SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

CONTENTS

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT DIAGRAM CONTENT Diagram Name

1. Para diagram of Sensor 2. Measurement Technique Of Confocal Sensor 3. Applications Of Confocal Sensor a. Thickness measurement of transparent materials b. Gap measurement of laminated glass c. Liquid Level Control d. Surface Scan e. Liquid Level 4. Resistive Foil Strain Gauge 5. Piezo-Electric Strain Sensor 6. Working Diag. of Microelectronics Temp. Sensor 7. 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 13

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INTRODUCTION
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal. As such, sensors represent part of the interface between the physical world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers. The other part of this interface is represented by actuators, which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena. Why do we care so much about this interface? In recent years, enormous capability for information processing has been developed within the electronics industry. The most significant example of this capability is the personal computer. In addition, the availability of inexpensive microprocessors is having a tremendous impact on the design of embedded computing products ranging from automobiles to microwave ovens to toys. In recent years, versions of these products that use microprocessors for control of functionality are becoming widely available. In automobiles, such capability is necessary to achieve compliance with pollution restrictions. In other cases, such capability simply offers an inexpensive performance advantage. All of these microprocessors need electrical input voltages in order to receive instructions and information. So, along with the availability of inexpensive microprocessors has grown an opportunity for the use of sensors in a wide variety of products. In addition, since the output of the sensor is an electrical signal, sensors tend to be characterized in the same way as electronic devices. The data sheets for many sensors are formatted just like electronic product data sheets. However, there are many formats in existence, and there is nothing close to an international standard for sensor specifications. The system designer will encounter a variety of interpretations of sensor performance parameters, and it can be confusing. It is important to realize that this confusion is not due to an inability to explain the meaning of the terms rather it is a result of the fact that different parts of the sensor community have grown comfortable using these terms differently.
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Attributes of Sensors
Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors function, such as electro-optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet. Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical variables. Size: The physical volume of sensors. Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or discrete/analog or digital. Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-making. Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just receiving signals. Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in environment. Environmental durability: The sensor is robust enough for its operation conditions.

Specifications of Sensor
Accuracy: Error between the result of a measurement and the true value being measured. Resolution: The smallest increment of measure that a device can make. Sensitivity: The ratio between the changes in the output signal to a small change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-output fit line. Repeatability/Precision: The ability of the sensor to output the same value for the same input over a number of trials.

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Sensor Performance Characteristics Definitions

The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics: Transfer Function: The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph showing the relationship between the input and output signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute a complete description of the sensor characteristics. For expensive sensors that are individually calibrated, this might take the form of the certified calibration curve. Sensitivity: The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between inputs physical signal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal to a small change in physical signal. As such, it may be expressed as the derivative of the transfer function with respect to physical signal. Typical units are volts/Kelvin, mill volts/kilopascal, etc. A thermometer would have high sensitivity if a small temperature change resulted in a large voltage change. Span or Dynamic Range: The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals by the sensor is the dynamic range or span. Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large inaccuracy. This span or dynamic range is usually specified by the sensor supplier as the range over which other performance characteristics described in the data sheets are expected to apply. Typical units are Kelvin, Pascal, Newton, etc. Accuracy or Uncertainty: Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and ideal output signals. Typical units are Kelvin. Sometimes this is quoted as a fraction of the full-scale output or a fraction of the reading. For example, a thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5% of FSO (Full Scale Output). Accuracy is generally considered by metrologists to be a qualitative term, while uncertainty is quantitative.
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For example one sensor might have better accuracy than another if its uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with an uncertainty of 3%. Hysteresis: Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the input stimulus is cycled up or down. The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined as the hysteresis. Typical units are Kelvin or percent of FSO. Nonlinearity (often called Linearity): The maximum deviation from a linear transfer functions over the specified dynamic range. There are several measures of this error. The most common compares the actual transfer function with the best straight line, which lies midway between the two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer function over the specified dynamic range of the device. This choice of comparison method is popular because it makes most sensors look the best. Other reference lines may be used, so the user should be careful to compare using the same reference. Noise: All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal. In some cases, the noise of the sensor is less than the noise of the next element in the electronics, or less than the fluctuations in the physical signal, in which case it is not important. Many other cases exist in which the noise of the sensor limits the performance of the system based on the sensor. Noise is generally distributed across the frequency spectrum. Many common noise sources produce a white noise distribution, which is to say that the spectral noise density is the same at all frequencies. Johnson noise in a resistor is a good example of such a noise distribution. For white noise, the spectral noise density is characterized in units of volts/Root (Hz). A distribution of this nature adds noise to a measurement with amplitude proportional to the square root of the measurement bandwidth. Since there is an inverse relationship between the bandwidth and measurement time, it can be said that the noise decreases with the square root of the measurement time.

