmental
stresses. While commercial varieties may excel under optimal conditions with intensive
management practices, they may struggle to perform well under challenging environmental
conditions compared to the more adaptable landraces.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Effects of high temperature stress on chickpea

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Chickpeas have a way to escape from high temperatures, although heat stress during the
reproductive stage can cause significant production losses from germination and seedling
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
establishment to seed yield. Reduced pod set, flower abortion, and eventually poorer yields can
result from heat stress during the reproductive phase. Landraces be more resilient to heat stress
Article
than commercial cultivars cultivated for particular qualities, such as high yieldID: AG-VO2-I08-07
potential, because
of their genetic diversity, local adaptation and broad genetic base. Studies indicate that
improving heat tolerance in landraces and commercial varieties requires the development of
climate-resilient chickpea genotypes through physiological and molecular methods.
Symptoms of high temperature stress in chickpea
1. Anther and Pollen Abnormalities: Rising temperatures have the potential to cause structural
irregularities in anthers and pollen, which can result in a decrease in pollen yield and set, as well
as lower fertility and germination (Figure 2).
2. Pollen Sterility: Reduced seed number, weight, and overall yield can be the result of heat
stress-induced pollen sterility in chickpeas, which affects fertilisation and seed development.
3. Oxidative Stress: Rising temperatures have the potential to intensify oxidative stress in
chickpea plants, resulting in a reduction of soluble carbohydrate levels, ATP concentrations in
the pistil, and leaf photosynthesis, ultimately impacting nutrient delivery and overall plant
growth.

Figure 2. Target sites of heat stress on reproductive growth (Source: Kaushal et al., 2016)
These symptoms demonstrate the harmful effects of high temperatures on chickpea plants,
affecting seed formation, reproductive processes, and potential yield overall.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

4. Poor Pollen Germination: After anthesis, heat stress can lead to poor pollen germination,
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
pollen tube expansion, and fertilisation, which can lower chickpea seed set and yield.
5. Pod Abortion: In high temperatures, heat-tolerant genotypes exhibit improved pod set and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
reproductive success, while heat-sensitive genotypes may undergo pod abortion.
Breeding strategies
Article ID:
There are several ways to improve chickpeas' capacity to tolerate AG-VO2-I08-07
high temperatures,
including increasing their heat tolerance. These tactics include marker-assisted breeding, pre-
breeding with wild relatives, omics-based technology, and conventional breeding techniques
(Figure 3). The identification of potential genes and major QTLs (Quantitative Trait Loci)
associated with heat stress tolerance provides important information for molecular breeding
initiatives. Furthermore, physiological characteristics that have been investigated as markers of
chickpeas' ability to withstand heat include chlorophyll content, the normalised difference
vegetation index (NDVI), and canopy temperature. The main goal of these breeding techniques
is to create superior lines with increased heat tolerance. The heat tolerant genotype having lower
heat susceptibility index (Table 1).

Figure 3. Breeding strategies for heat tolerance in chickpea

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Table 1. Landraces with their heat susceptibility index values of individual environment.
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
S. Acce Collectio HSI_Aml HSI_Dhar HSI_Del HSI_Aml HSI_Dhar HSI_Del
No ssion n/Source aha_2021 wad_2021 hi_2021 aha_2022 wad_2022 hi_2022
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
.
1 ILC8 Portugal 0.38 0.21 0.12 0.17 0.57 0.32
666 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

2 IG58 Syria 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.07 0.1 0.08

71
3 JG14 Jabalpur, 0.23 0.14 0.24 0.04 0.09 0.04
India
4 IG58 Jordan 0.83 1.03 0.37 0.87 0.76 0.6
62
5 IG58 Iraq 0.88 0.94 0.45 0.87 0.59 0.67
96
6 IG60 Tunisia 1.28 0.41 0.67 1.24 1.44 0.79
02
7 ILC1 Jordan 0.78 0.79 0.75 0.67 0.82 0.52
932
8 IG58 Syria 0.69 1.2 0.75 1.16 0.55 0.86
74
9 IG58 Iraq 0.84 0.85 0.88 0.67 0.86 0.82
84
(Source: Danakumara et al., 2023)
Future Prospects
The future of enhancing heat tolerance in chickpeas holds promising prospects through continued
research and breeding efforts:
1. Genetic Dissection and Marker-Assisted Breeding (MAB): Additional important genes
linked to heat stress tolerance may be found by further investigating the genetic basis of heat
tolerance in chickpeas using cutting-edge methods like genome-wide association studies
(GWAS) and marker-assisted breeding. Through a fuller understanding of the molecular

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

pathways behind heat tolerance, this genetic dissection will make it easier to produce cultivars
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
that are climate-resilient.
2. Omics-Based Technologie: Understanding of the biochemical reactions of chickpeas to heat
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
stress, including transcriptomics, proteomics, and genomes. Researchers can identify certain
pathways and molecular markers linked to heat tolerance by examining the expression of genes
and proteins under high temperatures. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