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Resolution: The resolution of a sensor is defined as the minimum detectable signal fluctuation. Since fluctuations are temporal phenomena, there is some relationship between the timescale for the fluctuation and the minimum detectable amplitude. Therefore, the definition of resolution must include some information about the nature of the measurement being carried out. Many sensors are limited by noise with a white spectral distribution. In these cases, the resolution may be specified in units of physical signal/root (Hz). Then, the actual resolution for a particular measurement may be obtained by multiplying this quantity by the square root of the measurement bandwidth. Sensor data sheets generally quote resolution in units of signal/root (Hz) or they give a minimum detectable signal for a specific measurement. If the shape of the noise distribution is also specified, it is possible to generalize these results to any measurement.

Para diagram of Sensor

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CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Mechanical Quantities: Displacement, Strain, Rotation, Speed, Pressure, Force/Torque, Flow. Thermal Quantities: Temperature. Electromagnetic/Optical Quantities: Voltage, Visual/Images, Light, Magnetism. Chemical Quantities: Moisture, pH Value. Materials capable of converting of one form of energy to another are at

the heart of many sensors:

Invention of new materials, e.g., Smart materials, would permit the design of new types of sensors.

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MECHANICAL QUANTITIES
CONFOCAL DISPLACEMENT SENSOR:
Confocal sensors optoNCDT 2401 are designed for extremely precise applications. The confocal sensors are available in standard and worldwide unique miniaturized design. Confocal chromatic sensors measure on all surfaces and are used for one-sided thickness measurement. The Confocal Measurement Principle: Polychromatic white light is focused onto the target surface by a multi lens optical system. The lenses are arranged so that the white light is dispersed into a monochromatic light by controlled chromatic aberration. A specific distance to the target is assigned to each wavelength by a factory calibration. Only the wavelength which is exactly focused on the target is used for the measurement. This light reflected from the target surface is passed through a confocal aperture onto a spectrometer which detects and processes the spectral changes. System set-up: A fiber optical cable, up to 50m in length, connects the two components. This system has no moving components and is therefore wear free. It can also be used in ATEX / EX environments. The system consists of a LED based controller a fiber optical cable and one of the sensor heads of the series 2400/2401/2403 or the world first miniature sensors series 2402. A free demo software tool is included and offers fast access to system installation and data acquisition. Performance and special features: This unique measuring principle enables displacements and distances to be measured with high precision and extreme spatial resolution. Both diffuse and specular surfaces can be measured.

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With transparent materials a one-sided thickness measurement can be accomplished along with the distance measurement. Since the emitter and receiver are arranged in one axis, shadowing is avoided. In contrast to conventional triangulation sensors the optoNCDT 2401 system is able to measure in narrow apertures, small gaps and cavities. Furthermore, to analyze multilayer objects, multipeak software is available.

Lenses

Beam

Target

Measurement Technique of Confocal Sensor

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FEATURES:
Extremely small and constant spot size. Nearly target independent - best accuracy against mirror and glass surface. Nano resolution. One-sided thickness-measurement. Axial and radial version.

APPLICATION: Thickness measurement of transparent materials:

The unique measurement principle enables a one-sided thickness measurement on transparent materials such as glass and plastic. Just one sensor

measures the thickness with micrometer accuracy.

Gap measurement of laminated glass:

Confocal sensors are used to measure the gap between the different layers of laminated glass.

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Liquid Level Control:

Miniaturized confocal sensors check fill level in medical trays and micro titer plates, even if the surface is curved.