3. Phenotypic Characterization and Trait Selection: To uncover characteristics linked to heat

tolerance, more phenotypic characterisation of chickpea germplasm especially landraces will be
necessary.
Conclusion
Chickpea breeding techniques to increase heat tolerance through the integration of
advanced technologies such as omics-based approaches and marker-assisted breeding with
conventional breeding methods. Chickpea landraces are a useful tool for breeding initiatives
aimed at improving heat tolerance. A comprehensive strategy that incorporates physiological
characteristics, genetic insights, and environmental factors will be essential going forward to
create superior chickpea lines that can flourish in the face of growing heat stress difficulties.
References
Danakumara, T., Kumar, T., Kumar, N., Patil, B. S., Bharadwaj, C., Patel, U., ... & Chaturvedi,
S. K. (2023). A Multi-Model Based Stability Analysis Employing Multi-Environmental
Trials (METs) Data for Discerning Heat Tolerance in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
Landraces. Plants, 12(21), 3691.
Tapan, K., Bharadwaj, C., Rizvi, A. H., Ashutosh, S., Shailesh, T., Afroz, A., & Chauhan, S. K.
(2015). Chickpea landraces: a valuable and divergent source for drought
tolerance. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 33(2 (Part II)), 633-638.
Kaushal, N., Bhandari, K., Siddique, K. H., & Nayyar, H. (2016). Food crops face rising
temperatures: An overview of responses, adaptive mechanisms, and approaches to improve
heat tolerance. Cogent food & agriculture, 2(1), 1134380.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

GENETIC REDESIGN FOR IDEAL PLANT

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
ARCHITECTURE IN GRAIN LEGUMES THROUGH
INDUCED MUTAGENESIS
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-71
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

K. Gowtham, J.R. Jerish and *S. Saravanan

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, VOC Agricultural College and Research Institute
Killikulam 628 252, Tamil nadu, India
*Associate Professor and Head, Rice Research Station, Ambasamudram 627 401, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract
Grain legumes are serve as the important source of dietary protein for Indian diet. The genetic
enhancement of grain legumes are need to be accelerated due to their narrow genetic variability
and limited resources exploited. Majority of the grain legumes are cultivated in the rainfed areas
and they are affected by many biotic and abiotic stresses. Mutagenesis is the elite approach for
generating genetic variants that possess economically desired characteristics like improvement of
yield, resistance to pests and diseases and tolerance to abiotic stresses. By using induced
mutation many superior varieties were developed in grain legumes throughout India. In this
paper, the utilization of mutation in grain legumes improvement is explained in detail.
Keywords: Grain legumes, physical and chemical mutagen, genetic variability, biotic and
abiotic stresses.
Introduction
Grain legumes or Pulses are of high value and low input requiring nutritious protein (20-
25%) rich dietary crop throughout the globe compared to cereals (7-17%). They are rich and
cheap source of protein for both vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet ,serve as feed for livestock
and rejuvenate the soil fertility through symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation. Grain legume
seeds are the rich source of proteins, soluble and insoluble fibre, slowly digestible starch, micro
and macro nutrients, vitamins and numerous bioactive phytochemicals or secondary metabolites
like flavonoids and other antioxidants (Bassett et al., 2010; Scalbert et al., 2005). They provide

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

many health benefits such as consumption of soybean & Lupin products in human diet can
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, lowering blood cholesterol, repressing hypertension,
diabetics (Sirtori et al., 2012; Bertoglio et al., 2011). In India, pulses are being grown on about
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
30.73 million hectares overall, producing 27.302 million tons at an average productivity of 888
kg/ha (Indiastat,2021-22).
Classification of Mutation Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Source: Viana et al., 2019

Mutation in grain legumes
Grain legumes are mostly grown as rainfed crop in India which leads to often experience
of drought at critical crop growth stages. They are susceptible to many pest and disease.
Therefore, the lack of biotic (pest & disease) and abiotic (drought, heat, cold, salinity) stress
resistant varieties are the prime need in the grain legumes cultivation. In grain legumes, the
variability within the available germplasm is low. So, mutation is very useful method to create
desirable variations in the population. In India, the institutes such as Bhabha Atomic Research

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Centre (BARC), Trombay, Mumbai, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
and Tamilnadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore are carrying the mutation works.
The list of cultivars of grain legumes that were created by induced mutation were depicted in the
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
table. Through mutation breeding, a total of 523 varieties have been developed globally in grain
legumes. Out of which 86 mutant varieties were developed in India (http:/mvgs.iaea.org). In
Articleby
India the maximum mutant varieties developed in groundnut (27) followed ID:green
AG-VO2-I08-07
gram (16),
cowpea (10), black gram (8), pigeon pea (7) and soybean (7).