Surface Scan:
The extreme spatial resolution in x-axis and the submicron accuracy in the z-axis make it a perfect sensor for surface scans e. g. checking for presence on electronic boards.

Liquid Level:
The confocal principle enables measurements on liquids and shiny targets.

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STRAIN GAUGE FOR STRAIN MEAUREMENT: Foil strain gauge Least expensive Widely used Not suitable for long distance Electromagnetic Interference Sensitive to moisture & humidity Vibration wire strain gauge Determine strain from freq. of AC signal Bulky Fiber optic gauge Immune to EM and electrostatic noise Compact size High cost Fragile Strain Sensing: Resistive Foil Strain Gauge Technology well developed, Low cost. High response speed & broad frequency bandwidth. A wide assortment of foil strain Subject gages commercially

available. to electromagnetic

(EM) noise, interference, offset drift in signal.

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Long-term

performance

of

adhesives used for bonding strain gages is questionable. Vibrating wire strain gages can NOT be used for dynamic application because of their low response speed. Optical fiber strain sensor. Piezoelectric Strain Sensor Piezoelectric ceramic-based or Piezoelectric (e.g. PVDF). Very high resolution (able to measure nano strain). Excellent ultrasonic very performance frequency high in polymer-based

range,

frequency very

bandwidth; popular applications, measuring When

therefore in

ultrasonic such as to

signals

due

surface wave propagation. used for measuring

plane strain, cannot distinguish the strain in X, Y direction.

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THERMAL QUANTITES
STTS751 Microelectronics Temp. Sensor:
STMicroelectronics temperature sensors include both precision analog temperature sensor ICs and precision digital temperature sensor ICs. Both types are suitable for use in a wide range of applications in, for example, the industrial, consumer, medical and computer market segments. Our analog temperature sensors feature low power consumption and good linearity, and can operate over a temperature range as wide as -55 to +130 C. Our digital temperature sensors feature low power consumption, up to 12-bit resolution and can operate over a temperature range as wide as -55 to +125 C.

STTS751 2.25 V High-Accuracy Digital Temperature Sensor Accuracy: 1.0 C (typ), 1.5 C (max) from 0 to +85 C STTS75 Digital Temperature Sensor (-55 C to +125 C) Features low operating current and high precision STLM20 Analog Temperature Sensor (-55 C to +130 C) Ultra-low power precision analog temperature sensor

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EM / OPTICAL QUANTITIES
Pyranometer Light Sensor:
The pyranometer has been designed to provide a wide spectral response and good cosine response and low susceptibility to inaccuracies caused by rain drop and dirt effects.

Range 0~1500 w/m. Accuracy 5%. Cosine error is typically less than 3% from vertical to 85 in all directions. Temperature Coefficient 0.15% per 1C.

It can be supplied free standing, or on a Base Mounting Plate as shown on right, or attached to a L Bar or T Bar Equipment Mounting Arm. The pyranometer uses a polycrystalline silicon solar cell to measure the incoming global solar radiation. This gives good accuracy without the expense and maintenance required by a thermopile pyranometer. It also provides a flatter spectral response than the photo diodes that are frequently used for this type of sensor. (See spectral response graph). The pyranometer has a relatively large surface compared to many photo diode sensors. This minimizes inaccuracies caused by the effect of rain drops and dirt on the surface. The sensor has a slightly domed top to facilitate rain drainage. Dirt sitting on the surface of the sensor is dispersed by rain flowing off the dome.

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Spectral Response Graph The full terrestrial solar spectrum deposits measurable energy at the earth's surface in the range from 287 nanometers (nm) to beyond 4000 nm. However, as can be seen from the spectral response graph, the pyranometer

measures the r

adiation between 300

and 1100 nanometers. As over 90% of the solar energy is between 300 to 1100 nm, the pyranometer is calibrated so as to estimate the short-wave component of the solar radiation.

Cosine Response Graph CosineResponse An ideal pyranometer collects radiation from horizon to horizon and should therefore have a reception angle of 180 in all directions. In reality, some low angle radiation will not be detected because of the geometry of the sensor but this has been minimized by the sensor head design. As can be seen from the cosine response graph, the cosine error for this pyranometer is typically less than 3% from vertical to 85 in all directions.

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CMOS/CCD Image Sensor:

CCD Charge Coupled Device. CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS sensors offer higher performance capabilities, and are commonly found in ultra-high frame rate videography.

CCDs are more common in consumer camera applications due to lower cost of development.

CMOS Vs CCD: (Difference)

CCD Signal from Pixel Relative R&D cost Cost to Manufacture Dynamic range Speed Relative power consumption Electron packet Low Higher High Moderately fast CMOS voltage High Lower Moderate Very fast

Moderate

Very low

So, how do they produce images?

Photons strike the sensor, and are converted into electrical charges. Charges of pixels are read CCDs transport the charge across the chip to be read at one corner of the array. CMOS sensors can read charge at each individual pixel. Analog-to-digital conversion of voltages to digital values.
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Workings of an RGB CCD sensor:

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CHEMICAL QUANTITIES
pH is an important parameter to be measured and controlled. The pH of a solution indicates how acidic or basic (alkaline) it is. The pH term translates the values of the hydrogen ion concentration - which ordinarily ranges between about 1 and 10 x -14 gram-equivalents per liter - into numbers between 0 and 14. A pH measurement loop is made up of three components, the pH sensor, which includes a measuring electrode, a reference electrode, and a temperature sensor; a preamplifier and an analyzer or transmitter. A pH measurement loop is essentially a battery where the positive terminal is the measuring electrode and the negative terminal is the reference electrode. The measuring electrode, which is sensitive to the hydrogen ion, develops a potential (voltage) directly related to the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. The reference electrode provides a stable potential against which the measuring electrode can be compared. When immersed in the solution, the reference electrode potential does not change with the changing hydrogen ion concentration. A solution in the reference electrode also makes contact with the sample solution and the measuring electrode through a junction, completing the circuit. Output of the measuring electrode changes with temperature (even though the process remains at a constant pH), so a temperature sensor is necessary to correct for this change in output. This is done in the analyzer or transmitter software. The pH sensor components are usually combined into one device called a combination pH electrode. The measuring electrode is usually glass and quite fragile. Recent developments have replaced the glass with more durable solidstate sensors. The preamplifier is a signal-conditioning device. It takes the highimpedance pH electrode signal and changes it into low impedance signal which the analyzer or transmitter can accept. 19

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The preamplifier also strengthens and stabilizes the signal, making it less susceptible to electrical noise.

pH measurement
A very important measurement in many liquid chemical processes (industrial, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, food production, etc.) is that of pH: the measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in a liquid solution. A solution with a low pH value is called an "acid," while one with a high pH is called a "caustic." The common pH scale extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong

caustic), with 7 in the middle representing pure water (neutral). An ordinary analog or even digital voltmeter has much too low of an internal resistance to measure voltage in such a high-resistance circuit. The equivalent circuit diagram of a typical pH probe circuit illustrates the problem.

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MEMS Technology:
What is MEMS? Acronym for Microelectromechanical Systems. MEMS are the name given to the practice of making and combining miniaturized mechanical and electrical components. Synonym To: Micromachines (in Japan). Microsystems technology (in Europe). Leverage on existing IC-based fabrication

techniques (but now extend to other non IC techniques). Potential fabrication. Thousands of MEMS devices (scale from ~ 0.2 m to 1 mm) could be made for low cost through batch

simultaneously on a single silicon wafer. Co-location of sensing, computing, actuating, control, communication & power on a small chip-size device. High spatial functionality and fast response speed Very high precision in manufacture. Miniaturized components improve response speed and reduce power consumption.

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MEMS Fabrication Technology:

Distinctive Features of MEMS Devices:

Miniaturization Micro machines (sensors and actuators) can handle micro objects and move freely in small spaces. Multiplicity Cooperative work from many small micro machines may be best way to perform a large task. Inexpensive to make many machines in parallel. Microelectronics Integrate microelectronic control devices with sensors and actuators.

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CONCLUSION
Sensors play a vital role in our physical & digital world. This has gained so much popularity due to its broad area of applications. We can choose the appropriate sensing technique and the transmission channels according to our requirements.

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