List of Grain legume mutant varieties released

No. of varieties
S. released No. of varieties
Latin name Common name
No. throughout released in India
world
1 Arachis hypogaea L. Groundnut 80 27
2 Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. Pigeonpea 7 7
3 Cicer arietinum L. Chickpea 27 6
4 Dolichos lablab L. Hyacinth bean 1 1
5 Glycine max L. Merr. Soybean 182 7
6 Lathyrus sativus L. Grass pea (Khesari) 3 0
7 Lens culinaris Medik. Lentil 19 2
8 Lupinus albus L. White lupin 13 0
9 Lupinus angustifoliusL. Blue lupin 2 0
10 Lupinus cosentinii Guss. Sandalplain lupin 1 0
11 Lupinus luteusL. Yellow lupin 3 0
12 Phaseolus vulgaris L. French bean 59 1
13 Phaseolus coccineusL. Scarlet runner bean 1 0
14 Pisum sativum L. Pea 34 1
15 Vicia faba L. Faba bean 19 0
16 Vicia sativaL. Common vetch 3 0
17 Vigna angularis Willd. Adzuki bean 3 0
18 Vigna mungo L. Hepper Blackgram 9 8
19 Vigna radiata L. Wiczeck Mungbean 41 16
20 Vigna unguiculata L. Walp. Cowpea 16 10
Total 523 86
(Source: https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/mvd/)

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Mutant varieties developed in Grain legumes in India

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

(Source: https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/mvd/)
Advantages of mutation breeding
 It is possible to develop quickly in elite material.
 It is possible to enhance a single trait of a well-known variety that is favoured by
growers, processors, and/or consumers.
 There is a chance of direct mutant varieties, or very little breeding work is needed.
 It is possible to create novel variations and can be target specific genes also.
 It is possible to create single gene mutants that have no adverse pleiotropic effects.
Disadvantages of mutation breeding
 In general, the process is unpredictable and random.
 Mutants with useful traits are uncommon and primarily recessive
 Maintenance of large population size and effective screening techniques need for
isolation of desired mutants.
 Success rate is very less (0.1%)
 Health risk is their due to handling of harmful radiation and carcinogenic chemicals as
mutagens.
Conclusion
Grain legumes are the important source of protein for 70% of global population. But the
productivity of the crops are reduced by several biotic and abiotic factors. Because of the

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

autogamous nature of grain legumes, the genetic variability is narrow. Mutation breeding was
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
much useful tool for crop improvement in grain legumes. By using physical and chemical
mutagenic agents many elite cultivars have been developed. Here after, using the molecular
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
mutation breeding many of desired achievements will be made in crop improvement of grain
legumes.
References Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Bassett, C., Boye, J., Tyler, R., & Oomah, B. D. (2010). Molecular, functional and processing
characteristics of whole pulses and pulse fractions and their emerging food and
nutraceutical applications. Food Research International, 2(43), 397-398.
Bertoglio, J. C., Calvo, M. A., Hancke, J. L., Burgos, R. A., Riva, A., Morazzoni, P., ... &
Duranti, M. (2011). Hypoglycemic effect of lupin seed γ-conglutin in experimental animals
and healthy human subjects. Fitoterapia, 82(7), 933-938.
Food and Agriculture(FAO)/ l International Atomic Energy Agency- Mutant Variety Database
(MVD),2023
INDIASTAT. 2023. https://www.indiastat.com/Alsosee/Cited-in-Research-Papers-and-Reports.
Scalbert, A., Manach, C., Morand, C., Rémésy, C., & Jiménez, L. (2005). Dietary polyphenols
and the prevention of diseases. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 45(4), 287-
306.
Sirtori, C. R., Triolo, M., Bosisio, R., Bondioli, A., Calabresi, L., De Vergori, V., ... & Arnoldi,
A. (2012). Hypocholesterolaemic effects of lupin protein and pea protein/fibre
combinations in moderately hypercholesterolaemic individuals. British Journal of
Nutrition, 107(8), 1176-1183.
Viana, V. E., Pegoraro, C., Busanello, C., & Costa de Oliveira, A. (2019). Mutagenesis in rice:
the basis for breeding a new super plant. Frontiers in plant science, 10, 1326.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

CRISPR-CAS9 VS BASE EDITING IN REVOLUTIONIZING

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
PLANT BREEDING
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-72
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

O. Reshma1*, Byrapuram Arani Jyothi2 and Bhaskar Reddy S1

1
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
2
S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU, Guntur, A.P. India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
Among a few genome editing technologies which has emerged over the years to modify
the genomes of plants and animals, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat
(CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR/Cas) technology is a notable technique which
has been used for crop improvement. This system uses the Cas9-sgRNA complex to create
breaks in the double-strands of DNA in the organism which are corrected either through a non-
homologous end joining (NHEJ) approach or homology-directed repair (HDR) mechanism.
While HDR shows low frequency and the NHEJ is prone to errors and randomly makes indels,
CRISPR/Cas9 system cannot be used to carry out gene base conversion. Owing to these
limitations, it is imperative to look for a precise and stable approach for editing crop genomes.
Base editing has been regarded as an alternative and more efficient approach. The application of
base editing in plant breeding has enabled precise genome editing without causing double strand
breaks, which has revolutionized crop improvement. Base editing precisely converts one base to
another in the genome of plants and animals. Unlike other genome editing technologies, in base
editing, there is non-generation of DSB and has effect on both dividing and non-dividing cells
with high precision. Base editing creates both single and multiple nucleotide modifications in
cells.
Base editing
Base editing has emerged as an innovative technique that allows for precise substitutions
of nucleotides in a controlled manner, without causing gene disruption or necessitating a donor

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

template. A base editor comprises a fusion of a catalytically inactive CRISPR–Cas9 domain

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
(such as Cas9 variants, dCas9, or Cas9 nickase) and a deaminase domain for cytosine or
adenosine, which facilitates the conversion of one base to another (refer to Figure 1). This
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
method of making single-base changes has the potential to create desirable variations in crop
plants, thereby expediting crop improvement efforts. The base-editing system can rectify single-
base changes or single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) without Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
disrupting genes, thereby
reducing the occurrence of insertions and deletions. This technology proves to be highly
effective for introducing new traits in agriculturally significant crops, thus playing a crucial role
in ensuring food security. This technology utilizes tools like cytosine base editors (CBE) and
adenine base editors (ABE), allows for targeted nucleotide substitutions with high efficiency.
Types of Base Editors
 DNA Base Editors, which includes Cytosine Base Editors and Adenine Base Editors.
 Dual Base Editors
 Transversion Base Editors
 PAMless Base Editors
Applications of base editing for crop improvement
Base editing is a powerful genome editing technology that enables precise changes to
individual DNA bases without causing double-stranded breaks. This technique has significant
potential for applications in crop improvement like trait modification (abiotic and biotic
stresses), enhancement in the nutrient content, reduction in toxins, increased in yield and quality,
reduced environmental impact (by pesticides) and precision breeding.
Advantages of base editing over other genome editing techniques in plant breeding
Base editing in plant breeding offers several advantages over other genome editing
techniques, making it a powerful tool for precise genetic modifications. The key advantages of
base editing include:
Precision and Efficiency
Base editing allows for targeted and irreversible changes of a single base pair without
inducing double-strand breaks (DSB), ensuring high precision in genome editing.
Non-Generation of DSB
Unlike some other genome editing methods, base editing does not create DSBs, making
it safer and more predictable for both dividing and non-dividing cells.

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

High Precision
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Base editing tools like cytosine base editors (CBE) and adenine base editors (ABE) offer
high precision in nucleotide substitutions, enabling specific modifications at desired genomic
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
sites with minimal off-target effects.
Broad Applications
Base editing has been successfully applied in various cropsArticle ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
to enhance traits such as
disease resistance, herbicide resistance, and improved quality, showcasing its versatility in crop
improvement.
Future Prospects
Continuous advancements in base editing technology aim to optimize and enhance the
scope and efficiency of editing, paving the way for more precise modifications in crops for
sustainable production amid global changes.
Base editing compared to crispr-cas9 in terms of precision
Base editing provides a higher degree of accuracy compared to CRISPR-Cas9 when it
comes to genome editing. Tools such as cytosine base editors (CBE) and adenine base editors
(ABE) allow for precise point mutations without causing double-strand breaks, resulting in more
precise modifications at the nucleotide level. One of the study indicates that base editing
produces fewer unintended mutations compared to the use of active Cas9 nuclease, showcasing
its superior precision in genome editing. Furthermore, base editing techniques have been refined
to facilitate precise gene editing, making them more convenient and accurate than CRISPR-Cas9
for targeted genetic modifications. In summary, base editing is distinguished by its enhanced
precision and efficiency in introducing specific nucleotide changes, making it a valuable tool in
applications such as plant breeding and genetic engineering.
Base editing compared to crispr-cas9 in terms of off-target effects
Base editing exhibits fewer off-target effects compared to CRISPR-Cas9 because of its
distinct mechanism. While CRISPR-Cas9 relies on inducing double-strand breaks (DSBs) in
DNA, which can result in unintended mutations, base editors like cytosine base editors (CBE)
and adenine base editors (ABE) operate without causing DSBs, leading to reduced off-target
effects. Studies has demonstrated that base editing technologies provide greater precision in
introducing single nucleotide changes with minimal off-target mutations, making them a more
dependable choice for genome editing tasks. In contrast, CRISPR-Cas9 systems, particularly

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

when using active Cas9 nucleases, may show increased off-target effects due to DSB-mediated
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
editing. Overall, base editing is distinguished by its capability to achieve precise genetic
modifications with fewer unintended mutations than CRISPR-Cas9, rendering it a valuable tool
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
in fields such as plant breeding and genetic engineering.
Challenges in using base editing for plant breeding
 Article
Improving the accuracy and specificity of base editors is crucial ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
for their widespread use
in plant breeding due to challenges like high off-target activity, limited PAM sites, and a
wide editing window.
 Delivering these editors efficiently into plant cells and targeting them to specific genomic
locations can be difficult, although techniques such as Agrobacterium-mediated
transformation, biolistics, and viral vectors are commonly employed but may have
drawbacks in terms of efficiency or applicability across plant species.
 Base editing is currently limited to certain types of base conversions and target sequences,
which may restrict the range of genetic modifications possible.
 Additionally, compatibility between base editors and specific Cas proteins required for
their function can be challenging to ensure, especially across different plant species.
 The regulatory landscape for genome-edited crops, including those edited using base
editing, is still evolving, making the approval process time-consuming and costly.
 Scaling up base editing for large-scale plant breeding programs is also resource-intensive,
prompting ongoing research to optimize protocols, reduce costs, and increase throughput
for broader accessibility to plant breeders.
Crops that have been improved using base editing
Some examples of crops that have been improved using base editing include rice, tomato,
wheat, maize, watermelon, and rapeseed. Base editing technologies like Cytidine-deaminase-
mediated base editing (CBE) and Adenine-deaminase-mediated base editing (ABE) have been
utilized in these crops to introduce targeted nucleotide substitutions, create herbicide-resistant
plants, and generate point mutations for specific traits enhancement. Additionally, base editing
has been applied in plants like Arabidopsis, tobacco, lettuce, and potato for gene functional
annotation and correction. The technology has shown significant potential in revolutionizing
crop breeding by enhancing disease resistance, improving fruit quality, and accelerating the
domestication of wild plants.
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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

Potential future applications of base editing in crop improvement

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
 Accelerating wild-plant domestication, creating genetic circuits for signal transduction in
plants, and developing plant biosensors to detect internal and external signals.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
 Offers the opportunity to enhance the domestication of wild plants by targeting important
domestication genes and improving traits controlled by multiple quantitative loci.
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
 Allows for more precise point mutations and broader applications than single-base edits,
presents a promising alternative for future crop improvement efforts.
 Glycosylase base editors (GBEs) and prime editing are expected to further optimize editing
efficiencies and broaden the scope of applications in crop breeding.
References
Mishra, R., Joshi, R.K. and Zhao, K., 2020. Base editing in crops: current advances, limitations
and future implications. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 18(1), pp.20-31.
Li, M., Huo, Y.X. and Guo, S., 2022. CRISPR-mediated base editing: from precise point
mutation to genome-wide engineering in nonmodel microbes. Biology, 11(4), p.571.
Li, Y., Liang, J., Deng, B., Jiang, Y., Zhu, J., Chen, L., Li, M. and Li, J., 2023. Applications
and prospects of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated base editing in plant breeding. Current Issues
in Molecular Biology, 45(2), pp.918-935.
Azameti, M.K. and Dauda, W.P., 2021. Base editing in plants: applications, challenges, and
future prospects. Frontiers in plant science, 12, pp.1-13.
Porto, E.M. and Komor, A.C., 2023. In the business of base editors: evolution from bench to
bedside. PLoS biology, 21(4), pp. 1-18.
Hess, G.T., Tycko, J., Yao, D. and Bassik, M.C., 2017. Methods and applications of CRISPR-
mediated base editing in eukaryotic genomes. Molecular cell, 68(1), pp.26-43.
Zhang, Y., Massel, K., Godwin, I.D. and Gao, C., 2018. Applications and potential of genome
editing in crop improvement. Genome biology, 19(1), p.210.

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Volume: 04 Issue No: 03

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL
OCCUPATIONAL INTELLIGENCE
HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS IN

AGRICULTURE
Article ID: AG-VO4-I03-73
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Dr. R. Vinoth1, R. Kannan2, Dr. J. Raja Raja Cholan3, Dr. D. Balu3 and Dr. V.Guhan4
*1
Teaching Assistant (PBG), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Tichy, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Assistant Professor (Plant Pathology), IOA, TNAU, Kumulur, Tichy, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Assistant Professor (PBG), Don Bosco College of Agriculture - [DBCA], Vellore,
Tamil Nadu, India
4
Post Doctoral Fellow, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Chidambaram
Tamil Nadu, India
5
Project Scientist II, Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva – Agro Advisory Service, Meteorological
Centre, Indian Meteorological Department, Hyderabad, Telangana – 500016, India
*Corresponding Author Email ID: [email protected]

Introduction
The growth of the global population, which is projected to reach 10 billion by 2050, is
placing significant pressure on the agricultural sector to increase crop production and maximize
yields. To address looming food shortages, two potential approaches have emerged: expanding
land use and adopting large-scale farming, or embracing innovative practices and leveraging
technological advancements to enhance productivity on existing farmland Pushed by many
obstacles to achieving desired farming productivity — limited land holdings, labor shortages,
climate change, environmental issues, and diminishing soil fertility, to name a few, — the
modern agricultural landscape is evolving, branching out in various innovative directions.
Farming has certainly come a long way since hand plows or horse-drawn machinery. Each
season brings new technologies designed to improve efficiency and capitalize on the harvest.
However, both individual farmers and global agribusinesses often miss out on the opportunities
that artificial intelligence in agriculture can offer to their farming methods.

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In any nation, agriculture is a vital component of the economy. The need for food is
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
rising daily due to the growing global population. There is currently insufficient supply to meet
the need using the farmers' traditional methods. Therefore, in order to meet these needs and give
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
many people in this industry fantastic career prospects, several new automation techniques are
implemented. With its potential to expand our views and change the environment around us,
Article ID:
artificial intelligence (AI) has started to become increasingly important in AG-VO2-I08-07
our daily lives
(Kundalia et al., 2020; Gandhi et al., 2020; Ahir et al., 2020).
Artificial intelligence is one of the most important technological developments in a
variety of industries, including finance, robotics, education, agriculture, and others. It has a
major impact on and is radically altering the agriculture sector. Making technology function like
the human brain is the core concept of artificial intelligence (Parekh et al., 2020; Jani et al.,
2019). Researching how the human brain works—including how people learn, make decisions,
and collaborate to solve problems—helps developers of intelligent software and systems. AI
shields the agriculture sector from a range of risks, such as population growth, climate change, a
lack of jobs in the sector, and food safety. The modern agriculture system can now function at a
new level thanks to AI.
At the farm level, AI influences crop production many ways; particularly through proper
distribution of seeds, fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals, automated irrigation
scheduling, monitoring soil, crop and animal health, crop quality, yield detection, weed iden
surveillance of pests and diseases, and farm machinery positions in the field.
Impact of AI on agriculture
AI-based technologies help to increase productivity across the board and manage the
problems that different industries, including the agricultural sector, face, including crop yield,
irrigation, soil content sensing, crop monitoring, weeding, and crop establishment (Kim et al.,
2008). The purpose of agricultural robots is to provide high-value AI applications in the
aforementioned industry. The agriculture industry is in danger due to the world's rapidly growing
population, but artificial intelligence (AI) may be able to provide much-needed relief. Farmers
can now produce higher yields with less input thanks to AI-based technology solutions, which
have also enhanced the quality of the output and sped up the time it takes for the harvested crops
to reach the market. Farmers will use 75 million linked devices by 2020.

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Challenges in Agriculture using traditional methods

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
Prior to comprehending the implications and applications of AI in agriculture, it is important to
comprehend the difficulties associated with traditional agricultural practices, which are listed
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
below:
 A variety of weather conditions, including humidity, temperature, and rainfall, are
significant in farming. Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

 Because of pollution, the climate can fluctuate suddenly, making it challenging for
farmers to plan ahead for harvesting, seeding, and soil preparation.
 Fertile soil with the right nutrients, including potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, is
essential for improved crop yields. Crops of lower quality may result from an ineffective
supply of these nutrients in the soil. However, determining this soil quality using
conventional methods is challenging.
 We must protect our crops from weeds in the agricultural lifecycle. It also draws nutrients
from the soil and raises the possibility of production costs. However, crop identification
and weed prevention using conventional methods are ineffective.
 Using traditional methods requires a lot of time, labor, space, and difficulty to finish our
works.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture
Farmers encounter a plethora of difficulties, much like with conventional agricultural
practices. AI is being used extensively in this industry to address these issues. Artificial
Intelligence has emerged as a game-changing tool for agriculture. In addition to many other
ways, it benefits farmers by producing healthier crops and controlling pests and soil. Here are a
few significant uses of artificial intelligence in the field of agriculture.

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Traditional farming involves various manual processes. Implementing AI models can

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
have many advantages in this respect. By complementing already adopted technologies, an
intelligent agriculture system can facilitate many tasks. AI can collect and process big data, while
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
determining and initiating the best course of action. Here are some common use cases for AI in
agriculture:
Optimizing automated irrigation systems Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

AI algorithms enable autonomous crop management. When combined with IoT (Internet of
Things) sensors that monitor soil moisture levels and weather conditions, algorithms can decide
in real-time how much water to provide to crops. An autonomous crop irrigation system is
designed to conserve water while promoting sustainable farming practices.

Detecting leaks or damage to irrigation systems

AI plays a crucial role in detecting leaks in irrigation systems. By analyzing data,
algorithms can identify patterns and anomalies that indicate potential leaks. Machine learning
(ML) models can be trained to recognize specific signatures of leaks, such as changes in water
flow or pressure. Real-time monitoring and analysis enable early detection, preventing water
waste together with potential crop damage.AI also incorporates weather data alongside crop
water requirements to identify areas with excessive water usage. By automating leak detection
and providing alerts, AI technology enhances water efficiency helping farmers conserve
resources.
Crop and soil monitoring
The wrong combination of nutrients in soil can seriously affect the health and growth of
crops. Identifying these nutrients and determining their effects on crop yield with AI allows
farmers to easily make the necessary adjustments.While human observation is limited in its

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

accuracy, computer vision models can monitor soil conditions to gather accurate data. This plant
Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
science data is then used to determine crop health, predict yields while flagging flag any
particular issues. In practice, AI has been able to accurately track the stages of wheat growth and
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
the ripeness of tomatoes with a degree of speed and accuracy no human can match.

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Monitoring livestock health

It may seem easier to detect health problems in livestock than in crops, in fact, it’s
particularly challenging. Thankfully, AI can help with this. For example, a company called
CattleEye has developed a solution that uses drones, cameras together with computer vision to
monitor cattle health remotely. It detects atypical cattle behavior and identifies activities such as
birthing. CattleEye uses AI and ML solutions to determine the impact of diet alongside
environmental conditions on livestock and provide valuable insights. This knowledge can help
farmers improve the well-being of cattle to increase milk production.
Intelligent pesticide application
By now, farmers are well aware that the application of pesticides is ripe for optimization.
Unfortunately, both manual and automated application processes have notable limitations.
Applying pesticides manually offers increased precision in targeting specific areas, though it
might be slow and difficult work.
Automated pesticide spraying is quicker and less labor-intensive, but often lacks accuracy
leading to environment contamination.
AI-powered drones provide the best advantages of each approach while avoiding their
drawbacks. Drones use computer vision to determine the amount of pesticide to be sprayed on
each area. While still in infancy, this technology is rapidly becoming more precise

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Volume: 02 Issue No: 08

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS

Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Yield mapping and predictive analytics

Yield mapping uses ML algorithms to analyze large datasets in real time. This helps
farmers understand the patterns and characteristics of their crops, allowing for better planning.
By combining techniques like 3D mapping, data from sensors and drones, farmers can predict
soil yields for specific crops. Data is collected on multiple drone flights, enabling increasingly
precise analysis with the use of algorithms.
These methods permit the accurate prediction of future yields for specific crops, helping farmers
know where and when to sow seeds as well as how to allocate resources for the best return on
investment.
Automatic weeding and harvesting
Similar to how computer vision can detect pests and diseases, it can also be used to detect
weeds and invasive plant species. When combined with machine learning, computer vision
analyzes the size, shape, and color of leaves to distinguish weeds from crops. Such solutions can
be used to program robots that carry out robotic process automation (RPA) tasks, such as
automatic weeding. In fact, such a robot has already been used effectively. As these technologies
become more accessible, both weeding and harvesting crops could be carried out entirely by
smart bots.
Sorting harvested produce
AI is not only useful for identifying potential issues with crops while they’re growing. It
also has a role to play after produce has been harvested. Most sorting processes are traditionally
carried out manually however AI can sort produce more accurately.
Computer vision can detect pests as well as disease in harvested crops. What’s more, it can grade
produce based on its shape, size, and color. This enables farmers to quickly separate produce into

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 AgriGate- An International Multidisciplinary e-Magazine

categories — for example, to sell to different customers at different prices. In comparison,

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
traditional manual sorting methods can be painstakingly labor-intensive.
Benefits and Challenges of AI in agriculture
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
Until recently, using the words AI and agriculture in the same sentence may have seemed
like a strange combination. After all, agriculture has been the backbone of human civilization for
Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
millennia, providing sustenance as well as contributing to economic development, while even the
most primitive AI only emerged several decades ago. Nevertheless, innovative ideas are being
introduced in every industry, and agriculture is no exception. In recent years, the world has
witnessed rapid advancements in agricultural technology, revolutionizing farming practices.
These innovations are becoming increasingly essential as global challenges such as climate
change, population growth together with resource scarcity threaten the sustainability of our food
system. Introducing AI solves many challenges and helps to diminish many disadvantages of
traditional farming.
Advantages
AI enables better decision-making
Predictive analytics is really a boon for the agriculture industry. It helps the farmers
solving the key challenges of farming, such as analyzing the market demands, price forecasting,
and finding optimal times for sowing and harvesting the crop. Moreover, AI-powered machines
can also determine soil and crop health, provides fertilizer recommendations, monitor the
weather, and can also determine the quality of crop. All such benefits of AI in agriculture enable
the farmers to make better decisions and do efficient farming.
AI brings cost savings.
Precision farming using AI-enabled equipment helps the farmers to grow more crops with
lesser resources and cost. AI provides the real-time insights to farmers that enables them to take
proper decision at each stage of farming. With this correct decision, there is less loss of products
and chemicals and efficient use of time and money. Moreover, it also allows the farmers to
identify the particular areas that need irrigation, fertilization, and pesticide treatment, which
saves excessive use of chemicals on the crop. All these things sum up and result in reduced use
of herbicides, better crop quality and high profit with fewer resources.

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AI reduces labour shortage.

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
There has always been an issue of labour shortage in the agriculture industry. AI can
solve this issue with automation in farming. With AI and automation, farmers can get work done
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS OF WORKERS
without having more people, and some examples are Driverless tractors, smart irrigation and
fertilizing systems, smart spraying, vertical farming software, and AI-based robots for
Article compared
harvesting. AI-driven machines and equipment are much faster and accurate ID: AG-VO2-I08-07
to human
farmhands.
Challenges of AI adoption in Agriculture
Since most AI systems are based on the Internet, their utilization may be restricted in
remote or rural areas with the absence of a web service and familiarity with handling AI
operations (Eli-Chukwu N and Ogwugwam E C., 2019). By seeing the advantages of AI for
sustainable farming, implementing this technology may seem like a logical step for every farmer.
However, there are still some serious challenges that everyone knows, which are as follows:
Lack of familiarity with AI machines
Even though using AI to agriculture has several advantages, most people worldwide are
not aware with the use of AI-enabled tools and solutions. In order to address the problems, AI
businesses should first give farmers simple equipment, and then, as they become accustomed to
it, more sophisticated machinery.
Lack of experience with emerging technologies
For underdeveloped nations, implementing AI and other cutting-edge technologies in
agriculture might be difficult. In places where such agricultural technology is not being used, it
will be extremely difficult to sell such technologies. Farmers in these places need assistance from
someone in order to apply these technology.
Privacy and security issues
AI may give rise to a number of legal concerns because there are currently no defined
rules and guidelines for its use. Furthermore, there can be security and privacy problems like
cyber-attacks and data leaks because of the usage of software and the internet. For farmers or
farm owners, all of these problems could pose serious challenges.
Conclusion
The uptake of AI solutions will determine how farming uses AI in the future. Despite
ongoing large-scale research and certain commercially available applications, the agricultural

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industry remains neglected. Furthermore, research is currently ongoing to develop predictive

Volume: 02 Issue No: 08
solutions to address a genuine problem that farmers experience in their farming operations.
Reference
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Alkhudaydi T, Zhou J (2019) Spikeletfcn: counting spikelets from infield wheat crop images
using fully convolutional networks. In: International Conference on Artificial Intelligence
and Soft Computing, pp 3–13 Article ID: AG-VO2-I08-07

Ahir, K., Govani, K., Gajera, R., & Shah, M. (2020). Application on virtual reality for enhanced
education learning, military training and sports. Augmented Human Research, 5, 1-9.
Eli-Chukwu, N. C. (2019). Applications of artificial intelligence in agriculture: A
review. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 9(4).
Gandhi, M., Kamdar, J., & Shah, M. (2020). Preprocessing of non-symmetrical images for edge
detection. Augmented Human Research, 5, 1-10.
Jani, K., Chaudhuri, M., Patel, H., & Shah, M. (2020). Machine learning in films: an approach
towards automation in film censoring. Journal of Data, Information and Management, 2,
55-64.
Kundalia, K., Patel, Y., & Shah, M. (2020). Multi-label movie genre detection from a movie
poster using knowledge transfer learning. Augmented Human Research, 5, 1-9.
Kim, Y., Evans, R. G., & Iversen, W. M. (2008). Remote sensing and control of an irrigation
system using a distributed wireless sensor network. IEEE transactions on instrumentation
and measurement, 57(7), 1379-1387.
Parekh, V., Shah, D., & Shah, M. (2020). Fatigue detection using artificial intelligence
framework. Augmented Human Research, 5, 1-17.
Vaishnavi, S., Shobana, M., Sabitha, R., & Karthik, S. (2021). Agricultural crop
recommendations based on productivity and season. In: 2021 7th international conference
on advanced computing and communication systems (ICACCS), pp 883–886

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March 2024 | Vol. 04| Issue No. 03

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 Inviting Popular Articles for
April Issue 2024

Dear Authors,
We are inviting Technical Article, Popular Article, Farmer Success Stories,
Short Communications from various disciplines of Agriculture and Allied
Sciences in English Language.

 Agriculture & Horticulture  Environmental Science & Forestry

 Agribusiness Management  Fisheries & Animal Sciences
 Agricultural Engineering and  Food & Dairy Technology
Precision Farming  Genetics & Plant Breeding
 Agronomy and Agricultural  Nemotology & Nano-Technology
meteorology  Organic Farming and Sericulture
 Agrl. Extension and Agrl. Economics  Plant Pathology & Entomology
 Bio-Sciences / Life-Sciences  Seed Science & Technology
 Biotechnology & Bio-chemistry  Soil Science

Send your articles to [email protected]

(Deadline for submission of articles – 31st March, 2024)

“Limit the Articles to 5-6 Pages”